Guia UTPL Applied Linguistics

MODALIDAD ABIERTA Y A DISTANCIA
Departamento de Ciencias de la Educacin

Seccin Lenguas Contemporneas
Introduction to Applied Linguistics

Gua didctica
5 crditos
Titulacin Ciclo
Ciencias de la Educacin, mencin: Ingls V
Autora:
Mgs. Nina Nesterenko
La Universidad Catlica de Loja

Asesora virtual:
www.utpl.edu.ec
INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS
Gua didctica
Nina Nesterenko
UNIVERSIDAD TCNICA PARTICULAR DE LOJA
CC Ecuador 3.0 By NC ND
Diagramacin, diseo e impresin:

EDILOJA Ca. Ltda.
Telefax: 593-7-2611418
San Cayetano Alto s/n
www.ediloja.com.ec
edilojainfo@ediloja.com.ec
Loja-Ecuador
Primera edicin
Dcima primera reimpresin
ISBN-978-9942-08-114-8
ISBN digital - 978-9942-04-370-2
Esta versin impresa y digital, han sido acreditadas bajo las licencias Creative Commons Ecuador 3.0 de reconocimiento -no comercial- sin obras
derivadas; la cual permite copiar, distribuir y comunicar pblicamente la obra, mientras se reconozca la autora original, no se utilice con fines comerciales,
ni se realicen obras derivadas. http://www.creativecommons.org/licences/by-nc-nd/3.0/ec/
Abril, 2017
2. ndice
2. ndice............................................................................................................................................................. 3
3. Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 7
4. Bibliography............................................................................................................................................. 9
4.1. Required bibliography........................................................................................................... 9
4.2. Recommended bibliography............................................................................................... 9
5. General guidelines for studying................................................................................................. 12
6. Teaching-learning process to achieve competences.................................................... 15
FIRST TERM
6.1. Generic Competences............................................................................................................. 15

6.2. Planning for the students work.......................................................................................... 15
6.3. Evaluation System of the Subject (first and second term)......................................... 18
6.4. Specific guidelines for learning through competences............................................... 19
UNIT 1. APPLIED LINGUISTICS............................................................................................................ 19

1.1. THE NEED FOR APPLIED LINGUISTICS................................................................................. 19
1.2. EXAMPLES and PROCEURES.................................................................................................. 20
1.3. THE SCOPE OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS................................................................................. 20
1.4. Linguistics and Applied Linguistics: a difficult relationship...................................... 22
1.5. HISTORY OF THE TERM APPLIED LINGUISTICS.................................................................. 30
Self- Evaluation 1................................................................................................................................. 34
UNIT 2. PRESCRIBING and DESCRIBING: popular and academic views of

correctness`........................................................................................................................................ 35
2.1. Children s language at home and school......................................................................... 35
2.2. STANDARD AND NON STANDARD LANGUAGE.................................................................. 38
2.3. Prescriptive vs Descriptive and Applied Linguistics perspective.............................. 41
2.4. An Applied Linguistics perspective.................................................................................... 44
2.5. SOCIOLINGUISTICS................................................................................................................... 45
2.6. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS................................................................................................................ 53
Self- Evaluation 2................................................................................................................................. 59
UNIT 3. LANGUAGES in the CONTEMPORARY WORLD.................................................................. 60
3.1. LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGES............................................................................................... 60
3.2. ATTITUDES TO LANGUAGES.................................................................................................... 60
3.3. The languages of nations: boundaries and relationships........................................... 62
3.4. THE GROWTH of ENGLISH...................................................................................................... 67
3.5. ENGLISH AND ENGLISHES...................................................................................................... 73
3.6. NATIVE SPEAKERS.................................................................................................................... 77
3.7. ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA (ELF)................................................................................ 77
Self- Evaluation 3................................................................................................................................. 80
UNIT 4. ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING........................................................................................... 81

4.1. Historical Development......................................................................................................... 81
4.2. THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD........................................................................... 82
4.3. DIRECT METHOD....................................................................................................................... 85
4.4. THE NATURAL APPROACH...................................................................................................... 87
4.5. THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH....................................................................................... 91
4.6. TASK- BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING (TBLT), 1970-1990`S......................................... 96
Self- Evaluation 4................................................................................................................................. 100
SECOND TERM
6.5. Generic Competences............................................................................................................. 103

6.6. Planning for students work................................................................................................ 103
6.7. Specific guidelines for learning through competences............................................... 106
UNIT 5. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION..................................................................................... 106

5.1. Knowing a Language.............................................................................................................. 106
5.2. LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE...................................................................................................... 108
5.3. Communicative Competence............................................................................................... 112
5.4. The influence of communicative competence............................................................... 116
5.5. Description of Language and Language Use.................................................................. 117
Self- Evaluation 5................................................................................................................................. 118
UNIT 6. CONTEXT AND CULTURE......................................................................................................... 120

6.1. Systematizing context: DISCOURSE ANALYSIS ( D.A.) and PRAGMATICS................ 121
6.2. CULTURE...................................................................................................................................... 131
6.3. Translation, culture, and context........................................................................................ 133
6.4. Own Language: rights and understanding..................................................................... 134
6.5. Teaching Culture....................................................................................................................... 135
Self- Evaluation 6................................................................................................................................. 138
UNIT 7. PERSUASION and POETICS, RHETORIC and RESISTANCE.............................................. 139
7.1. Literary Stylistics...................................................................................................................... 139
7.2. LANGUAGE AND PERSUASION.............................................................................................. 140
7.3. Critical Discourse Analysis..................................................................................................... 141
7.4. TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS............................................................................................... 143
Self- Evaluation 7................................................................................................................................. 161
UNIT 8. PAST, PRESENT, and FUTURE DIRECTIONS....................................................................... 162

8.1. Early Orientation ..................................................................................................................... 162
8.2. Subsequent changes............................................................................................................... 162
8.3. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (SLA)........................................................................ 162
8.4. CORPUS LINGUISTICS.............................................................................................................. 166
8.5. Being Applied............................................................................................................................ 167
8.6. Critical Applied Linguistics.................................................................................................... 167
8.7. Post Modern applied linguistics ................................................................................. 168
8.8. A harder future: mediation................................................................................................... 168
Self- Evaluation 8................................................................................................................................. 169
7. Answer key................................................................................................................................................. 170
PRELIMINARES Gua didctica: Introduction to Applied Linguistics
3. Introduction
The subject An Introduction to Applied Linguistics has been designed as a core course to be taken in the
fifth term of the English Foreign Language Teaching Program; It is worth 5 credits. This course is intended
to give you a general overview of Applied Linguistics and introduce you to the main areas of this field of
language study and use.
The field of study of Applied Linguistics is very vast and broad. It represents a special interest and
importance for those who are involved in the teaching learning process since it is a field of study
that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language related problems. This course is aimed at
helping you to achieve expertise in teaching and broaden your knowledge about some aspects related
to the study of second and foreign language acquisition and use.
In addition, the present course has the purpose of involving you in an integrated learning process based
on the institutional philosophy, values and principles and providing you with the necessary tools and
competences which help you become an efficient professional member of society. It is designed in such
a way that enables you to use the knowledge of language at a professional level and apply it successfully
in subsequent teaching experience.
In the present didactic guide you will find extra information which expands the contents and topics of
the textbook; necessary tools designed to help efficiently organize the learning process; some additional
exercises aimed at reinforcing the acquired knowledge; and practical suggestions about the subject and
the teaching-learning process in general.
During the course you will become familiar with the difference between linguistics and applied linguistics,
learn the main concerns of this field, the ways second and foreign languages are learned and taught ;
and the spread and importance of English language in the contemporary world.
This subject also deals with topics such as language and communication, some cultural aspects: the
importance of teaching culture along with the foreign language; discourse analysis and how to interpret
language in different contexts of communication; it provides an explanation about how to teach the
foreign language more effectively.
The present course consists of eight chapters. In brief, this subject can be described as follows.
The units from 1 to 4 correspond to the first bimester, and from 5 to 8- to the second bimester.
Unit 1 deals with the description of Applied Linguistics and its main subfields. Second unit is about
language acquisition; it introduces such important notions as Sociolinguistics and Psycholinguistics. Unit
3 explains the spread of English language and its becoming importance in the contemporary globalized
world. Next unit 4 reviews the history of foreign language teaching; unit 5 describes the language and
language use and introduces and explains the term Pragmatics. Unit 6 provides reasons for teaching
cultural aspects in a foreign language class and emphasizes the role of culture in second and foreign
language teaching- learning process. Unit 7 is dedicated to Discourse Analysis (the appropriate use of
language according to concrete speaking situations; and provides some ideas about how to teach the
four basic skills - listening, reading, speaking, writing. It also offers you some general suggestions for
assessing the above mentioned skills. And the last, 8th unit, briefly discusses the process and aspects of
second language acquisition, introduces the notion of Corpus Linguistics and makes a general survey on
Foreign Language Needs Research.

7
Gua didctica: Introduction to Applied Linguistics PRELIMINARES
And now I would like to introduce myself. My name is Nina Nesterenko and I will be your professor in this
course. I will be very pleased to guide your learning throughout the term. Please feel free to contact me
via EVA, by phone, or post me a message to my e - mail address any time you need an extra explanation.
I hope that this course will fulfill your expectations and the learning process will be a success. Good luck!
8 MODALIDAD ABIERTA Y A DISTANCIA

4. Bibliography
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=man+carrying+books&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=3vXTUou8LbPNsQSNqoLACA&ve
d=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1366&bih=596#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=A8Jm8Twe0E-IYM%253A%3B_ggXtHC0ZDL8OM%3Bhttp%253A%252F
%252Fwww2.lib.udel.edu%252FPreservation%252Fprevention%252Flist_images%252Ftoomanycarried.gif%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fask.
metafilter.com%252F48176%252FHoly-Crap-Art-Batman%3B300%3B344
4.1. Required bibliography
Cook, G. (2010). Applied Linguistics. Oxford University press, New York
The book chosen for this course is designed to provide a general view of different areas of language
study, teaching and learning. The book covers the most important topics of Applied linguistics that
students of this course are required to know.
Nesterenko, N. (2011). The didactic guide An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, Loja, Ecuador, Ediloja.
The main purpose of the present guide is to help students to have a successful study experience, and to
complement the topics of the course that are not covered by the textbook.
An English- English dictionary.
It can be any unabridged or college edition dictionary of your preference. On-line dictionaries are really
great and I recommend WEBSTERS because it has appropriate features and it is free.
An English dictionary is necessary to consult new terms that could come up when studying this subject.
Pocket dictionaries are not convenient for an advanced student such as yourself.
4.2. Recommended bibliography
Brown, D. (2001).Teaching by Principles, Longman, 2nd edition
In this book are included descriptions of the field of methodology; of different teaching methods, and
strategies for teaching basic language skills such as reading, writing, listening, and speaking. The author
also emphasizes the importance of interaction in the classroom.
Brown, S. (2009). Understanding Language Structure, Interaction, and Variation. An Introduction to Applied
Linguistics for Nonspecialists. The University of Michigan Press. Michigan
This text covers many of the basic contents for an introductory course to applied linguistics. Among
the contents are: description of the field of linguistics and its components, branches and subfields;
description of Sociolinguistics; topics related to language variations; distinction between English as

9
lingua franca, English as a native , second and foreign language; description of literacy, relation between
language and literature ; topics related to second language acquisition, learning styles, and nature
of language; themes related to the relationship between language and culture; the role of English in
contemporary world.
Crystal, D. (1985).What is Linguistics?, Arnold, 2nd edition
In this book the author describes the field of linguistics, functions and structure of language, and provides
the applications of linguistics in language learning and teaching.
Davis, A. (2007). An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, From Practice to Theory, 2nd edition, Edinburg
University Press, Edinburg
The textbook includes topics related to the history of applied linguistics; some practical applications
of linguistics in the educational field; introduces changes in applied linguistics practice, and makes
emphasis on the importance of experience in applied linguistics field.
Jenkins, J. ( 2009 ) . World Englishes, a Resource Book for Students, 2ndedition, Routledge English Language
Introductions
This book contains themes related to variations of English in different countries; the author explains
the reasons for expanding of English language; emphasizes origin of variations in English; explains the
notions of standard and nonstandard English; provides examples of World Englishes in spoken and
written language.
Kramsch, C. (2001). Language and Culture, Oxford University Press
The book contains themes related to relationship of language and culture; its author explains some
points of cross-cultural communication and emphasizes its importance for learning.
Kachru , B. ( 1992). The Other Tongue, University of Illinois Press
In this book the author analyzes English language in the global context; provides a description of English
as a native, foreign, and second language; makes a distinction between native and foreign speakers of
English; and includes some strategies to implement cross cultural education in the classroom.
Pope, R. (2008). The English Studies Book, Routledge, 2nd edition
This book provides topics related to language, culture and literature; and includes analysis of literary
texts. It includes distinction between English as a foreign, second, and native language.
Schmitt, N.(2010). Introduction to Applied Linguistics, Hodder Education, 2nd edition
This textbook covers all the main topics foreseen for the introductory course to applied linguistics such
as description of language and language use, second language acquisition, description of language
skills and their assessment, introduces notions of pragmatics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, and
learners styles and motivation strategies.
Van Els (1984).Applied Linguistics and the Learning and Teaching of
Foreign Languages, Edward Arnold

The author of this textbook discusses such topics as Learning English as a second and foreign language,
second language acquisition, historical development of the discipline of applied linguistics discourse
analysis and topics related with teaching foreign languages in general .
The following web sites contain useful and interesting information regarding applied linguistics
http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields-applied.cfm
http://www.merriam-webster.com
http://acorn.aston.ac.uk/RK-publications/2007-Front-Matter-CL_Vol1_A01.pdf
( see also inside the RECOMMENDED ACTIVITIES for each unit)

11
5. General guidelines for studying
Dear student,
you are about to start a new cycle of studies in our university. Since
you are in the 5th cycle, you know that studying at a distance is very
challenging. It requires a great deal of effort and responsibility on your
part to succeed in your studies. You need to be very disciplined in order
to best organize your time.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=tired+student&source=lnms&t
bm=isch&sa=X&ei=A_8NU6vfHsW5kQfg2oDoBg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1
098&bih=462#q=teacher+with+pointer&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc
=vcDeKS3ydho5AM%253A%3B-bGnYxIZqRjk0M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fc
omps.fotosearch.com%252Fcomp%252FTBZ%252FTBZ170%252FBee01X015.
jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.fotosearch.com%252FTBZ170%252Fbee
01x015%252F%3B350%3B360
During this semester you are going to use both the textbook and the present didactic guide. In spite
of its size, the textbook Applied Linguistics, by Guy Cook, covers almost all the necessary contents
foreseen for our course. Notwithstanding, I considered it very convenient to include in the present guide
some themes to expand upon and clarify the contents of the textbook. That is why it is a must for you
to attentively read the additional information which is considered for both on-site and at- a- distance
evaluations.
The present subject will be assessed through two at-a-distance evaluations (scored over six points each;
and two mid-term on-site tests, scored over fourteen points each.
To pass the course, you have to get a minimum score of fourteen points over twenty in each mid-term. If
you fail any of the terms or both, you will be given an opportunity to improve your score by taking the
make-up test which is scored over twenty points.
Throughout the course, you are required to do the activities assigned for the first and second distance
tests to fully understand the scientific contents proposed. To accomplish this, you should study each one
of the topics in the textbook and in the guide with responsibility and interest. Remember that critical
analysis is fundamental to understand the materials included in this course.
In order to reinforce your leaning of the contents, in the present guide you will find a variety of
recommended activities and self-evaluation tests whose purpose is to give you a chance to verify your
knowledge and check what needs to be re-read and learned again. Please dont underestimate their
importance and work on them!
To make the learning process easier for you, please follow the strategies I offer below:
Organize your time properly. As an at-a-distance student, you have the opportunity to organize
your time freely, set a time to study and do your tasks at the moment you are able to. It is advisable
to dedicate at least four hours per week to study this course in order to succeed in it.
Participate actively in The Virtual Learning Platform (Entorno Virtual de Aprendizaje EVA). Please,
remember that there you can find detailed explanations of some difficult topics, suggestions how
to do the your distance assignments correctly, and some advice about the learning process.
In general, follow the instructions of the present guide, the distance assignments, and the ones
given in the textbook as many times as necessary to have a complete understanding of the tasks.

Complete the distance assignments (one per bimester, two in the course) and hand them in at
your associated center on dates established by the university. Remember that the assignments
represent a very useful learning strategy and prepare you for the on-site exams. In addition, these
assignments are compulsory and can`t be turned in late or redone.
Use all available on-line resources to have a better comprehension of the wide field of applied
linguistics.
Use EVA to submit your distance assignments.
Refer back to item 6.2. Planning for the students work in order to work according to the competences
proposed for this course.
Be in constant contact with your tutor. You may also call your tutor during the tutoring schedule
which is available in EVA.
Dear student, I am sure that if you follow the instructions of this guide, do all the suggested self-
evaluation tests, and fulfill all the requirements for this subject, this course will be a success and you will
enrich yourself with knowledge about Applied Linguistics and this will help you become more efficient
and competent professional!
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=tired+student&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=A_
8NU6vfHsW5kQfg2oDoBg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=good+luck&tbm=isch&fa
crc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=uFqSF9YKuX1EOM%253A%3Bn0t8USqtfMy0eM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%25
2F3.bp.blogspot.com%252F-REDqXibYh9Y%252FUbuHUvAD8FI%252FAAAAAAAAA6c%252FgKJZpq
THgrY%252Fs1600%252FGood%252BLuck.gif%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwwwfootstepsofanangler.
blogspot.com%252F2013%252F06%252Fgood-luck.html%3B376%3B337

13
6. Teaching-learning process to achieve competences
FIRST TERM
FIRST TERM

6.1. Generic Competences
GENERIC COMPETENCE OF THE PROGRAM :
Reflexive and critical thinking
Written and Oral communication
6.2. Planning for the students work
Specific competences of Specific competences UNIT LEARNING ACTIVITY TIMETABLE

LEARNING INDICATORS
the program of the course CONTENTS ACTIVITIES Estimated Time
Ability to manage the Ability to use the Unit 1. Applied Linguistics Identifies the field of Attentively read unit 1 both from the Week 1
pedagogical knowledge and language for effective 1.1. The need for applied Applied Linguistics textbook and the didactic guide.
6 hours of self-study
the language at a level in communication linguistics Establishes the difference Take notes of the main ideas while you read,
which the student can 4 hours of interaction
Expertise to apply 1.2. Examples and between Linguistics and so they can help you complete the tasks.
demonstrate an excellent
pedagogical procedures Applied Linguistics Week 2
professional performance in Identify main differences between linguistics
knowledge in teaching 1.3. The scope of applied Distinguishes the and applied linguistics. 6 hours of self-study
the teaching of EFL/ESL. EFL
linguistics application of linguistics
Complete the recommended activities, 4 hours of interaction
Ability to recognize and to
1.4. Linguistics and Analyzes the historical related to the topics of unit 1. (each week).
value the cultural
Applied linguistics: a development of Applied
implications from the native Solve the self-evaluation 1.
difficult relationship Linguistics
language as well as from the
English language. Check the announcements at EVA.
1.5. History of the term Identifies the scope of
Applied linguistics
Gua didctica: Introduction to Applied Linguistics
Applied linguistics. Interaction on EVA Start the completion of
15
the at-distance evaluation.
LEARNING INDICATORS
16
Ability to manage the Ability to use the Unit 2. Prescribing and Identifies the notions of Read and study information from unit 2, Weeks 3
pedagogical knowledge and language for effective describing : popular description and both from the didactic guide and the
the language at a level in communication and academic views of prescription in relation to textbook.
correctness Linguistics 4 hours of interaction
which the student can Expertise to apply Study the additional information provided in
(each week).
demonstrate an excellent pedagogical 2.1. Children`s language Understands an applied the didactic guide about psycholinguistics
professional performance in knowledge in teaching at school and at linguistics perspective and Sociolinguistics; and language behavior Week 4
the teaching of EFL/ESL. EFL home and language learning
Identifies the field of 6 hours of self-study
Ability to recognize and to 2.2. Standard vs Sociolinguistics Complete the recommended activities
value the cultural related to the topics of unit 2. 4 hours of interaction
nonstandard Understands the
implications from the native (each week.
language importance of Solve the self-evaluation 2.
language as well as from the
2.3. Description versus Sociolinguistics for
English language. Check the announcements at EVA.
prescription education and teaching /
learning of English as a Interaction on EVA
2.4. An applied linguistics
foreign language
perspective Continue the completion of the first at-distance
2.5. Sociolinguistics Identifies the field of evaluation
Psycholinguistics.
2.6. Psycholinguistics;
Language behavior Distinguishes relationships
and language between language
behaviour and language
learning
learning and how they are
intertwined.
Understands the
importance of
Psycholinguistics for
education and teaching /
learning of English as a
foreign language
Applies the knowledge of
Sociolinguistics and
Psycholinguistic in practice
FIRST TERM

LEARNING INDICATORS
Ability to manage the Ability to use the Unit 3. Language in the Understands the role of Read and study information from unit 3, Week 5
pedagogical knowledge and language for effective contemporary world languages in the both from the textbook and the didactic
the language at a level in communication contemporary world guide.
3.1. Language and
Expertise to apply languages Distinguishes attitudes to Follow the recommendations provided in
FIRST TERM
demonstrate an excellent (each week).

pedagogical 3.2. Attitudes to languages and the didactic guide.
professional performance in
knowledge in teaching relationships between Week 6
languages Complete the recommended activities,
the teaching of EFL/ESL. EFL languages
3.3. The languages of related to the topics of unit 3. 6 hours of self-study
Ability to recognize and to Analyzes the growth of

nations: boundaries Solve the self-evaluation 3. 4 hours of interaction
value the cultural and relationships English
implications from the native (each week
Check the announcements at EVA.
language as well as from the 3.4. The growth of English Establishes the difference
between ENL, EFL ,ESL ,ELF Interaction on EVA Continue the completion
English language. 3.5. English and Englishes
of the first at-distance evaluation.
3.6. Native Speakers Identifies the differences
between standard
3.7. English as a Lingua language and the varieties
Franca ( ELF ) of English
Ability to manage the Ability to use the Unit 4. English Language Understands the historical Read and study information from unit 4, Week 7
pedagogical knowledge and language for effective Teaching ( ELT) development of teaching both from the textbook and the didactic
the language at a level in communication methodology guide.
4.1. Historical
Expertise to apply development Identifies Grammar Follow the recommendations provided in
demonstrate an excellent (each week).
pedagogical 4.2. Grammar- Translation translation ,the Direct the didactic guide.
professional performance in
knowledge in teaching method, The Week 8
Language Teaching Hand in the first at-distance evaluation in
the teaching of EFL/ESL. EFL Communicative approach,
4.3. The Direct method your Associated Center. 6 hours of self-study
Task Based Language
Ability to recognize and to
4.4. Natural language Teaching, and Natural Complete the recommended activities, 4 hours of interaction
value the cultural
learning approach related to the topics of unit 4.
implications from the native (each week).
language as well as from the 4.5. The Communicative Applies teaching Solve the self-evaluation 4.
English language. approach techniques for the learned
methods and approaches Check the announcements at EVA.
4.6. Task Based
Language Teaching Interaction on EVA
17
Gua didctica: Introduction to Applied Linguistics FIRST TERM
6.3. Evaluation System of the Subject (first and second term)
Formas de evaluacin 2. Heteroevaluacin

Evaluacin a Evaluacin
1. Autoevaluacin *
distancia ** presencial
3. Coevaluacin
Interaccin en el
Parte de ensayo
Prueba objetiva
Parte objetiva
EVA***
Competencia: criterio
Comportamiento tico x x x x x x
Cumplimiento, puntualidad,
Actitudes
x x x x x
responsabilidad
Esfuerzo e inters en los trabajos x x x x x x
Respeto a las personas y a las normas
x x
de comunicacin
Creatividad e iniciativa x x x x
Habilidades
Contribucin en el trabajo
x x
colaborativo y de equipo
Presentacin, orden y ortografa x x x x
Emite juicios de valor
x x x x
argumentadamente
Dominio del contenido x x x x x x
Conocimientos
Investigacin (cita fuentes de

x x
consulta)
Aporta con criterios y soluciones x x x x
Anlisis y profundidad en el
x x x
desarrollo de temas
PORCENTAJE 10% 20% 30% 70%

puntos en cada
presenciales y en el
Estrategia de
aprendizaje
Actividades
en el EVA: 3
bimestre
Actividades
EVA
Puntaje 2 4 6 14
TOTAL 20 puntos
Para aprobar el componente se requiere obtener un puntaje mnimo de 28/40 puntos, que equivale al 70%.
* Son estrategias de aprendizaje, no tienen calificacin; pero debe responderlas con el fin de autocomprobar su
proceso de aprendizaje.
** Recuerde: que la evaluacin a distancia del primero y segundo bimestre consta de dos partes: una objetiva y otra de
ensayo, debe desarrollarla y enviarla a travs del EVA segn las fechas establecidas.
*** Estrategias de aprendizaje opcionales y de tipo colaborativa: foro, chat y video colaboracin con una valoracin de
un punto cada una.
Seor estudiante:
Tenga presente que la finalidad de la valoracin cualitativa es
principalmente formativa.

FIRST TERM Gua didctica: Introduction to Applied Linguistics
6.4. Specific guidelines for learning through competences
UNIT 1. APPLIED LINGUISTICS
Dear student, let us start our course of Applied Linguistics. You have to attentively read your textbook
and the additional information I offer you in the following pages.
Can you define Linguistics? What is Linguistics? What is the difference between it and Applied Linguistics?
And what exactly is being applied? Why do we need to study it? How can the knowledge of this subject
help you become a more efficient professional? Throughout this course we will try to answer these
questions.
I invite you to read the first unit of your textbook:
1.1. THE NEED FOR APPLIED LINGUISTICS
In this section you will read about the functions of language and its use. After getting acquainted with
this part, please read the additional information below.
As I already mentioned in the introduction to our course, if you want to succeed in your profession as an
English teacher, this subject may represent a special interest for you since it explains how we can teach
language better, how to understand language in different contexts; it gives a description of second and
foreign language acquisition; and deals with teaching and assessment of the four basic skills ( speaking,
listening, reading , writing).
For the reason mentioned above you need to study Applied Linguistics since it describes the language,
and teaches how it is learned and used. In addition, the professionalism of language teachers depends on
their training and continuing professional development. The engagement with linguistics and applied
linguistics contributes to this process. These disciplines are intertwined with education.
Please, observe the picture below. It represents the relationships between the fields of linguistics,
Applied Linguistics, and Education.
LINGUISTICS
APPLLIED EDUCATION
LINGUISTICS
Source: Nina Nesterenko

19
RECOMMENDED ACTIVITY
Dear students, please, think about the role of applied linguistics and its importance for the
educational field.
1.2. EXAMPLES and PROCEDURES
Dear student, please read the corresponding part of this unit in your textbook.
Source: http://www.clare.cam.ac.uk/Linguistics
1.3. THE SCOPE OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS
The next section of the chapter describes the main areas of applied linguistics. Please, read the
corresponding pages in your textbook. The three main groups are described there.
During the course you will see that the field of applied linguistics is very broad; and that is why I decided to
give you a more complete picture of the use of applied linguistics and included the additional information
below. I hope that this information will contribute to a deeper understanding of the importance of this
discipline and its practical use.
Depending on the area of application, Applied Linguistics extends into such practical application
fields as:
Language Acquisition ( L1 and L2)

Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages (developing foreign language teaching
methods)
Clinical Linguistics (analysis and treatment of language disorders)
Educational Linguistics (the use of the mother tongue in school)
Lexicography ( theory and practice in organizing dictionaries; and methods and techniques
for creating dictionaries
Machine Translation( computerized translation )
Sociolinguistics (study of the link between language and society)
Psycholinguistics (relationship between language and human behavior)
Computational Linguistics (the use of computers in language analysis and use)
Language pedagogy ( theory of developing teaching methods )

ASR Automatic Speech Recognition

Data Mining (the process of processing large volumes of data usually stored in a database
and searching for patterns and relationships within that data. It is automatic extraction and
processing of data )
Forensic Linguistics ( the application of linguistic knowledge, methods and insights to the
forensic context of law, language, crime investigation, trial, experts, court, evidence,
trademark, law, jurislinguistique )
Language assessment (the way to measurestudent learning of languages to determine
what a student knowsand/orcan do and, more indirectly, of how well instruction is
proceeding).
Internet linguistics (It studies new language styles and forms that have arisen under the
influence of the Internet and other New Media such as Short Message Service (SMS) , and
text messaging )
Neurolinguistics (describes the application of linguistic theories to the classification and
analysis of acquired disorders of language or speech in patients with brain damage ).
Psycholinguistics (the study of the psychological factors that enable humans to acquire, use,
comprehend and produce language)
Language interpretation (facilitating of oral or sign language communication between
users of different languages)
Corpus linguistics(the study of language as expressed in samples (corpora) or real world
text ; it is approach to deriving a set of abstract rules by which a natural language is
governed or else relates to another language).
Text Analysis ( written discourse).
Language Control / Dialectology(the scientific study of linguistic dialect. It studies variations
in language and is based primarily on geographic distribution and their associated features.
Dialectology treats such topics as divergence of two local dialects from a common ancestor
and synchronic variation).
Language, culture, and pragmatics( cultural aspects in language teaching in intercultural
communication ).
And the list can go on!
In what way can Applied Linguistics be useful for you? The answer is: in many ways because it deals
with language acquisition, cognition and teaching methods; language testing and assessment. It also
offers language teachers a practical set of skills that untrained teachers simply do not have. These skills
become a professional tool kit that can serve you, future educators, in your classroom experiences.
Dear students, try to continue the list of the areas where applied linguistics can be used.
In what way can applied linguistics be useful in:
Language and technology?
Language and learner characteristics?

21
1.4. Linguistics and Applied Linguistics: a difficult relationship
Dear student, up to now we have discussed the fields of application of applied linguistics. To continue,
we need to be very clear about WHAT LINGUISTICS is and the difference between it and APPLIED
LINGUISTICS. In your textbook, you may read the definition of applied linguistics. So read this part first,
and then take your time to get
familiar with the information included in this guide. I hope you find it interesting and enriching.
What is Linguistics? It is:
the scientific study of language and its goal is to describe the varieties of
languages and explain the unconscious knowledge all speakers have of their
language.
the science of language, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and
semantics.
the study of the structure, development, changes, etc., of a particular language and
its relationship to other languages.
According to Widdowson (1996:3), Linguistics is the name given to the discipline which studies human
language.
As you can see, Linguistics is the study of language in general or of some particular language or languages.
And what is its purpose?
Its purpose is to identify some

linguistic knowledge which
underlines language behavior.
Linguistics is a comparatively new science, or new, at least, in the form it has taken in recent years. It
seeks to answer the following questions:
a. what exactly do we know when we know a language?

b. how is this knowledge acquired?
c. how is such knowledge used?
Linguistics also examines language as a part of human behaviour from a psychological and a social and
cultural aspect and attempts to determine which characteristics are unique to a language and which

are universal (found in all the worlds languages), how individual languages differ, how and why they
change, die or are born. Like all sciences, linguistics is divided into theoretical and applied.
In the graphics below you can see the structure of Linguistics, its main branches.
Inguistics is subdivided into
historical
applied
..........
No one book can cover the whole of linguistics
Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=imagenes&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=vSRxUuL4AsWHkQeyk4CABg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=linguistics&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=Y4xl10ie682kCM
%3A%3BK5FYTzMOobjgaM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.philology-upatras.gr%252Fimg%252Fcontent%252Ftomeis_linguistics.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.philology-upatras.gr%252Fen%252Fdepartment%252Fglossology%3B500
%3B510

23
As you can see in the picture above, the domain of Applied linguistics is concerned with the practical
usage, acquisition, teaching language, and education.
To continue with the description of the fields of linguistics and better understand its domain, please read
the textbook first. Some of the branches are mentioned there.
Dear student, I think that it is necessary to mention some other branches of linguistics. For this reason I
included a list with a brief description of each of them and some other branches that are not mentioned
by the textbook. . I hope that it will help you understand the vast field of this discipline.
Theoretical Linguistics- examines a language at different levels of analysis, its phonological system,
articulation and perception of sounds (phonetics), word formation (morphology) and phrases and
sentences (syntax), the meaning of linguistic expressions (semantics), and language use (pragmatics).
Historical Linguistics is the study of HOW languages change diachronically over time and the
relationship among different languages. It studies WHAT has caused changes in different languages and
the result of such changes on the language itself and other associated languages.
Comparative linguistics is the study of thecorrespondences between languages that have a common
origin. It also studies how best to classify languages into groups.
Geographical linguistics - studies the geographical distribution of linguistic forms and usages. It also
involves the study of regional variations of speech forms and dialects.
Descriptive Linguistics deals with writing dictionaries and grammars; describing the rules of the
language.
Synchronic linguistics is the study of the description of the internal phonological, grammatical, and
semantic structures of languages at given points in time without reference to their histories or to one
another
Dear student, I hope that now you have a clearer picture about what LINGUISTICS is and what its main
branches are.
Since our course is Applied linguistics, you also need to know WHAT applied linguistics is.
From the above description of Linguistics and its branches, you could see that
Applied Linguistics constitutes a part of the language science.
Please, have it clear that it is NOT the same as Linguistics, neither is it a subsection. To make it more
understandable, you should know that Linguistics is a science that studies languages and it has some
subfields.
These are:
PHONETICS it deals with the sounds of language, how they are produced
PHONOLOGY it deals with how the sounds are organized
it deals with how sounds are put together to form words, and
MORPHOLOGY
everything related to word formation.

SYNTAX it deals with how sentences and words are formed

SEMANTICS it deals with the meaning of words, sentences, and texts.
It studies how people comprehend and produce a communicative act
PRAGMATICS
or speech act in a concrete speech situation
And now let us establish the difference between Linguistics and Applied Linguistics.
And what is Applied Linguistics?
In your textbook you have the definition of Applied Linguistics. In order to better understand this field,
please, read the additional information, explanations, and definitions of this term in the following pages.
Let us analyze this term. As you know, this term consists of two words: Applied and Linguistics. We need
to be very clear about the meaning of the parts of this term.
I offer you some definitions of applied linguistics written by various linguists. Please read them and try
to understand the difference between Linguistics and Applied Linguistics. But first of all I would like to
read the dictionary definition of this term.
The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary defines the word applied as to put to practical use; practical as
opposed to abstract or theoretical. So, as you see, it refers to practical usage of language.
Corder (1074:5) defines Applied Linguistics as the utilization of the knowledge about the nature of
language achieved by linguistic research for the improvement of the efficiency of some practical task in
which language is a central component
Blumfit wrote:Both linguistics and applied linguistics combine empirical and theoretical activity, but
linguistics reifies language. But what does applied linguistics reify? More than just language language
practices (1997b:90)
Norbert Schmitt defined applied linguistics in this way: it is what we know about language, how it is
learned and how it is used, in order to achieve some purpose or solve some problem in the real world.
2010:1)
One more definition of Applied linguistics, by Richards at al (1985:19):
1. Applied Linguistics is the study of a second and foreign language learning and teaching.
2. The study of language in relation to practical problems. Applied Linguistics uses information from
sociology, psychology, anthropology, and information theory as well as from linguistics in order to
develop its own theoretical models of language and language use, and then uses this information
and theory in practical areas such as syllabus design, speech therapy, language planning, stylistics,
gender differences in speech (men, women, and children speak differently), social class differences,
etc.
From the above definitions it can be conclude that:
Applied Linguistics is field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers

solutions to language related problems.

25
Observe how it is related to other disciplines.
Sociology
Education
(the scientific study of
(teaching, learning, acquisition, human social behavior
assessment) and the study of
society) Psychology
(the science of mind and

behavior, and the
application of such
knowledge of various
Applied spheres of human activity,
Linguistics including education,
-
Linguistics health, occupational and
employment services,
(The study of the nature, structure, and human services, and the
variation of language, including treatment of mental
phonetics, phonology, morphology and diseases)
the study of human speech, language Anthropology
form, language meaning , and language
( the scientific study of the
in context origin and behavior of man,
- including the physical, social,
and cultural development of
societies and cultures ).
Dear student , think and write how applied linguistics can be useful in solving problems
related to language within each of the disciplines mentioned in the picture above
It can be said that applied linguistics is the study of everything. Its field is very broad
and can be applied to all aspects of language use. It deals with mother, foreign, second
language acquisition. In addition, it examined the relationship between language
and such areas as law, communication, media, social and educational psychology and
education in general.
Domain of applied linguistics approaches to text, language, literacy, research, language

teaching and learning (the main focus! , and translation.
Applied Linguistics builds on the findings of Theoretical Linguistics and, combining its
strengths with those of other sciences such as Psychology, Mathematics, Sociology, etc.
seeks to examine the circumstances under which a language is acquired and used by a
language community.

To sum up, I offer you the following pictures:
field of study that identifies, investigates,

and offers solutions to language related
problems
Applied Linguistics
describes the
It can be applied to all language, and
aspects of language use. teaches how it is
It deals with mother, foreign, learned and used
second language acquisition
Applied Linguistics
A.L. is concerned with:
- the systematic study of language structure,
- the acquisition of 1st and subsequent languages,
- the role of language in communication,
- the status of language as the product of particular
cultures and other social groups.
A background in linguistics is essential for

language teachers, translators, speech-
language pathologists, audiologists, and
many other language professionals.

27
Difference between Linguistics and Applied Linguistics
Linguistics :
- It is the study of language in general, from a scientific
point of view.
- It seeks to understand the nature of language as a universal

human faculty and means of communication.
- It asks questions : How is language structured? What

features are necessary parts of any language? In what ways
can languages differ? How are meanings encoded in words?
How are words put together in sentences? How do languages
reflect the culture of their speakers? How do languages
change through time?
Difference between Linguistics and

Applied Linguistics
Linguistics is a science that studies languages and has some

subfields:
PHONETICS - it deals with the sounds of language, how they are
produced
PHONOLOGY it deals with how the sounds are organized
MORPHOLOGY it deals with how sounds are put together to form
words, and everything related to word formation
SYNTAX it deals with how sentences are formed
SEMANTICS it deals with the meaning of words, sentences, and
texts
PRAGMATICS studies how people comprehend and produce a
communicative act or speech act in a concrete speech situation

Difference between Linguistics and Applied Linguistics

.
Applied Linguistics investigates:
- how an understanding of language can be put
to
use in a variety of fields including first and
second language acquisition,
- second language teaching and literacy,
- Language and classroom education across the

curriculum,
- the use of language in university academic contexts,

language and the law, forensic speaker identification,
speech pathology, translation and advertising.
- It uses knowledge of how languages work within

different applied settings.
Dear students, do the following recommended activity , in order to reinforce your knowledge:
Dear students, try to establish the difference between Linguistics and Applied Linguistics. The
following link may help you :
http://scholar.google.com.ec/scholar?q=applied+linguistics+versus+linguistics&hl=es&as_
sdt=0&as_vis=1&oi=scholart
Linguistics Applied Linguistics
I hope that additional information was useful enough to understand the difference between Linguistics
and Applied linguistics.
Dear student, I am sure that you are a thinking person and in constant search for self-improvement. That
is why I considered it necessary to include a very brief historical survey of the term Applied Linguistics for
your general knowledge. You can see that this subsection is not within the contents of this course and is
not included in the textbook. But I consider it interesting for you so I invite you to read it. I hope that this
information might be quite enriching.

29
1.5. HISTORY OF THE TERM APPLIED LINGUISTICS
Interest in languages and language teaching / learning has a long

history. It can be traced back , to the times of ancient Greeks , where
both Plato and Aristotle contributed to the design of a curriculum
beginning with good writing ( correct usage of grammar), then effective
discourse (rhetoric, or effective speech ), and development of dialectic
to promote a philosophical approach to life.
In those remote times appeared some tendencies in the studies of

language.
Aristotle
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=aristotle&hl=en&source=lnms&tb
m=isch&sa=X&ei=EW9yUr2KK8vPsASEqoHYDg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=133
4&bih=579#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=4jPaW9uaM7DRQM%3A%3BQOlveCf5sdi
I invite you to read about the streams in language study.
4sM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fmrsvesseymathematicians.wikispaces.com%25
2Ffile%252Fview%252Faristotle_stone.jpg%252F122672537%252Faristotle_sto-
ne.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwhereisthewisdon.wordpress.com%252F201
3%252F10%252F30%252Fargumen-kosmologis%252F%3B375%3B450
STREAMS IN LANGUAGE STUDY
One of the first language streams in language study was developed in

Ancient Greece, by Sophists.(It dates back to 5th century BC 5th cent. BC.
It was basically a descriptive approach. The ancient Greek scholars just
tried to make a description of language
The name come s from a Greek origin word, (a noun) (sophia),

meaning skilled or wise .The members of that stream were teachers
and intellectuals. Later, that stream was also popular in Roman Empire .
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=aristotle&hl=en&source=lnms
&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=EW9yUr2KK8vPsASEqoHYDg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&bi
w=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=ancient+greeks&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&
imgrc=lROqHXqZM2t3_M%3A%3B_ImsZ2Zl8vDFeM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%
A few sophists claimed that they could find the answers to all questions.
252Fwww.prospectmagazine.co.uk%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2
010%252F10%252F4-oedipus-sphinx.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.
prospectmagazine.co.uk%252Fblog%252Fthe-ancient-greeks-us-the-irrelevan-
Many sophists taught their skills for a price. Sophists taught courses in
ce-of-relevance%252F%3B998%3B1000
various subjects, speculated about the nature of language and culture
and employed rhetoric (art of speaking well) to impress or persuade
an audience. (This movement gave origin to the word sophisticated,
which later got a negative connotation, tricky).
The interest of that stream was on the linguistic form rather than on
meaning. It was considered important for students of rhetoric- art of
speaking well in public.
It was emphasized a philosophical concern around the issues of

Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=aristotle&hl=en&source=lnms
regularity of language. Some scholars maintained that language was
&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=EW9yUr2KK8vPsASEqoHYDg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&bi
w=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=ancient+greeks&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&
imgrc=lROqHXqZM2t3_M%3A%3B_ImsZ2Zl8vDFeM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%
systematic and regular - if language were not regular, it wouldnt be
252Fwww.prospectmagazine.co.uk%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2
010%252F10%252F4-oedipus-sphinx.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww. possible for a human to learn it. (Exceptions- irregularitis).
prospectmagazine.co.uk%252Fblog%252Fthe-ancient-greeks-us-the-irrelevan-
ce-of-relevance%252F%3B998%3B1000

The second main stream belongs to so called Roman grammarians.
Roman grammarians were interested both in the literature ( historical

literary criticism ) and in the history and structure of the Latin language,
and thus, grammar was a main point of study. The discipline of grammar
developed together with rhetoric. Grammar schools provided training
necessary for a student before he entered a school of rhetoric. The main
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=Romans&hl=en&source=lnms focus was on Latin language. Descriptive theory of Latin language was
&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=2XZyUpeROuXMsQSa-oHwCQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&b
iw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=Roman+grammarians&tbm=isch&facrc=_&img
dii=_&imgrc=C5XMNG955u9PNM%3A%3BKqXtz5ySYH46hM%3Bhttp%253A developed. This period was very long-lasting, approximately 1000
%252F%252Fupload.wikimedia.org%252Fwikipedia%252Fcommons%252F1
%252F10%252FCiceroEpistulaeAdFamiliaresVenice1547page329Detail.
jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fen.wikipedia.org%252Fwiki%252FQuintus_Va-
years.
lerius_Soranus%3B925%3B680
The most famous representative of this language study stream was

Aelius Donatus, (IV th Century after Christ ) .
Aelius Donatus wrote the grammar book, Ars Grammatica, which

became the basic grammatical texts for the Middle Ages. Such notions
as syntax and semantics and
Aelius Donatus
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=aristotle&hl=en&source=lnm
s&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=EW9yUr2KK8vPsASEqoHYDg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&
the terms vocabulum and verbum were created in that period.
biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=Aelius+Donatus&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdi
i=_&imgrc=OwHg187Wf19rXM%3A%3B_hwwi21ixTNnxM%3Bhttp%253A
%252F%252Fnibiryukov.narod.ru%252Fnb_pinacoteca%252Fnb_pinacote-
ca_sculpture%252Fnb_sculpture_unknown_french_xii_chartres_cathedral_por-
tal_statuettes_aelius_donatus.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.mediahex.
com%252FAelius_Donatus%3B402%3B590
Next period was represented by Modistae (XIII century ).
Speculative grammarians - were the members of a school of grammarian philosophy known as Modism
(France, Germany, Britain, Denmark). The scholars of this stream tried to explain why languages consist
of system of rules and forms.
The study was based on a theory of modes of meaning in language:
modes of understanding (modi intelligendi),

modes of being (modi essendi),
modes of signifying (modi significandi).
To the Modistae, the various parts of speech were viewed as representing reality in terms of these modes.
The explanations were based on the relationships between language, thought, and universe: thoughts
and knowledge are determined by the universe and the language is a reflection of thought; therefore,
language is rule-governed.
Later, in XVIII century appeared another tradition of linguistic description.

It was developed in India and the Sanskrit language was the center of
interest.(Sanskrit was one of the most important keys to the Indo-European
language puzzle. When philologists in India started seeing similarities across
the languages, they were able to develop methods of study, including the
Comparative Method, and theories of language development from a proto-
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=Romans&hl=en&s
ource=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=2XZyUpeROuXMsQSa-oHwCQ
&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=buddism&
language ).
tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=i0FQIkBr0VRLXM%3A%3BQ
lsYuD_YIPREzM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Freligions.iloveindia.
com%252Fimages%252Fbuddhism.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%25
2Freligions.iloveindia.com%252Fbuddhism.html%3B250%3B219

31
The scholars also tried to find , analyze and compare similarities between
languages which belong to the great Indo-European family: Latin, Greek,
Sanskrit, Celtic, Slavic, Germanic, and some others. Result: it was made
an attempt to explain how languages change, how they related to each
other, how they influence one another .Such similarities were found at a
Source:http://www.google.com.ec/imgres?imgurl=&imgrefurl
vocabulary, sound, and grammar level between the above mentioned and
=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bronzecreative.com%2Fshiva-hindu-
god-statue-nataraja-lord-siva.htm&h=0&w=0&sz=1&tbnid=Aqs- other European languages.
komgZ5_TBM&tbnh=243&tbnw=207&zoom=1&docid=w6-exk73i
gCYnM&hl=en&ei=cXlyUuLVM4qQkAfL_IDwCg&ved=0CAIQsCU
Dear student, I invite you to investigate more about the history of language study.
You may visit the following site:
http://www.anglik.net/englishlanguagehistory.htm
As a conclusion, it can be stated that Applied linguistics reflects the interest of humans to
understand origin of language, how it is learned and how it could be taught since language is
also manifested in speech and speech is the part of human`s biological nature ( people do not
necessarily learn to write, but with social, physiological, neurological and psychological
normality a child will talk).
It could be said, that applied linguistics is everywhere, because language is everywhere; so it is the
science of everything (Alan Davies; 2008:2)
In our globalized world, to speak more than one language has become a necessity. Around the world, a
great number of people speak more than one language. Nowadays, English is the main foreign language
being studied. So you, dear student, can realize why the applied linguistic field is so important and why
its impact on society has increased significantly.
Continuing the historical survey of the disciplines linguistics and applied linguistics, it is necessary to
mention that in the 18thcentury some attempts at linguistic description began to occur.
In 1775, Samuel Johnson published Dictionary of The English Language. It was made an attempt to
standardize English spelling. About the same time, Robert Lowth published grammar book Short
Introduction to English Grammar. But real peak of interest in linguistic description and teaching-learning
process occurred in XX th century.
More and more people were interested in learning foreign languages. As a result, new teaching methods
appeared; there was a need for a new language pedagogy. As a consequence, a new field of language
assessment was developed.
As time goes by, new changes occurred. In the last century the great impact was also caused by the
advance in technology, and the appearance of personal computers. It really resulted in a very significant
influence on applied linguistics. Computer technology facilitated the creation of computer-assisted
language learning (CALL, with audio and video components.

Computing technology made it possible to analyze large amounts of databases of language, called
corpora. And the term Corpus Linguistics appeared. We will discuss this in unit 7). Corpora are now a key
tool in lexicography, and have been consulted in the development of most current learner dictionaries.
(Norbert Schmitt,2010:8).
Evidence from corpora of spoken discourse has also highlighted the difference between spoken and
written discourse ( McCarthy and Carter, 1997 ).
The influence of English can`t be underestimated for the development of applied linguistics. Linguistic
study nowadays is basically applied linguistics.
It can be said that the tradition of applied linguistics established itself in part as a response to the
narrowing of focus in linguistics with the advent in the late 1950s of generative linguistics with the main
interest in language problems. Although the field of applied linguistics started from Europe and the
United States, the field rapidly flourished in the international context.
Applied linguistics first concerned itself with principles and practices on the basis of linguistics. In the
early days, applied linguistics was thought as linguistics-applied at least from the outside of the field.
In the 1960s, however, applied linguistics was expanded to include language assessment, and second
language acquisition. As early as the 1970s, applied linguistics became a problem-driven field rather than
theoretical linguistics .Applied linguistics also included solutions to language-related problems in the
real world. By the 1990s, applied linguistics has broadened including critical studies and multilingualism.
(Davis,2007).
My dear student, we come to an end of the first unit; I hope that now you have a broadened vision of
what applied linguistics is, why it is useful and necessary , what are its fields, and why it is so important
for you, future educators.
You may check your understanding and verify your knowledge by answering the questions of the first
self evaluation test below.

33
Self- Evaluation 1
Give the answers the following:
Answer TRUE ( T ) or FALSE ( F ) according to the statement:
1.() Phonology, Syntax, Semantics are the branches of Applied Linguistics.
2.() Linguistics studies languages as a part of human behaviour.
3.() Comparative Linguistics is a branch of Applied Linguistics.
4.() Applied Linguistics deals with mother, foreign, second language acquisition.
5.() One of the functions of Applied Linguistics is to offer solutions in language teaching.
6.() Applied Linguistics mostly describes second and foreign language acquisition.
7.() Critical Discourse Analysis is a center of interest of Linguistics.
8.() The applied part of linguistics deals with functions of science.
9.() Functional Linguistics describes language as a means of communication and how

people use their language.
10.() Applied Linguistics establishes a reciprocal relationship between experience and

expertise.
( See the answers at the end of the guide)
This is the end of unit one
Dear student, let`s continue with our course and move to the next unit.

UNIT 2. PRESCRIBING and DESCRIBING: popular and academic views of correctness`
2.1. Children s language at home and school
Dear student, please, read the corresponding part of this unit in your textbook, and then I invite you to
continue with the additional information and explanations below.
Language Variations
In this unit we will discuss interesting issues related with correctness, standard and non standard forms
of language , dialects, accent , language variations and why the languages differ .You will also get
acquainted with the terms socio- and psycholinguistics and their fields of study.
The chapter in your textbook begins with the description of childrens language. Please, read it attentively.
Can you recall any examples of children`s language?.
Interesting phenomenon can be observed in our daily lives. Language occurs whenever we need to
communicate with other people and it might be different according to the situation.
In the same chapter you will learn about the phenomenon of code switching. To better understand this,
pay attention to its definition given in the textbook.
I am sure that some of you have witnessed how we adapt our speech depending on who we are talking
to and the nature of the contact.
When we speak to a little child, we do not use long and complex sentences. We usually say two or three
words sentences instead. When we speak to a teenager, we may use some fashionable or slang words.
When speaking to an elderly person, our way for expressing our ideas would be quite different from
those ones used with a teenager.
We always try to access a person using the most appropriate words according to age, status, and
educational level of the interlocutor or conversation partner.
The deliberate change from one manner or style of speaking to another is called
CODE SWITCHING or code choice
Dear student,
please think what words you would choose to convey the following ideas switch the lights off
when you leave the room / the outside street noise is very loud, the window needs to be shut to
your friend, a teenager, an elderly person, your boss, a little child.
In addition to the textbook explanations, I would like you to read the information below to have a more
complete idea about the phenomenon of CODE SWITCHING.

35
CODE SWITCHING is used :
to mark switching from informal to formal situations

between parents and children
to announce specific identities, create certain meanings, and facilitate particular interpersonal
relationships, and
to align speakers with others in specific situations (e.g., defining oneself as a member of an ethnic
group)(Johnson, 2000, p. 184).
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=Romans&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=2XZyUpeROuXMsQSa-oHwCQ&v
ed=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=interpersonal+communication&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=86P-j3d1O
dVCjM%3A%3BsKGQzfsj_-UlqM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Felizabethkuhnke.files.wordpress.com%252F2011%252F06%252Flangu Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=Romans&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=2XZyUpeROuXMsQSa-oHwCQ&ve
age.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Felizabethkuhnke.wordpress.com%252Ftag%252Fcommunication%252F%3B701%3B720 d=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=interpersonal+communication&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=x9CKgCINPq
FQ_M%253A%3Bfc-Cv9IkpJaIwM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Flivingwelleducation.com%252Fcommunication%252Fimages%252FC
ommunication_01.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Flivingwelleducation.com%252Fcommunication%252Findex.html%3B639%3B346
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=Romans&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=2XZyUpeROuXMsQSa-oHwCQ&v
ed=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=teaching++a+baby&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=RIAYfDOyYkgMBM%
3A%3BAKh_QTdsR7YOMM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.babies-and-sign-language.com%252Fimages%252Fwill-teaching-my-
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=Romans&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=2XZyUpeROuXMsQSa-oHwC
baby-sign-language-delay-his-speech-21293930.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.babies-and-sign-language.com%252Fwill-
Q&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=formal+meeting&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=iCUE02TCe3mST
teaching-my-baby-sign-language-delay-his-speech.html%3B400%3B300
M%3A%3Bih_OpMj-3gxTSM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.howtoee.com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2012%252
F10%252FDirectors-Meetings-Etiquette.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.howtoee.com%252Fcompany-directors-meetings-
etiquette%252F%3B450%3B291
According to Wilkins (1985), the linguist may study the relationship between differences of language
forms and social context. There is a need to understand how the personal choice of certain kind of
language enables people to perform their social functions.
People often consciously consider the social meaning of their speech when they change from one manner
of speaking to another, according to the circumstances, in order to give an appropriate impression.
To sound educated, some people use more elegant words, try not to pronounce the words incorrectly.
We can also observe a reversed phenomenon. A highly educated person in order to be understood by
less educated people, may simplify his/her speech, use simpler words, use less sophisticated vocabulary.
When this occurs, we say that the person switches the code.
We all switch the code in our daily speech according to circumstances. By the way, was it difficult to do
the recommended activity above? Could you switch code when addressing different people?
There are few single-code speakers. People are almost always faced with choosing an appropriate code
when they speak. Very young children and learners of a new language may be an exception. It happens
because of lack of vocabulary and not sufficient storage of appropriate phrases.
These varieties of language, or codes, can be subdivided in two: RESTRICTED and ELABORATED. In your
textbook you may read the explanation of these terms. I invite you to read your textbook first.

In addition to the textbook explanation of the terms, I would like to give you their more detailed
description.
These terms were introduced by Basil Bernstein (UK) in 1971, as a way of

accounting for the relatively poor performance of working-class pupils
on language-based subjects. According to Bernstein words in Class,
Codes and Control (1971):Forms of spoken language in the process of their
learning initiate, generalize and reinforce special types of relationship with the
environment and thus create for the individual particular forms of significance.
The way language is used within a particular societal class affects the way
people assign significance and meaning to the things about which they are
Basil Bernstein
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=Romans&hl=en&sourc
e=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=2XZyUpeROuXMsQSa-oHwCQ&ved=0C speaking(p.76) (Brown,2009).
AcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&
Elaborated codes are used in families and big communities. People need to
negotiate meaning and make themselves clear, so the speakers have to be very
explicit. This explicitness is valued by speakers.
Restricted code is used in communities that center on physical work. When people share a
subculture, they need to share information and understanding. Fixed and inflexible syntactic
patterns are used. Language is predictable since the limited vocabulary is used.
To sum up, please, see the picture below:
RESTRICTED vs ELABORATED CODE
RESTRICTED C. is the
language used by friends
ELABORATED C.
and family in informal is the language used
setings. by well educated
It includes slang, incorrect people. ( extensive,
use of grammar and basic detailed , and well
vocabulary. structured
It is used by both working
and middle class.
vocabulary).
Working class use it all It is language used
the time, whereas middle by school teachers,
class know when to use it in textbooks, and in
and when to switch to formal occasions.
elaborated code.
Remember that the restricted code does not refer to restricted vocabulary, and the elaborated
code does not refer to elegant use of language.

37
Dear student, please write the correct letter in the corresponding graph according to the code each
example represents.
A. If youre going to town, get Rupert a new April from you-know-where
B. Camerons at it again.
C. I see from the newspaper I am reading that David Cameron, leader of the Opposition, is once
again trying to attack the government from a position of right-wing populism as we discussed a
couple of days ago.
D. If you are going into Bedford, please get a new toy for Rupert the dog from the pet-shop (which
we cant name because if the dog hears it he will go mad), to replace the one which we have
come to call April, which he has almost chewed to bits.
Dear student you may read more about language codes in theses links:
http://www.doceo.co.uk/background/language_codes.htm
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0opkSG0mfBQ
RESTRICTED CODE ELABORATED CODE
When we want to speak, we always have in mind what code we have to choose and use. To sum up,
CODE refers to any kind of system that two or more people employ for communication.
To continue with the explanations of this unit, I invite you to answer the following questions:
How can we consider our way of speaking? Do we use correct or incorrect language?
How can we know which language is correct or incorrect?
It is probably quite challenging to answer the questions. What is correct language ? and what standard
should we follow in our speaking? Now we need to discuss the notions of standard and non standard
language.
2.2. STANDARD AND NON STANDARD LANGUAGE
Dear student, to better understand the difference between these two terms, please first read the
definitions in your textbook. After that you may complement your knowledge with the additional
information enclosed below.
Speakers of the same language may have some differences in the way of using vocabulary, grammar and
pronunciation. Most language users think that their way of speaking is natural and probably the best.
Different ways of pronouncing words or speaking may be considered as funny. Language attitudes are

very powerful. We are likely to make judgments of people based on what they say and sometimes, most
importantly, how they say it.(Brown,2009:95).
Try to give your own interpretation of the terms STANDARD and NON STANDARD language.
Dear student, I invite you to learn more about standard and non standard language by visiting the
following site:
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Difference_between_standard_and_non-standard_english
You may compare your definitions with the following:
Standard language refers to mode of usage of most educated speakers of a language and
established as the prestigious form of that language.
Standard language refers to a language variety used by a group of people in their public
discourse. This term is also used for that variety of a language which is considered to be the
norm (Jenkins, 2009).
Alternatively, varieties become standard by undergoing a process of standardization which it

is organized for description grammars and dictionaries and encoded in such reference works.
Varieties that become standardized are the local dialects and are spoken in the centers of
commerce and government where a need arises for a variety that will serve more than local
needs.
And what is non standard language?
Sometimes non standard language is associated with a language variety used by uneducated speakers
or socially disfavored groups.
What makes non standard language different from standard is the fact that it is not taught in schools, and
it is not represented in written form unless it is a deliberate direct quotation of a nonstandard speaker.
The term non standard was originally used by linguists to refer to language varieties that had previously
been labeled with terms such as vulgar.
Non standard English differs from Standard English most importantly at the level of grammar.
(Trudgill,1992).
To expand upon the definition and discussion in our text, I would like to add that non standard language
does not follow the grammar or pronunciation rules of standard language.

39
Note, however, that the use of nonstandard forms is not necessarily restricted to the communities with
which they are associated in the public mind. Many educated speakers freely use forms such as cant
hardly or aint, or gonna to set a popular or informal tone.
To illustrate the non standard language I invite you to read the excerpt taken from Mark Twain`s The
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, 1884).
I see Jim before me, all the time; in the day, and in the night-time, sometimes moonlight,
sometimes storms, and we a floating along, talking, and singing, and laughing. But somehow I
couldnt seem to strike no places to harden me against him, but only the other kind. Id see him
standing my watch on top of hisn, stead of calling me, so I could go on sleeping; and see him
how glad he was when I come back out of the fog; and when I come to him agin in the swamp, up
there where the feud was; and suchlike times; and would always call me honey, and pet me, and
do everything he could think of for me, and how good he always was. And at last I struck the time
I saved him by telling the men we had smallpox aboard, and he was so grateful, and said I was the
best friend old Jim ever had in the world, and the only one hes got now; and then I happened to
look around, and see that paper.
It was a close place. I took it up, and held it in my hand. I was a trembling, because Id got to decide,
forever, betwixt two things, and I knowed it. I studied a minute, sort of holding my breath, and then says
to myself:
All right, then, Ill go to hell--and tore it up.
What makes non standard language different from standard is the fact that it is not taught in schools, and
it is not represented in written form unless it is a deliberate direct quotation of a nonstandard speaker.
Dear student, please copy out from the text all the examples of NON STANDARD language.
You may learn more about non standard language in the following sites:
http://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/nonstandterm.htm
http://jottify.com/works/standard-and-non-standard-variants-of-the-english-language/
I hope that now you understand the difference between standard and non standard language. (The
notions of standard /non standard languages are also discussed in unit 3).
And what is dialect? This is the next notion that the textbook introduces. Please read in your textbook
the definition of this term.
I would like to expand the explanations of your textbook and for this reason I included another definition
of DIALECT.

Dialect:
a. the form or variety of a spoken language peculiar to a region, community, social group,
occupational group, etc. It differs from standard language in matters of pronunciation,
syntax, etc.
b. the sum total of local characteristics of speech.
c. any form of speech considered as deviating from a real or imaginary standard speech.
So, you see that dialect is a variety of language, and it may include accent, but dialect also may be
identified by means of vocabulary.
The differences in grammar may be considered as aspects of dialect, too. We may all speak a certain
dialect regardless the language we use.
Some more questions come to mind: how to distinguish language and dialect? Is accent a part of dialect?
Why do people speak differently?
These and many more questions related to HOW we speak and WHY we speak in a certain way are
discussed by SOCIOLINGUISTICS and PSYCHOLINGUISTICS.
2.3. Prescriptive vs Descriptive and Applied Linguistics perspective
Dear students, in your textbook you have an explanation about some approaches to language study.
Please, carefully read the explanations about the notions of prescription and description.
I would like to expand this theme and add some more explanations about what the terms descriptive
and prescriptive mean.
As your textbook states, language can be viewed from two points of view:
Prescriptive: This approach consists basically of stating what is considered right and wrong
in language. For example, some established grammar rules cant be broken, we can t use
the particle to after the modal verbs, it is considered incorrect. (it is not correct to say He
can to play the guitar; or splitting infinitives is also wrong She to buy wants a book).
Descriptive: This approach consists of describing the facts. It describes the rules of the
language, and language is seen as essentially rule governed (made of rules)
( Brown, 2009)
Descriptive approach tries to find the rules that govern the language spoken by people (Ex. English,
Spanish, Italian, Russian, Chinese, etc). Broadly speaking, it is a description of correct language. This
notion stands close to standard language.

41
Prescriptive approach dedicates to imposing rules that come from outside the language and /or seek to
preserve a stage of the language that has been left behind by the evolution of the language itself (Brown
:3, 2009). It is close to the notion of non standard language.
The prescriptive theory is not often supported by linguistic data. For example, the use of double negative
is considered incorrect. But if we analyze English literature, we can find examples of the use of double
negation.
Linguists have to describe both, correct and incorrect language forms, and leave others to decide
which is socially more appropriate to which situations.(Crystal, (1986).
To sum up the information above, it can be stated:
Prescribing and Describing
PRESCIPTION:
deals with variety or manner of speaking of a language.

refers to HOW language should be used.
can apply to most aspects of language: spelling, grammar, semantics, and
pronunciation.
may imply a view that some forms are incorrect, improper, illogical, lack communicative
effect, or are of low aesthetic value (non standard).
The main aims of linguistic prescription are:
to specify standard language forms either generally (what is Standard English?)

for specific purposes: explain what style and register is appropriate .
to formulate styles and registers in such a way as to make them easily taught or
learned.
Prescriptive grammar categorizes certain language uses as acceptable or not acceptable. Prescriptive
rules (rules of grammar) teach people how they SHOULD speak or write according to established
standards. Example of some rules:
1. Modals verbs do not change (She CAN speak / He MUST go )

2. No Particle to is used with modals (Wrong: She can TO play the piano).
3. Do not use double negation (Wrong: I dont do nothing).
DESCRIPTION: observes and records (describes) how language actually is used.
DESCRIPTION / DESCRIPTIVE grammar describes what native speakers do when they speak their native
language.

Examples:
Contractions are proper for informal spoken language: Im / Shes / aint

Reductions are met in rapid informal speech: Wanna, hafta, cuz, kinda.
Summarizing it in the chart, we have:
Prescribing vs Describing
Prescription Description
Establishes the rules how language registers and describes language
should be used variations , dialects, and styles
Includes grammar rules
Applies for spoken, written language,

pronunciation
Dear student, please find in both English and Spanish languages examples to illustrate the
correct/ incorrect language use in different / similar situations.
If we compare two sentences The man whom I saw was your uncle and The man who I saw was your
uncle, what form should be considered as a correct :WHO or WHOM? Or which form is incorrect? A
linguist may say that educated people may use both forms, but the form whom is more appropriate
for formal contexts, and who is more suitable for informal situations. The word appropriate is a much
better word to use in this connection than the word correct.(Crystal, 1986)
Languages are in constant change. A grammar book, however, does not change. So we can say that a
grammar book is a little behind the times, because the way we pronounce words, vocabulary (appearance
of neologisms) are changing, even some grammar rules change over time. People not always speak
in accordance with the rules of traditional grammar books, and are aware of this. People often try to
speak grammatically, and tell their children to. It is an attempt to follow rules that some time ago were
prescribed by some scholars.(Crystal, 1986)
Among the most frequents examples of prescriptivism should be mentioned:
Double negative
The main principle for correct language was taken from the rules of Latin. According
to the scholars, English language had to follow the rules existing for Latin. In spite of the
fact that double negatives originally existed in English, their usage was considered
incorrect.
The double negative rule was invented by Robert Lowth, a British priest, (XVIII) (Brown, 2009).

43
The double negative rule doesnt apply where it should. Its usage can be considered an issue of social
class and good manners. So, if you follow this rule, it means that you belong to educated people
(Brown:5, 2009).
Split infinitives. The rule states that the infinitive should not be split .If we try to change the
sentence I have tried to consciously stop worrying about it to follow this rule, we would
change the meaning of the sentence :I have tried to stop consciously worrying about it . The
rule and the sentence cant both be right. Therefore, we must split infinitive when necessary.
As it has been stated above, languages are in constant change so criteria about correctness of language
can change, too; consequently, we have to be aware of prescriptivist and descriptivist approaches to
language use .
In the course textbook you may read arguments descriptivist use when analyzing language variations.
Please, learn them. They will help you understand what principles linguists take into consideration when
describing languages.
Dear student, I invite you to refer to your native Spanish language experience and find
examples to support the notions of PRESCRIPTIVE and DESCRIPTIVE
You may learn more about prescriptive and descriptive grammar in the following site:
http://grammar.about.com/od/basicsentencegrammar/f/descpresgrammar.htm
2.4. An Applied Linguistics perspective
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=worker&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=r7tzUu
aUBpSosQT54YHIBQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=sociolinguistics&tbm=isch&f
acrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=B-pTfPVoe5fbaM%3A%3ByjZ_DIHCA3Y2jM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.
cambridge.org%252Fus%252Ffiles%252F1613%252F7146%252F1011%252Fsociolinguistics_hero_6_13.
jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.cambridge.org%252Fus%252Facademic%252Fsubjects%252Flan
guages-linguistics%3B640%3B345
Please, read this section in your textbook.
Dear student, the subtopic SOCIOLINGUISTICS is not included in the table of content in your textbook.
Sociolinguistics and Psycholinguistics are very important for the Applied Linguistics course. They
constitute branches of this discipline and explain many aspects of language you need to know. That is
why I decided to include them in this didactic guide to compliment the textbook.
In addition, the contents of these chapters are considered for at a distance assignments, and will be
included in both at a distance tasks and on site exams.

More about dialects, language variations and related topics are explained in the next pages. I encourage
you to read attentively the information below. It will definitely enrich your knowledge and help you in
your future professional life. Let us start with
2.5. SOCIOLINGUISTICS
What is Sociolinguistics? It can be described as a branch of Linguistics

which deals with the study of language use in society and in socio-
cultural context. In addition, it is the study of the linguistic indicators of
culture and power (Schmitt, 2011).
The points explained above represent parts that belong to this vast field.
As you already know, Sociolinguistics also studies language variations

(dialects, accents) and language change; and explains WHY languages
Source: http://www.google.com.ec/imgres?imgurl=&imgrefurl=http%3A%2
F%2Fwww.buhlerschools.org%2FDistrict%2FStudents%2F&h=0&w=0&sz=1
&tbnid=fkfvA-FPU-Yi7M&tbnh=198&tbnw=255&zoom=1&docid=KRX_GB2T change. It describes language varieties between different ethnic,
T6CFPM&hl=en&ei=ELdyUu3DDoytkAfJkoGQCQ&ved=0CAEQsCU
religious, status, and gender groups; and explains how educational
level, age etc., may influence the language differences, and categorizes
individuals in social or socioeconomic classes .
SOCIOLINGUISTICS is the study of how language and

social factors are related.
I hope that now you have a clearer picture of the main focus of sociolinguistics. Let us summarize it in
one sentence:
Each language exists in a number of varieties and is in one sense the sum of those varieties.
We have one more term: variety. It is necessary to know what variety is.
According to Hudson (1980, p.24),
variety of a language is a set of linguistic items

with similar distribution.
As you can understand, variety refers to a set of linguistic items, or human speech patterns ( sounds,
words, grammar) which can be associated with geographical area or a social group.
The study of the language varieties, dialects, and accents is one of the focuses of Sociolinguistics.
Dear student, you already know from prior explanations what a dialect is. We are going to continue
discussing it within the SOCIOLINGUISTICS perspective.
A language community is a group of people who live, work, socialize, and communicate together.
The shared, unique characteristics of their speech is called DIALECT. Everyone belongs to a language
community; therefore, everyone speaks a dialect.

45
Dialect can be defined as STANDARD language (see the above definitions of standard language), or
PRESTIGE DIALECT used in business, education, and media.
I would like you to know one more term related to sociolinguistics and the study of dialects it is
ISOGLOSS. What is it? It is an imaginary line on a map that marks the boundaries of areas where a
particular dialect is used. Isogloss helps linguists know more about language changes.
Dialects can be described at different levels according to variations. These

can be subdivided in:
Phonological (differences in pronunciation, ex: in Spanish llave( / llave / llave /

shave /
Morphological (word structure)
Syntactic (it can be represented by different word order in sentences,)
Semantic ( differences in meaning, ex football soccer )
Grammatical ( differences in grammar structures may depend on social status of
speakers, age , gender)
Dear student, please try to answer these questions: Is accent a dialect? Or is it a part of a
dialect? What is accent ?
I invite you to investigate the dialect difference according to variations stated above.
In addition, to learn more about this topic, visit this web page:
http://grammar.about.com/od/d/g/dialectterm.htm
The next term to discuss is accent. What is accent? Can you define it? Is it the same as dialect?
To make distinction between these two terms you need to read the next section. This information is not
included in your textbook but I think that it would be useful for you to know how to differentiate them
.So, please, read this complement information.
Dialect vs Accent
Now you already know that dialect is usually regional variation of language; it refers to standard form of
a language (including grammar, pronunciation, lexicon) used by a group of speakers.
Dialect is a product of the individuals geographical and class origin. Remember that educational
experience is also significant.

If two speakers differ in grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary, it can be

concluded that they speak different dialect.
Variation in pronunciation, but NOT in grammar and vocabulary, would be considered
difference of accent.
So, accent can be defined as follows:
Accent: It is a pattern or manner of pronunciation.(NOTE: Did your definition coincide with this?)
An accent may identify the locality in which its speakers reside. We call it a geographical or regional
accent. It can indicate the socioeconomic status of its speakers, their ethnicity or social class.
Accent can also allow to determine the speakers first language ( when the language in which the accent
is heard is not his/her native language). A person s accent can provide a strong clue to his or her native
(first ) language., since most speakers will produce the same kind of pronunciation deviations.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=woman+i+sari+at+taj+mahal&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=8r9zUt6lNo
mvsASsi4DwAw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=sTg6QkwKS86NvM%3A%3BUTWx2i6SGOvX Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=language+and+society&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=tbZyUo-WIoPVkQ
lM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Ffreephotooftheday.clientk.com%252Fwp02%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2011%252F02% eNgoGABA&sqi=2&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=+flamenco+dancers&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc
252Fwomen-in-saris-walking-to-taj-mahal-agra-india.JPG%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Ffreephotooftheday.com%252F2011%252F06 =L_Pv0ji2ZrafIM%3A%3BcOIFZ2-jGxoAPM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.barcelonapoint.com%252Fen%252Fblog%252Ffiles%
%252F28%252Fsaris-at-the-taj-mahal-agra-india%252F%3B2272%3B1704 252F2011%252F01%252Fflamenco_001.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.barcelonapoint.com%252Fen%252Fblog%252Fart-
culture%252Fflamenco-shows-in-barcelona%252F%3B348%3B400
Accents typically differ in quality of voice, pronunciation of vowels and consonants, and stress pitch
(Compare voice intonation in Spanish and English questions! And compare the speech of people from
Ecuadorian Coast and Sierra regions) .
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=ecuadorian+people&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=2b5yUrfoJsHbkQeCp
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=language+and+society&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=tbZyUo-WIoPVkQ YGYAQ&sqi=2&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=ecuadorian+black+people&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&img
eNgoGABA&sqi=2&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=+Oravalo+people&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=Y rc=NFXLxIilHm1oWM%3A%3B46fJ0Dvn1_XHZM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F1.bp.blogspot.com%252F-G-zPeTA_LXE%252FUIWEA
13eIOhy2i6OIM%3A%3BvkSU6DL1aG5xNM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.friendlyplanet.com%252Fmedia%252Fgallery%252F XutIII%252FAAAAAAAAFxA%252F47OUk3FGS2Y%252Fs640%252FAfro%252Becuadorians.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fkwekud
south_america%252Fecuador%252Fotavalo-woman-big.jpg%253Ftitle%253DVendor%252520at%252520the%252520Otavalo%25 ee-tripdownmemorylane.blogspot.com%252F2012%252F10%252Fafrican-descendants-in-ecuador-afro.html%3B600%3B450
2520market%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.friendlyplanet.com%252Fpast%252Fexotic-ecuador.html%3B550%3B366
Although grammar, semantics, vocabulary, and other language characteristics often vary concurrently
with accent, the word accent refers specifically to the differences in pronunciation.

47
Please, be clear that accent and dialect are not the same. They are quite different concepts.
DIALECT
ACCENT
It refers to differences in
It refers to the broader set pronunciation
of linguistic differences
Any dialect can be spoken in any accent, for example, the dialect known as Standard UK English can be
heard in all of the regional accents of Britain. We often hear regional dialects spoken in foreign accents
when they are being learned by non-native speakers. Every form of spoken language is uttered as a
dialect and an accent. When a person says he or she has no accent, it is usually means that the person
speaks in a standardized and prestigious accent (Schmitt, 2011).
The term dialect can be applied for local varieties of English ( example, Yorkshire dialect , in Britain), and
for various types of informal, lower-class, or rural speech( e.g. cockney, in Britain).
To sum up, please observe the following chart:
Dialect vs Accent
Dialect Accent
-It is usually regional variation of - it is a pattern or manner of

language; pronunciation, but NOT in grammar
-it refers to standard form of a and vocabulary
language ( including grammar, -It may identify the locality in
pronunciation, lexicon) used by which its speakers reside. ( a
a group of speakers. geographical or regional accent.)
If two speakers differ in grammar, - It can indicate the socio
pronunciation and vocabulary, it economic status of its speakers,
can be concluded that they speak or social class.
different dialect. -It allows to determine the
Dialect is a product of the speakers 1st language ( most
individuals geographical and speakers produce the same kind
class origin. of pronunciation deviations.)
Remember that educational -It typically differs in quality of voice,
experience is also significant. pronunciation of vowels/consonants,
stress pitch( ( intonation in Spanish
and English questions!

Dear student, please try to analyze the spoken language of people in different regions of Ecuador.
What Dialect / Accent differences can you find?
You may learn more about difference between dialect and accent in the following sites:
http://www.ehow.com/how_2222943_understand-difference-between-accents-dialects.html
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3UgpfSp2t6k
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3pQnFOIixl0
Sometimes dialect can be considered equivalent to nonstandard or even substandard language

(Wardhaugh, 992). Language contains features of dialect and more transitory features demanded by
social roles.
Another notion to discuss within the Sociolinguistics field is REGISTER. This term is not explained by
your textbook; but since it is closely related to the notions of dialect, accent, standard/ non standard
languages I recommend you to read this section.
What is register?
It is another variation of a language, similar to dialect, but determined by the subject matter, rather than
geographical and social issues.(Brown, 2009).
Examples of register can be found in baby talk, mother-little child conversations , or in language
caretakers use with little children.
Register is when a person talks differently to different people according to the situation. The speaker
may be more polite to people he /she does not know ,for example. Another example : when we speak
with children we usually use a lot of diminutives and a very simplified language. We change our register,
or code. It may be compared with code switching. Another example can be found in newspaper articles
(dropping of articles), or in sports announcer talks (brief sentences, a lot of exclamations and interjections,
incomplete sentence structures, etc).
Register can be the field of stylistic , or pragmatics .It can be also

discussed from the point of view of language pedagogy, and it
might be important for successful mastery of a second or foreign
language.
REGISTER may also be defined as a set of

choices among linguistic features. (Brown,
2009:116).
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=sports+announcer+animacion&hl=en&sour
ce=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=G8NyUovsIouHkQfrmoCwBQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=13
34&bih=579#hl=en&q=sports+announcer+comic&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=C
sz9oy_Qkp5LIM%3A%3BcvDsVBfETVbFNM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.clipartguide.
com%252F_named_clipart_images%252F0511-0810-3119-1760_Cartoon_of_a_Radio_An-
nouncer_in_the_Studio_clipart_image.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.clipartguide.
com%252F_pages%252F0511-0810-3119-1760.html%3B328%3B350
The following parameters that determine register were proposed by Biber and cited by Brown( 2009) :

49
Subject matter: what the text is about: what speakers are talking about will determine their choices
in the various linguistic levels: lexical, syntactic, and so on. Chemistry, physics, or mathematics, for
example, will have their own registers.
Social roles/situations: who the speaker is and what he/she does.
Discursive function: what the speaker is using the text for, such as discussing, insulting, and so
forth, such as the field of discourse.
Consultative: the speaker provides background information and the hearer participates; no
familiarity is established.
Among other parameters can be also mentioned casual (familiarity can be established), intimate (single-
word utterances or jargon can be used), and formal (distance between speaker and hearer is established).
Dear student, please analyze different newspaper articles, or pay attention to TV interviews to
find examples of REGISTER.
As you, dear student, can see, Sociolinguistics is a very broad and vast discipline. Some more points
about language changes should be mentioned here.
When speaking about language variations it is necessary to present the notions of jargon and slang. Let
us start first with Jargon.
JARGON
Read these two sentences below. Can you identify the

sentence with slang? And the one with jargon?
1. Did you hook up with him?
2. Get me his vitals.

Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=jargon&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=F4D-Uva3C9Sqs-
QT7vIFQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=554#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=XodRSog57I9qeM%253A%3BjZ
pW23HJC5ugEM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fbrandjournalists.com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252FJarg
If it was difficult to do, it means that you need to get on-1.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fbrandjournalists.com%252Farticles%252F10-pieces-of-business-jargon-that-

suck%252F%3B800%3B367
acquainted with the explanations below.
Jargon is defined in relationship to a specific activity, profession, group, or event. In other words, the term
refers to the language used by people who work in a particular area or who have a common interest. It
can be used to express ideas that are frequently discussed between members of a group, though it can
also be developed deliberately using chosen terms.
So, it can be said that jargon refers to occupational variations.
For example, medical doctors need to be clear when they talk about professional issues, and they need
specific, clear, specialized terms that refer to their job. Can you identify now which of the examples above
represents jargon? Of course, it is the second example.

Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=worker&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=r7tzUuaUBpSosQT54YHIBQ&ved=
0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=YnX-kvRTJWJM1M%3A%3BewHlz-2Pf5UN1M%3Bhttp%253A%252 Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=worker&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=r7tzUuaUBpSosQT54YHIBQ&ved
F%252Fst.depositphotos.com%252F1381969%252F2040%252Fv%252F950%252Fdepositphotos_20405653-Construction-worker.jp =0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=doctor&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=E-r0Wd3CSchyuM%3A%3BPmkGuTJ
g%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fdepositphotos.com%252F20405653%252Fstoclustration-Construction-worker.html%3B768%3B1024 MYEBr3M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fuconnwelcomemat.files.wordpress.com%252F2011%252F03%252Fdoctor1.jpg%3Bhttp%25
3A%252F%252Fuconnwelcomemat.wordpress.com%252F2011%252F04%252F05%252Fwhy-be-a-doctor%252F%3B425%3B588
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=worker&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=r7tzUuaUBpSosQT54YHI
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=worker&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=r7tzUuaUBpSosQT54YHIBQ&ved BQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=engineer&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=igIrQj2n3SJAxM
=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=worker&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=YnX-kvRTJWJM1M%253A%3BewH %253A%3BLrSSfMhqQt43fM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fcoloring.thecolor.com%252Fcolor%252Fimages%252FEngineer.
lz-2Pf5UN1M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fst.depositphotos.com%252F1381969%252F2040%252Fv%252F950%252Fdepositphot gif%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.thecolor.com%252Fcategory%252Fcoloring%252Foccupations.aspx%3B554%3B565
os_20405653-Construction-
We can find similar examples in many professions. What can you say about language of computer
programmers, college students, or police officers, for example?
Dear student, find examples of Jargon words , phrases or expressions used by representatives
of different professions. To learn more about the topic, I invite you to visit these links:
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/jargon-examples.html
http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080206230426AAgZTJ5
http://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/1914-/language/jargon.htm
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/jargon-examples.html
Sometimes jargon can be used when its users want to be understood by the members of their group
only.
To sum up, jargon is used with these purposes:
Provide speakers of specialized Provide speakers of a subgroup

domains with clear, well-defined, with a means of marking in-
unambiguous terms to refer to group membership and exclude
their activities. outsiders.
( Brown, 2009)

51
Another language variation is SLANG.
SLANG refers to the use of informal words , expressions that are not considered standard in the speakers
dialect or language. Slang is often found in areas of the lexicon that refer to things considered taboo or
euphemisms(the substitution of an inoffensive terms such as passed away for died) .
It is often used to identify with ones peers and, although it may be common among young people, it is
used by people of all ages and social groups.
REMEMBER: Slang and jargon are not the same.
As you already know, jargon refers to the technical vocabulary of a particular profession.
Whereas slang is a variety of language used by a restricted part of population, usually young
people, teenagers, or less respectable groups ; and it is based on a very informal lexicon .
The slang vocabulary is usually not long-lasting. Many slang words that were very fashionable in
one period of time, are not used anymore.
Dear student, as I already mentioned, the field of Sociolinguistics is very broad and extensive. In fact, it
should be studied as an independent course subject, because it deserves much more attention..
To give you a more complete picture of Sociolinguistics, please read the following information which
explains why you might need the knowledge of this field of linguistics in your future professional life ,
and where it can be applied.
Applications of Sociolinguistics
Why may Sociolinguistics be interesting for educators?
Many sociolinguistic studies have a very practical application in education. The knowledge about
variations in language can be used in teacher-training courses. To make it clearer, teachers who
are aware of nonstandard variations of language (in grammar, phonology, lexicon ), can include
prestigious standard forms in their teaching courses and encourage students to learn and
recognize this diversity.
Dialect is not an important type of language variation for teaching. Although, teachers must know
the fact that there is dialect variation in the target language just as there is in their native language.
All language teaching implies the best dialect (standard) to teach.
The knowledge of accents can be a useful tool , too.(ex, in criminalistics: some criminals have been
caught due to their accent origins).
Sociolinguistics may help understand the development and changes of languages.
And now it is time to explain another very interesting field of linguistics- PSYCHOLINGUISTICS. This
subtopic is not in the table of contents in your textbook. But since this subfield of linguistics is a part of
any course of Applied linguistics, it is necessary for you to know some general points of:

2.6. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
Since the complete course of Applied Linguistics contains this subfield,

I consider it a necessary for you to get acquainted with this very broad
discipline.
What is Psycholinguistics? Why do we need to know it? How can it

help us in foreign language teaching? To be able to answer all these
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=woman+i+sari+at+taj+mahal&h
questions, let us start first with the definition of this discipline.
l=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=8r9zUt6lNomvsASsi4DwAw&ved=0CA
cQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=psycholinguisticsl&tbm=isch&facrc=
It is the study of the psychological factors involved in the perception of

_&imgdii=_&imgrc=DXO5s-gHJmh7rM%3A%3B6neFoiLkbBMgIM%3Bhttps%25
3A%252F%252Fwww.wlu.ca%252Fcms%252Fimages%252F2267%252Fistock_0
00019902429medium.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.wlu.ca%252Fpage.
php%253Fgrp_id%253D2267%2526p%253D18280%3B259%3B259
and response to linguistic phenomena.
In other words, Psycholinguistics is a field of linguistics that studies the mental processes
involved in the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language, learning of
language by children , speech processing, comprehension of language by both children
and adults.
Special interest of this discipline is devoted to the learning of language by children and on speech
processing and comprehension by both children and adults. For a psycholinguist, research areas can
also include language production, language comprehension, language acquisition, language disorders,
language and thought, and neurocognition.
As you can understand, psycholinguistics combines both linguistics and psychology . It is focused upon
the comprehension and production of language.
Although psychologists have long been interested in language, their main focus was on the first language,
the child language acquisition, and adult comprehension and production of the native language.
With the growth of interest in learning foreign languages, psycholinguists recognized the need of
extending the study of language processing to individuals who are learning and using actively more
than one language. (Schmitt, 2011).
I am sure that you have heard the terms bilingualism and multilingualism. When a person speaks two
languages with equal or nearly equal fluency, we call him /her bilingual. Consequently, a multilingual
person speaks more than two languages.

53
The interest in study of language is

differences between native how native language ( L1)influences
(L1) and foreign or second the usage of second (L2) or foreign
language (L2) acquisition language
the rules for code switching
the way multiple languages are

fact that bi- or multilingual processed in the brain
speakers do not mix the
languages in one utterance
language behavior and language learning
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=psycholinguist&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=O_j8Upy3L8bwkQfw-
oCIDQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=554#q=psycholinguistics+and+brain&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=x1IjfQD
CNpDTfM%253A%3BWqRUtcC1vtVxcM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F4.bp.blogspot.com%252F-Fb6FOVwAaMg%252FUOOpqBCD
A5I%252FAAAAAAAAAEk%252Fsdo1HSFU8uk%252Fs640%252FiStock_3541361Small_NewXsm.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fd
ailyproteinscience.blogspot.com%252F2012%252F09%252Fscientists-create-atlas-of-human-brain.html%3B500%3B500
I would like to explain some of these terms.
Language Behavior and Language Learning
Language behavior can be defined as the activities involving

speaking, listening, writing, language , and gestures.
According to Els at al (1984), language is the most important medium

of human communication: only humans can learn to make use of
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=woman+i+sari+at+taj+mahal&hl=e
n&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=8r9zUt6lNomvsASsi4DwAw&ved=0CAcQ_AU
oAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=communicating&tbm=isch&imgdii=_
verbal communication, and only humans can learn it. This makes
human behavior different from animal behavior. COMMUNICATION
implies sender (speaker or writer) and receiver (listener or reader).
It can be represented in the following scheme:
SENDER CODE RECEIVER

speaker / writer oral / writteN listener / reader

Communication presupposes an intention to communicate.
It means that when speakers want to communicate, they already

have a plan with specific purposes , and then they perform this plan
within the frame of organized speech. Listeners identify this speech
in a specific way ( it can be done through questions, commands,
declaration, etc.), and then use this interpretation accordingly ( for
example, by answering a question or performing a command) .
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=psycholinguist&source=lnms&tb
There are four basic kinds of language behavior. Observe the following
m=isch&sa=X&ei=O_j8Upy3L8bwkQfw-oCIDQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=133
4&bih=554#q=dialogue&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=0poeU17Hhz0U
MM%253A%3Bw2trokQqOo_XbM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F1.bp.blogspot.
chart, please.
com%252F-riMX5BzTtJs%252FT93w37ofZ6I%252FAAAAAAAAA6I%252FtJ72
NtZ8yr4%252Fs1600%252FChat.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fdonyalynne.
blogspot.com%252F2012%252F06%252Fdialogue-do-we-really-talk-like-that.
html%3B1600%3B1371
The four kinds of language behavior can be distinguished:
Language production Language comprehension

Oral language behavior speaking listening
Written language behavior writing reading
Communication presupposes an intention to communicate. It means that when speakers want to

communicate, they already have a plan with specific purposes , and then they perform this plan within
the frame of organized speech. Listeners identify this speech in a specific way( it can be done through
questions, commands, declaration, etc), and then use this interpretation accordingly (for example, by
answering a question or performing a command).
In the scheme below you can see the steps of language behavior according to Els at al (1984 ).
Language production Speech Language Comprehension
Planning Identification Utilization
All these components are based on a linguistic code. Both listener

and speaker must be acquainted with the concrete code; otherwise,
verbal communication would be impossible.
n&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=8r9zUt6lNomvsASsi4DwAw&ved=0CAcQ_AU
oAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=communicating&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii
=_&imgrc=LCtC6NnwW9nt6M%3A%3BCb_nUlnbZXLTRM%3Bhttp%253A%252F
%252Fthumbs.dreamstime.com%252Fx%252Fpeople-communicating-20375412.
jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.dreamstime.com%252Fstock-photography-
people-communicating-image20375412%3B400%3B400

55
Speaking about language learning, it can be stated that it is based on the hierarchy of skills listed below:
Textual procedures
Sentence procedures
Constituent procedures
Word procedure
Phonemic procedure
As you can see from this scheme, learning begins with the simplest to the most complex aspects of
language acquisition.( from distinguishing sounds, word recognition up to ability to process texts).
It is necessary to mention two main theories of language learning: behaviouristic and mentalistic
psychology.
based on observable behavior in the description

and explanation of learning behavior.The main
Behaviouristic role in language learning is given to environment(
verbal and non-verbal) and language learning.
based on the structure and on theoretical linguistic

Mentalistic assumptions , with the main focus on the innate
capacity of any child to learn any language.
( Els at al,1984)
Why do we need to know about language behavior?

It may give teachers some clues how to deal with some of these difficulties during teaching-
learning process:
Lack of attention and concentration. The condition affects school work and the
development of social skills.
Problems related with language and speech development.
Children with identified emotional and behavioural difficulties have significant language
deficits. Students (and people in general) with this difficulty also tend to have difficulty
organizing themselves in their language learning. It may be very difficult for them to
memorize and remember instructions, and perform tasks in a continuous way, without
interruptions.)
Difficulty in initiating and maintaining interpersonal relationships between language
disorders and antisocial behaviours.

Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=woman+i+sari+at+taj+mahal&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=8
r9zUt6lNomvsASsi4DwAw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=lack+of+attention&tbm=isch&facrc=_&i
mgdii=_&imgrc=Z3e_TZXALrxiRM%3A%3BHEBO653zcY2_1M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fcdn.omtimes.com%252Fwp-co
ntent%252Fuploads%252F2013%252F01%252Flack-of-attention-and-focus.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fomtimes.
com%252F2013%252F01%252Flack-of-attention-and-focus-disruption-to-learning%252F%3B300%3B300
Speaking about Psycholinguistics, it is necessary to mention the

name of Noam Chomsky. He contributed greatly to the development
of this subfield of linguistics. His numerous studies influenced and
shaped the subsequent streams of this discipline.
Your textbook mentions his name many times .I think it would be

interesting for you to know a little bit more about this outstanding
person and his contribution to contemporary linguistics. Noam
Chomsky is a leading linguistic scientist and a professor at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was responsible for
the theory of transformational grammar; he linked linguistics to
Noam Chomsky
n&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=8r9zUt6lNomvsASsi4DwAw&ved=0CAcQ_AU mathematics, psychology, philosophy, and neuropsychology and
oAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=Noam+Chomsy&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_
&imgrc=EGqwFHEAD3bfCM%3A%3B0FPTsFOyKXd4JM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%25
2Fwww.nndb.com%252Fpeople%252F590%252F000022524%252Fchomsky-close.
gave new insights to cognitive psychology.
jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.nndb.com%252Fpeople%252F590%252F0000
22524%252F%3B279%3B431
Chomsky introduced the theory of human ability to use syntax based on innate mental structures that
humans have and that these mental structures emerge from interaction with other humans. He also
centered his investigations around the questions whether some animals can be taught the syntax of
human language or not. In addition, Chomsky presents his research on language acquisition carried out
during many years of investigation. To his view, language acquisition as a uniquely human ability.
Dear student, the field of Psycholinguistics deserves to be studied as a complete university course . As I
already mentioned, its field is very deep and complex. I hope that the information presented in this unit
helped you have a general picture of this broad discipline.
To sum up, Psycholinguistics studies the processes involved in language use; it describes language
behavior and mental processes during native or foreign language acquisition; it also explains why bi-or
multilingual speakers do not blend different languages in one utterance. Psycholinguistics also deals
with different speech disorders.
Dear student, think about how Psycholinguistics can be applied in language learning.
In what way can it be useful for educators?

57
And now complare your ideas with the following:
APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
Psycholinguistics can be of great use for educators

since it investigates first language acquisition ;the
process by which infants acquire language, and
second language acquisition.
Psycholinguistics also reveals a new tendency in

language teaching. Non-verbal aspects of language
use can be incorporated in the teaching since speech
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=woman+i+sari+at+taj+mahal&hl=en&s
ource=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=8r9zUt6lNomvsASsi4DwAw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&b
iw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=teacher+and+student&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&im
is no longer studied in isolation but as a part of
grc=COWRcS6RN4KBhM%3A%3BsqUfTRT9fY3FmM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fphlu
rbsem2011.files.wordpress.com%252F2011%252F05%252Fteacher-and-student4.jpg% communication that also involves non verbal
behavior.
3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fphlurbsem2011.wordpress.com%252F%3B300%3B300
Psycholinguistics also tries to explain why adult learners may have difficulties in
acquiring foreign language comparing to child language acquisition. To know these
differences, it will be of great use for teachers.
(Schmitt, 2011)
The field of psycholinguistics can also be interesting for pedagogues because it offers
different methodologies for language acquisition .New models appear after long
years of research. The prominent place is given to language production settings
where the interaction is present.
In addition, psycholinguistic can be applied in medicine and in therapy for patients

with speech disorders. For example, the field of aphasiology (study of language
disorders) deals with language deficits that arise because of brain damage. Studies in
aphasiology can both offer advances in therapy for individuals suffering from aphasia,
and further insight into how the brain processes language.
This subfield of linguistics can also be useful to understand the phenomenon that the more languages
one knows, the easier it is to learn more.
Dear student, we have come to the end of this second unit, and I invite you to test your knowledge.
Please, verify what you have learned. Answer the questions of the second self-evaluation test.

Self- Evaluation 2
Give the answers the following:
Answer TRUE or FALSE according to the statement.
1.() Standard language is usually represented in oral communication.
2.() Dialects are said to be regional and social class variations of the same language.
3.() The deliberate change from one manner or style of speaking to another is called code
choice.
4.() The phenomenon of code switching can be observed in an oral communication of

less educated people.
5.() The difference in pronunciation constitutes the main distinguishing feature between
standard and non standard language.
6.() Accent may indicate the social status of speakers.
7.() Psycholinguistics studies the mental processes involved in comprehension,

production, and acquisition of language.
8.() Sociolinguistics does not have any practical applications in education.
9.() Slang represents non standard language.
10.() Sociolinguistics deals with the studies of language variations.
( See the answers at the end of this didactic guide)
THIS IS THE END OF UNIT TWO
The next unit to discuss is about the role of languages in the world.

59
UNIT 3. LANGUAGES in the CONTEMPORARY WORLD
Dear student, in this unit we are going to discuss the role of language in our life and language attitudes,
we will also look at the growth of English and why it is considered a lingua franca .Please start reading
the first section.
3.1. LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGES
It broaches an interesting topic for discussion- the role of languages and how people can communicate
with the speakers of the same and different languages. Please, first read your textbook and you will see
that this part of the chapter leads us to the next section about
3.2. ATTITUDES TO LANGUAGES
We cannot imagine our life without language. Can you think without
language? It would be quite difficult to shape our thoughts without the
knowledge of our language. Language helps us make sense of the world.
The structure of a language determines the way in which speakers of that
language view the world.
Source: h2ttps://www.google.com.ec/search?q=woman+i+sari+a
t+taj+mahal&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=8r9zUt6l
NomvsASsi4DwAw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#h
l=en&q=attitude&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=XoY9RN0
RGQSm1M%3A%3BnpC2GTIBxdveUM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%25
In addition, the language we speak helps us to identify ourselves as a part
of a certain culture. All of us have certain attitudes about our language
2Fcoachforyourdreams.com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%2
52F2012%252F08%252FAttitude-imageP.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%25
2F%252Fcoachforyourdreams.com%252F5-positive-attitude-tips-
and other languages. We might probably think that our native language
3%252F%3B1600%3B1600
is the best, and other languages are funny or simply different and not
important . It introduces us the notion of attitudes about languages.
Please read the corresponding section in your textbook .I think that expanding this topic would be
beneficial for you. I included complementary information for you to have a clearer picture of the topic. I
would like to start with an explanation of the term attitude.
Attitude : can be defined as a manner of acting, feeling, or

thinking that shows one`s disposition; opinion , or one`s
disposition, mental set, etc.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=woman+i+sari+at+taj+mahal&h
l=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=8r9zUt6lNomvsASsi4DwAw&ved=0CA
Here there is another definition of this term:
cQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=attitude&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii
=_&imgrc=XoY9RN0RGQSm1M%3A%3BnpC2GTIBxdveUM%3Bhttp%253A%252
F%252Fcoachforyourdreams.com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2012%
252F08%252FAttitude-imageP.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fcoachforyourdre
ams.com%252F5-positive-attitude-tips-3%252F%3B1600%3B1600 Attitudes are learned predispositions, not inherited, and are likely to be
relatively stable; they have a tendency to persist. However, attitudes are
affected by experience; thus, attitude change is an important notion in
bilingualism. Attitudes vary from favourability to unfavourability. Attitudes
are complex constructs; e.g. there may be both positive and negative
feelings attached to, e.g. a language situation (Baker 1988:112- 115).
Thus, attitude is something an individual has which defines or promotes certain behaviours. An attitude
is individual, but it has origins in collective behavior. We all have our own attitudes.

So, we can say that language attitudes are the feelings people have about their own language variety
or the languages or language varieties of others. We may consider some languages as insignificant
,because they are not in fashion , consequently, speaking some fashionable languages may give us
sense of belongingness to a higher social status.
What makes some languages become more fashionable and popular? Attitudes toward a language are
often the reflection of attitudes towards members of various ethnic groups (Fasold 1984: 148).
What is LANGUAGE ATTITUDE?
The opinions, ideas and prejudices that speakers have with respect to a language.
The feelings people have about their own language variety or languages or language varieties of
others.
In our choice to learn a certain language we can be influenced by our parents opinion, status of the
target language in the world or by the fact that speaking that particular language might give you a
better job opportunity.
Attitudes, like all aspects of the development of cognition and affect in human beings, develop early in
childhood and are the result of parents and peers attitudes, of contact with people who are different
in many ways, and of interacting affective factors in the human experience. These attitudes form a part
of ones perception of self, of others, and of the culture in which one is living.
As it was already mentioned above, we may have a positive or negative attitude toward language or
speakers of a particular language.
How to change our negative attitudes?
by exposure to reality, ( ex: to learn

by encounters with persons
more about the countries where
from other cultures. In this way
particular languages are spoken; in
we can change the stereotypes
this way we and replace some myths
we already had about certain
with an accurate understanding of
countries and the speakers of
the other culture as one that is
their languages)
different from ones own, yet to be
respected and valued).
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=woman+i+sari+at+taj+mahal&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=woman+i+sari+at+taj+mahal&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=8r9zUt6lNomvsAS
sa=X&ei=8r9zUt6lNomvsASsi4DwAw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=speakers+of+diffre
si4DwAw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=speakers+of+diffrent+cultures&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdiiimgrc=jlvIw799x
nt+cultures&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=1GWe9JrPIJTxyM%253A%3BWuM1kxKl9vCKJM%3Bhttp%25
4U_YM%3A%3BHXdE_-b4FjeoRM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fevents.nationalgeographic.com%252Fmedia%252Fimages%252Fphotos%252Fb
3A%252F%252Fphotos1.meetupstatic.com%252Fphotos%252Fevent%252F1%252F0%252Fc%252F4%252Feve
eckwithfisher-tp_jpg_610x343_crop_upscale_q85.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fevents.nationalgeographic.com%252Fevents%252Fspeakers-
nt_205384292.jpeg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.meetup.com%252FLanguageconnection%252Fevents%252
bureau%252Fculture-social-issues%252F%3B610%3B343
F111904712%252F%3B360%3B207

61
When studying language attitudes, the concept of motives is also very important. Two basic motives are
called instrumental and integrative motives.
If L2 acquisition is considered as instrumental, the knowledge in a language is considered as a passport

to prestige and success. (Ellis 1991:117).
On the other hand, if a learner wishes to identify with the target community; to learn the language and
the culture of the speakers of that language in order to perhaps be able to become a member of the
group, the motivation is called integrative. (Loveday 1982: 17-18).
Gardner & Lambert, for instance, have found out that where the L2 functions as a second language (i.e. it
is used widely in the society), instrumental motivation seems to be more effective. Moreover, motivation
derived from a sense of academic or communicative success is more likely to motivate one to speak a
foreign / second language (Ellis 1991: 118).
Dear student, try to describe your attitude toward English. What were the motives that urged
you to learn this language?
From what has been stated above we can come closer to the subject of our interest: the role of English
in the world and discover why this language has become one of the most spoken tongues today. So the
next topic to discuss is:
3.3. The languages of nations: boundaries and relationships
Please read the corresponding section in your textbook. I think it would be appropriate to complement
the information in this chapter by briefly presenting you the general picture of world languages. I offer
you the following information to better understand the relationships between languages.
The Relationships Between Languages
To start, I think it might be interesting for you to know the origin of languages and better understand
the evolutional phenomenon of languages because we know that human languages are constantly
changing due to mutual influence among them.
According to Ethnologue ( database on languages), in the contemporary world there exist 6.912 languages
in 228 countries. Languages may be highly related to each other, minimally related , or not related at all.
World languages are classified in groups called language families, according to their common origin. For
example, if you are a native Spanish speaker, you can somehow understand the Portuguese language, or
Italian. This is because these languages belong to the same language family.
Here is the definition of the term:
A LANGUAGE FAMILY is a group of languages derived

from the same ( parental ) language.

Distinct languages which can be traced back to a common source are said to be RELATED LANGUAGES.
Example:
Romance languages: French, Spanish, Italian ,Romanian, Portuguese, etc.
Germanic Languages: German, Norwegian, Swedish Dutch, Dane, English, etc.
Slavic languages: Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, Check, etc.
Throughout centuries, linguist have tried to find out and describe the differences and similarities
between languages.
The British linguist, Sir William Jones ( 1746- 1794) was the first person
to describe similarities among a number of languages. He proposed the
theory about the existence of a relationships among Indo-European
languages. He made an attempt to compare Sanskrit , Greek and Latin
languages ( in 1786).
According to his observations and investigations, classical Greek and

Latin apparently derived from the common original language- Sanskrit.
William Jones
Source: :::https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=William+Jones&hl=en&sou
rce=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=FtxzUrPIIMPIsATA34DgAw&ved=0CAcQ_AU
oAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=1cT6ah91Cx86xM%3
A%3BF57ojuSWnPuGfM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fupload.wikimedia.org
%252Fwikipedia%252Fcommons%252Ff%252Ff7%252FSir_William_Jones.
jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fen.wikipedia.org%252Fwiki%252FWilliam_
Jones_%28philologist%29%3B263%3B315
In Denmark, Rasmus Rask (1787-1832) was the first person to outline

some regularities in sound differences in certain languages to determine
the degree of relationship between those languages and to reconstruct
ancestral ( proto- ) languages (term used in Historical linguistics to refer
to languages that form a language family ).
Sometimes the proto-language is not known directly. In such cases, it

may be reconstructed by comparing different members of the language
family through the comparative method . Some of the very ancient
languages that could be reconstructed through comparison belong to
Rasmus Rask
Source: http://www.google.com.ec/imgres?imgurl=http://denmark.dk/en/~/
Proto Indo- European languages( common ancestor s of the modern
Indo-European languages).
media/Denmark/Images/Meet%2520the%2520danes/Great%2520Danes/
Rasmus_Rask290.jpg%3Fw%3D290%26h%3D390%26as%3D1&imgrefurl
=http://denmark.dk/en/me et-the-danes/great-danes/scientists/rasmus-
kristian-rask/&h=260&w=194&sz=1&tbnid=uWcCWrRs9ej7uM:&tbnh=160&
tbnw=119&zoom=1&usg=__aDSimA1sB-wMEGkQdlvqJHcsLqA=&docid=S
4m8M2FQR2bQjM&itg=1&hl=en&sa=X&ei=idtzUv-zPKy0sATYmYGgBQ&sqi
=2&ved=0CJ0BEPwdMBE
Comparative reconstruction can be done at any level ( grammar, vocabulary, phonology). See the
examples below. Can you find similarities between these two Germanic languages ? Read the following
examples:

63
English German
House Haus
Drink Trinken
Brother Bruder
Door Tur
Hand Hand
Come Kommen
winter Winter
night Nacht
dream Traum
milk Milch
mother Muter
And now observe similarities and differences between these examples taken from languages which
belong to different families.
English German Italian Spanish French

foot Fu piede pie pied
hand Hand mano mano main
me mich me me moi
father Fater padre padre padre
eye Auge occhi ojo yeux
man Man uomo hombre homme
All languages change over time. Historical Linguistics (and its branch, Comparative Linguistics ,
mentioned in unit 1) studies HOW languages change over time and the relationship among different
languages and WHAT has caused changes in different languages and the result of such changes on the
language itself and other associated languages.
Change is the part of the nature of language. What causes the language change?
If one group of speakers is separated from other speakers the subsequent changes in the language of
the two groups are often quite different.
Among some reasons of language change can be mentioned:
culture change
movement of people / migration ( trade, travel, war)
new religions, beliefs, values, behaviours.
language spread: Roman Empire colonized a large part of Europe ( it gave origin to Romance
languages ). The spread of British Empire ( XVII cent) gave new role of English language .Spread of
English as a symbol of wealth, progress, and social belongingness to a higher strata) .

geographical spread.
isolation ( Ex. Some languages remain pure as a result of isolation of its speakers, as in Pais Basco
in Spain)
borrowings influence of other languages(in English from Latin- during Roman Empire; in
Welsh from English; in Japanese from English; in Spanish
from English; in Russian- from French, English, German ; in Ukrainian from Russian, Polish, English,
etc..
The borrowings phenomenon is very common in many languages. We can easily find examples of
borrowing in our native language sometimes even without realizing that the words are borrowed from
other languages. Please, read the examples of the most frequently used borrowing in English. These
words came from:
French : recipe, route, camouflage, menu, boulevard
Italian: solo, piano, costume, paste, allegro, casino
Spanish: fiesta, taco, plaza, guitar, pronto, rodeo, mosquito
German: noodle, kindergarten, waltz
Dutch: yacht, cookie, waffle
Arabic: sofa, alcohol, mattress, algebra
Turkish: yogurt, tulip
Chinese: tea
Norwegian: sky, ski
Russian: sputnik, cosmonaut, samovar
Isn`t it surprising? Which words of the list above you did not consider as borrowings?
No language in the contemporary world is free of borrowings and dialect variations. Only a few languages
do not have dialects and variations.
Dear student, can you name all the most spoken languages in our contemporary world? They are:
Mandarin ( more than 1billion speakers)

English ( more than 570 million ),
Hindi ( more than 500 million),
Spanish ( more than 400million ),
Russian ( more than 300 million)
Some languages are becoming more and more used by majority of people. English is one of them. But
some languages are not in use anymore. There are different reasons for LANGUAGE DEATH. Please, read
your textbook for its explanation.

65
This phenomenon is a continuum. I would like to expand the content of this unit with the complementary
information about language death.
The following can be mentioned among the reasons for language death:
Social conditions. Some languages become unnecessary

anymore .This is the case of Pidgin languages.
Pidgin language is a simplified language that develops
as a means of communication between two or more
groups that do not have a language in common .
Pidgin is most commonly employed in situations such as
trade, or where both groups speak languages different
from the language of the country in which they reside
(but where there is no common language between the
Source:: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=chinese+people&hl=en&source
=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=ExZ0UpycIMG2sATTyICQBA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ& groups ; old Greek ; old Slavic (nowadays it is used in
churches only) , Latin in medicine and church only).
biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=orthodox+church+priest&tbm=isch&facrc=_&i
mgdii=_&imgrc=rbCE5I6SxslgDM%3A%3BGj1d0IWBIz7gUM%3Bhttp%253A%2
52F%252Fhomebrewedchristianity.com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252
F2010%252F11%252F2779212796_31987e32f01.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%2
52Fhomebrewedchristianity.com%252F2010%252F11%252F08%252Fthe-new-
orthodoxy%252F%3B333%3B500
Genocide ( killing of people) example: the

Tasmanian tribes.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=chinese+people&hl=en&source=ln
ms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=ExZ0UpycIMG2sATTyICQBA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1
334&bih=579#hl=en&q=Australian+aborigens&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&img
rc=LX4ResCkQX-83M%3A%3BWmBCYL3OFCyw4M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fw
ww.theprisma.co.uk%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2012%252F03%252Fi
ndigenas-australianos5.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.theprisma.co.uk%25
2F2012%252F03%252F25%252Faustralian-aborigines-against-uranium-mining%2
52F%3B461%3B305
Ethnocide (destroying a people s

culture ) : example, Australian
aborigines, North American Native
people, India, etc.
As a result of ETHNOCIDE new
tendencies to revive the culture and
language have appeared.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=north+american+ Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=chinese+people&hl=en&
native+people&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=Fjb9Us_HO6u- source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=ExZ0UpycIMG2sATTyICQBA&ved=0C
sQSuvYKwBA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=554#q=north+americ AcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=North+american+Indian&
an+indians&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=QeSZQq-Ba-QdwM%253 tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=o8XdSlrJqH-NOM%3A%3BW8y-qt-
A%3BWR8kjMls3KlpVM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F3.bp.blogspot.com%2 mC5c_YKM%3Bhttps%253A%252F%252Fsvcalt.mt.gov%252FPhotoGall
52F_6B8tPuW7TwQ%252FTPYedIEtzBI%252FAAAAAAAAS_I%252F3C7Y2zh ery%252F1%252FOther1%252FNorthAmericanIndianDays5.jpg%3Bhttp
hKoQ%252Fs1600%252Fnoaminphot.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fpre s%253A%252F%252Fsvcalt.mt.gov%252FPhotoGallery%252FPhotoInfo.
surfer.blogspot.com%252F2010%252F12%252Fcaptured-north-american- asp%253Fid%253D388%3B1400%3B953
indian.html%3B500%3B354
Languages are sometimes brought back from the death. Among them are these languages:
Cornish language ( one of the Celtic languages) in Southwestern England. An attempt was made
to reconstruct this language using old documents).
Welsh (Wales) in 1980 TV and radio started to broadcast programs in this language.
Irish Gaelic ( it had almost disappeared by the end of the XIX century. ) now it is the first official
language in Ireland. ( TV and radio broadcast in this language).
Modern Hebrew (1922) nowadays, it is now the official language of the Jews in Palestine.

In Hawaii several local languages were rescued from the death. There were implemented programs to
revive languages of South Seas Islands.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=chinese+people&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=ExZ0UpycIMG2sATTyICQBA&ved=0CA
cQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=Hawaian+dancers&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=mr_mYQPlLf1TxM%3A%3BUTtuOdpi3p46_M%
3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fhonuhawaiiactivities.com%252Fluaus%252Fimages%252Fvendor_images%252Froyal_hawaiian%252Fdancers_night_lg.
jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fcheese.formice.com%252Fforum%252Fthreads%252Fland-by-fylke-kontinenter-a-z.37438%252F%3B400%3B325
As you already know, languages influence each other. We may incorporate borrowings into our speech. In
our globalized world we more and more frequently use in our daily speech words from other languages.
As a result, more and more people are becoming bilingual.
When we mix two languages or more , we speak about the phenomenon of CODE SWITCHING ( remember
that this term was introduced in the second unit of our course!). In addition to the phenomenon of
deliberate change of the speaking style, this term can be also applied to alternation between two
different languages, dialects , or styles within one sentence or during conversation. It can be explained
by the fact that people use a particular language or dialect to announce their identity.( Brown, 2009).
Thus, two people may switch from the standard language to a dialect to express their friendship , and
from one language to another during the same conversation.
Now let us discuss how English grew in popularity.
3.4. THE GROWTH of ENGLISH
This topic is dedicated to the spread of English. In your textbook you can find a clear explanation about
the expansion of English. Please, read the corresponding chapter. I would like you to pay a close attention
to it.
I also include some additional information with the purpose to increase and deepen your knowledge
about the reasons for the growth of English language.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=chinese+people&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=ExZ0UpycIMG2sATTyICQBA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=
1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=Anglo-saxon+England+map&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=i7KjU4vlaVrLXM%3A%3BeElPB_dgThaPOM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%2
52Fwww2.washjeff.edu%252Fusers%252Fltroost%252Fbritish%252Fmap%252520of%252520Anglo-Saxon%252520England.gif%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.
washjeff.edu%252Fusers%252Fltroost%252Fbritish%252FMap%252520of%252520AS%252520England.html%3B595%3B636

67
Dear student , during your university studies the history of English may not have been presented. So
I considered it as enriching to present a very brief survey of the development of language which you
chose as your future profession. Please, read the information I offer you below.
Let us start with some history of England and its

language.
The territory of old England was invaded by the

Germanic tribes of the Angles, the Saxons, and The
Jutes- the V th century ( BC). England was inhabited
at those times by Celtic tribes. There was a variety
of Celtic languages Welsh, Cornish, Gaelic, and
Irish Gaelic. The language spoken by the Germanic
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=chinese+people&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=ExZ0Upyc
IMG2sATTyICQBA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=Anglo-saxon+invasion+map&tbm=isch&fac
tribes gave origin to Old English (V cent XI century).
rc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=VGM0kFGMR-V3mM%3A%3BIk7JRrgMXskMzM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fstudy.abingdon.
org.uk%252Fhistory%252Fmap.gif%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fstudy.abingdon.org.uk%252Fhistory%252F1st_unit2.
html%3B375%3B237
England and English is named for the Angles. The
Angles spoke Old English language.
After that, the British Isles were invaded by Romans.
The Romans stayed for nearly 400 years. Roman
invasion brought some changes into Old English. The
language was influenced by the Roman Empire soldiers
( the territory of what is now France, Belgium, part of
Germany). First texts were mostly religious texts.
Early borrowings from Latin now constitute lexical

items not only in Modern English but in other modern
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=Roman+soldiers&client=firefox-a&hs=RIO&rls=org.mozilla:es-ES:official&cha
nnel=fflb&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=yCN0UvKNHefasATV7IDIAw&ved=0CAkQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#facrc Germanic Languages.
=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=KLDC777Vg_vWcM%3A%3BlyYxyj4Iy3VSkM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.chilternarchaeology.co
m%252Fimages%252FRomanSoldiers.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.chilternarchaeology.com%252Froman_army.
htm%3B308%3B267
Ex: Latin: vinum caseus

English: wine cheese (c ch )
German: Wein Kase
The differences between the words in the modern languages are due to the fact that different sound
changes , changes in syntax and lexicon occurred in German and English (from the 5th century and on ).
Reason : the geographical separation and lack of intercommunication between the Anglo Saxons and
the Germanic people. Some borrowed words such as mass, creed, monk, bishop appeared in lexicon.
In the IX cent England was invaded by Danish Vikings ( their

language was similar to Old English ).
As a result, new borrowings , such as take , sky, they entered in the

lexicon.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=Roman+soldiers&client=firefox-
a&hs=RIO&rls=org.mozilla:es-ES:official&channel=fflb&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&e
i=yCN0UvKNHefasATV7IDIAw&ved=0CAkQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#channel=fflb
&q=vikings&rls=org.mozilla:es-ES%3Aofficial&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=6nk
2OMo-PUoqNM%3A%3BvkBEs40yYVQXlM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fcdn.realscreen.
com%252Fwp%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2012%252F12%252FVikings.jpg%
3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Frealscreen.com%252F201

In 1066 French speaking army from Normandy under the

leadership of William The Conqueror invaded the territory of British
isles. French became the official language.
Borrowed words were related to:
feudal society - castle, court, prince, baron, noble, dame,

servant.
crime, jury, prison, justice, equity, plaintiff,

law -
judge, advocate, attorney, petition, inquest,
William The Conqueror
felon, evidence, sue, accuse , arrest, blame.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=Roman+soldiers&client=firefox-a&hs=RIO&rls=org.mozilla:es-ES:official&channel=fflb&source=lnms
government - country, state, nation, govern, government,

&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=yCN0UvKNHefasATV7IDIAw&ved=0CAkQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#channel=fflb&q=william+the+conqueror&rls=org.mozilla:es-ES%3Aofficial&tb
m=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=Zqma9PSAghyLwM%3A%3BbvIFjCoce4M74M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fimperialkingdom.net%252Fpeople%252Fw%252Fwilliam-the-
conqueror%252Fimages%252Fwilliam-bw.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fimperialkingdom.net%252Fpeople%252Fw%252Fwilliam-the-conqueror%252F%3B515%3B661
administer, crown, state, empire, royal,

majesty, treaty, statute, parliament.
religion - angel, saint, religion, theology, sermon, confession, clergy, clergy, friar, crucifix, miter,
censer lectern, abbey, convent, creator, cardinal, savior, virgin, faith, heresy, schism,
solemn, divine, devout, preach, pray, adore, confess.
food - veal, beef, pork, mayonnaise, appetite, tart, sardine, venison, mutton, bacon, toast, cream,
sugar, salad, raisin, jelly.
literary: - story, rime, lay.
in general - messenger, feast, etc.
It was the period of Middle English XI XIV centuries.(1150 -1500).
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=Roman+soldiers&client=firefox-a&hs=RIO&rls=org.mozilla:es-ES:official&channel=fflb&source=l
nms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=yCN0UvKNHefasATV7IDIAw&ved=0CAkQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#channel=fflb&q=Bayeux+tapestry&rls=org.
mozilla:es-ES%3Aofficial&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=x68ubUPYKpKBiM%3A%3BX_wR1UZ0ZslvlM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fupload.
wikimedia.org%252Fwikipedia%252Fcommons%252F2%252F24%252FBayeux_Tapestry_4.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fcommons.wikimedia.
org%252Fwiki%252FFile%253ABayeux_Tapestry_4.jpg%3B1024%3B768
The factors responsible for changes in the lexicon of English during this period:
1. Intercommunication (communication among the monolingual English inhabitants and the

bilingual members of the ruling and merchant classes)
2. Prestige (one who used French words might hope to be identified with the upper classes ).
3. Necessity (farmers, merchants, servants, defendants in the court needed the language; university
students, the clergy., Necessity involved the borrowing of lexical items in social, political, and
economic, but not linguistic field)

69
Middle English replaced French and Latin in XIII

century and became the language of government
and education in the XIV century.
In the XV century England became independent

nation it was an end of Middle English era.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=anglo+saxons&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=ccR7Urr6LpOMkAe5sIH
IDA&sqi=2&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=middle+english+&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=ciGN
OzVK95w8zM%3A%3B85kydMvom3OQdM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.wordinfo.info%252Fwords%252Fimages%252FE
ng-hist-19A-Norm-scorn-Eng.gif%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwordinfo.info%252Funit%252F4207%252Fip%253A5%252Fil%253A
E%3B500%3B344
The era of MODERN ENGLISH began. (Ad 1500 to present). This period is also known as Renaissance , and
one of the most famous representatives in English literature was William Shakespeare.
As a result of Middle English borrowing from French and

Latin, Modern English has synonyms on three levels: popular
(English), literary (French), and learned (Latin).
Examples: rise--mount--ascend;
ask--question--interrogate;
fire--flame--conflagration;
holy--sacred--consecrated.
William Shakespeare
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=borrowings+into+middle+English&hl=en&source=lnms&
tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=H8x7Usb_CPfKsQSVnID4CA&ved=0CAkQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl=en&q=S
hackespeare&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=GNNHVjIvpr3KFM%3A%3Bfj8tkvdjQ9vmFM%3Bhttp
%253A%252F%252Fdanieltubau.com%252Fimages%252Fshakespeare-retrato.gif%3Bhttp%253A%252F
%252Fdanieltubau.com%252Fpaginas%252Ftodoelresto-shakespeare.html%3B402%3B399
Dear student,
You may learn about borrowing of that period in the following link: http://pages.towson.edu/
duncan/brmideng.html
The spread of English started with the global expansion of the British Empire. Nowadays English is
spoken either as a first language or as an official or second language in approximately 75 territories
(Crystal, 2003:108): in the British Isles, United States, Canada, the Caribbean, Australia, Africa, Asia, New
Zealand. Observe the map below; you can see the countries where English is the official language.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=map+english+speaking+countries&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=If57UpL7BsXokQeLtYDAAQ&sqi=2&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=AyOrS0s_2nM4JM%3A%
3B8d8193rkygZ1yM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fcnrsociety.org%252Fimages%252FEnglish-Official_Map-s.png%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fcnrsociety.org%252Fenglish.html%3B585%3B271

English is now an international resource. It dominates many global areas ranging from technology,
education, science, commerce, advertising, and music. Around two billion people are exposed to some
version of this language. It is spoken in more countries than any other language. In addition, English is
the official language of air traffic control, telecommunications, and of course, Internet. ( Pope, 2002)
Now that you are acquainted with the brief history of English, I invite you to read the corresponding
chapter in the textbook. It introduces the notion of English as a foreign language. I am sure that you heard
the terms English as a Native Language, English as a Foreign Language, and English as a Second Language.
I think it is necessary to explain the difference between these terms. This is of crucial importance for the
teaching of English, since the techniques and methodology should be applied to reach the learning
goals proposed by the teacher.
The spread of English around the world should be discussed in terms of three groups of users those who
speak English as :
ENG- a native language
ESL as a second language
EFL- as a foreign language ( Jenkins, 2009)
Dear student, try to give your own definition of the above terms.
And now let us see whether your definitions were similar to the following ones:
English as a native language is the language of people born and raised in one of the
countries where English is historically the first language to be spoken ( mainly The UK,
the USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand).
English is a foreign language in a community where another language ( mother tongue)

is spoken ( for example, Italian Spanish, Russian or any other language different from
English). English serves no special purpose within these countries.

71
English as a second language has special proposal in communities.
The term ESL is used frequently in the USA.
ESL refers to English language learning in countries where English is the main and / or
official language, and the students own native language (first language) is not English.
It can be used as the medium of instruction of the educational systems, used in regional
or national administration, in radio, TV, press media. In other words, it is the official
language or plays very important role. It is spoken in a large number of countries such
as India, Nigeria , Bangladesh, Malaysia which were once colonized by Britain.
( Jenkins, 2009)
The term second language can be equally applied with languages other than English: ex. French is a
second language in some countries in Africa , in Lebanon.( Kachru, 1992).
For example, English is foreign language in Korea, Russia, Brazil, China , etc and it is a second language in
Philippines, Fiji, Cyprus, etc. If you are interested I this topic, you may investigate more about countries
where English is EFL and ESL.
What is the difference in attitudes toward ESL and EFL? Why might it be necessary to distinguish between
them?
It has to do with the historical connection with Great Britain.
We need to know the function of English in society where environment is foreign or second language.
As I have already mentioned, these conditions affect the teaching and learning process, since the results
and success depend on learners prior familiarity with English. The teaching process should be based
accordingly.
There are some differences in teaching/learning of EFL and ESL. Observe the chart below.

foreign language ( EFL ) second language ( ESL)

learning in some points is like second learner needs the language for the use
language learning : material and methods within his/her own community,.
are designed to give a practical command
the second language is usually taught at
of the language.
the primary level of education
the difference consists in the purpose of
it is taught to adult immigrants.
language acquisition,
the medium of instruction of the
the foreign language learner needs it to be
educational systems.
able to establish contacts with a community
of speakers other than his/her own. It is used in regional or national
administration, in radio, TV, press media.
foreign languages are usually taught in the
secondary school.( It implies that foreign it is the official language or plays very
language teaching is addressed to an older important role.
age group. (It is spoken in a large number of countries such
Students of EFL may experience conflict as India, Nigeria , Bangladesh, Malaysia, which
between the foreign language learning and the were once colonized by Britain).
learning of other subjects
And some psychological factors like a students motivation, are involved in this process, and may affect
the result of learning. (Wilkins,1985).
Students of EFL may experience conflict between the foreign language learning and the learning of other
subjects. We need to consider many factors for selecting the appropriate methodology for teaching
English as a foreign or as a second language.
Dear student, try to establish the factors that should be taken into consideration when teaching
EFL and ESL.
You may learn more about ESL and EL in the following site:
http://ezinearticles.com/?The-Difference-Between-ESL-and-EFL,-Or-TESOL&id=1864315
Well, now we have to discuss how the fact of expanding English influenced the world communication
and what its consequences are. Let us start the next section.
3.5. ENGLISH AND ENGLISHES
Dear student, please first read the explanation in your textbook. It explains how the growth of English
language affects the attitude toward this language. Since English became a language of world
communication, it implies that not only native speakers use this tongue. You know that English is used
in many counties as a second language together with an already existing native language.
It is an inevitable fact that English might experience some changes and variations. The same phenomenon
happens with Spanish language. Do you speak Spanish the same way as people in other Spanish-
speaking counties, let us say, Argentina or Cuba, for example? Is your Spanish better than that spoken
in Spain? So what variant of Spanish should be considered the best or the correct?

73
Dear student, try to find differences between Ecuadorian Spanish and Spanish spoken in any
other country of Latin America or Spain ( at phonetic, vocabulary , and pronunciation level ).
So you see that it is not a simple matter to decide which English should be taught and which is
considered pure .
This phenomenon is due to the fact that English is spoken worldwide either as a foreign or second
language.
The questions come to mind: Which English should be taught and studied? Is there a global norm or
standard for English?
In our globalized world more and more speakers of English are not native speakers.
Such a widespread use causes significant effects on the language. The same word, may have different
meanings in different countries.
Dear student, I invite you to investigate this phenomenon and find examples of different
meanings of the same words in English.
In relation to this, arises the notion of standard English. Nowadays English language is spoken as a
mother tongue in many countries; consequently, its users are considered native speakers. But if we
closely analyze each variation we can find certain differences in pronunciation, in word meaning and
even in grammar structure. Which of these variations should be chosen and taught as a standard?
In unit 2 we analyzed the notion of standard language. So, you are already familiar with its meaning.
It can be said that social and political factors determine what is considered standard in the English
speaking world. ( Brown, 2009)
Some of the variations of English are mentioned in your textbook. Please, become familiar with them.
Dear student, investigate countries where English is spoken and how many varieties of this
language exist.
How many varieties of English could you find? American, Australian, Britishand ? Could you continue
the list? Which of these varieties is the "pure English?

As you can understand, it is quite difficult to identify the standards. In recent years linguists proposed
several definitions of standard English language.
Standard English can be considered:
a set of grammatical and lexical forms the dialect of educated people used in
which is typically used in speech and writing, teaching in schools and
writing by educated native speakers .It universities , TV and radio broadcasting.
includes the use of colloquial and slang
vocabulary (Trudgill, 1984). (Hughes and Trudgill, 1996).
the dialect of educated people used in

writing, teaching in schools and
universities , TV and radio broadcasting.
(Hughes and Trudgill, 1996).
the variety of the language that students language spoken in English-speaking

of EFL or ESL are taught when receiving country identified by its vocabulary,
formal instruction. The term standard grammar, orthography and which carries
English refers to grammar and most prestige and is most widely
vocabulary but not to pronunciation understood (Cristal, 1995, cited by
(accent). (Trudgill and Hannah, 2002). Jenkins, 2009:35).
From all above definitions you can understand that standard English does not belong exclusively to
any certain English- speaking country. It is language that is traditionally the medium of the upper and
especially professional middle class and is better understood by the users. It is not limited to a single
accent ( Jenkins, 2009).
In relation to this , the Indian linguist Braj Kachru (1988) describes the position of English in modern
world. In your textbook you can find a description of the three circles where English is used . For a better
comprehension of the subdivision of World Englishes, please , see the graphic below:

75
The EXPANDING CIRCLE

China, Egypt, Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Korea, Nepal, Saudi
Arabia, Taiwan, Russia and the republics of the former USSR,
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=saudi+people&source=lnms&tbm=i
sch&sa=X&ei=rzn-UpeEHOegsASClIDoDg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=55
Zimbabwe,
4#facrc=_&imgrc=-QNQoATsoJIM3M%253A%3B1Yd4coH7Ggs3BM%3Bhttp%253A
%252F%252Fwww.odt.co.nz%252Ffiles%252Ffeatured_gallery%252F2008%252F0
8%252Fjaber_abou_hassan_and_mohammed_alrashed_during_the_48996ea152.
JPG%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.odt.co.nz%252Fnews%252Fgalleries%252Fgalle
ry%252F16629%252Fsaudi-arabian-student-club-exhibition-opening%3B800%3B530
The OUTER CIRCLE

Bangladesh, Ghana, India , Kenya, Malaysia, Nigeria,
Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Tanzania,
Zambia
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=saudi+people&source=ln
ms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=rzn-UpeEHOegsASClIDoDg&ved=0CAcQ_AUo
AQ&biw=1334&bih=554#q=india+people&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=
_&imgrc=qTuvQ0a3TwUOyM%253A%3BnAw73GOZdW-wJM%3Bhttp%
253A%252F%252Fwww.topindiatravel.com%252Fimages%252Finner_
images%252Fwest-india-204-213%252Fbig%252FVillage-people-of-
West-India-213.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.topindiatravel.
com%252Fwestindiatour%252Fwest-india-cultural-tour.php%3B600%3B385
The INNER CIRCLE
USA, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New
ZealandUnited
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=saudi+people&source=lnms&tbm=isch
&sa=X&ei=rzn-UpeEHOegsASClIDoDg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=554#q=
caucasian+people&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=srQqoLYCoiKNNM%253A%3
BR2jmzvYP69G9eM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fus.123rf.com%252F400wm%252F40
0%252F400%252Fwilliam87%252Fwilliam871101%252Fwilliam87110100023%252F85
57395-caucasian-family-group-of-people.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.123rf.
com%252Fphoto_8557395_caucasian-family-group-of-people.html%3B1200%3B801
(Kachru, 1992:356, cited by Jenkins, 2009:19).
The English spoken in the INNER CIRCLE is said to be norm- providing, in OUTER CIRCLE norm
developing, and in EXPANDING CIRCLE norm dependant
( Jenkins, 2009).
The three-circle model of World Englishes proposed by Kachru, contributes significantly to the
understanding of the sociolinguistic realities of the spread of English.
But in recent years, some changes in the use of English could be observed. Some English users in the
Outer Circle speak it as their first language. And in the Expanding Circle English is used increasingly as
the medium of instruction in both schools and universities in many European and Asian countries . In
addition, in many countries could be observed the transition from EFL to ESL status( Argentina, Belgium,
Costa Rica, Denmark, Sudan, Switzerland, etc .( Jenkins, 2009).
It is a controversial matter to state which English variety is better- the one that is spoken by users of the
Inner Circle, or by those of the Expanding Circle .
To have it clearer which English variety is considered correct , the one spoken by native speakers or the
variety spoken by users of ESL or EFL, may help us the next topic:

3.6. NATIVE SPEAKERS
The next section of the textbook introduces the notion of native speaker. Please, read the explanations
and try to answer the question Who is a native speaker?
You may find the answer to this question in your textbook if you read it carefully.
In addition, the notion of native language has been already included in the explanations provided in this
guide under the title The Growth of English.
Native speakers are those born into the language (to

contrast it with the second language speakers those
who learned language through special education
(Jenkins, 2009:16).
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=english+language+in+the+world
&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=AB7QUor2I-W_sQSQsIL4Cw&ved=0CAcQ_
AUoAQ&biw=1366&bih=596#q=british+flag+in+computer&tbm=isch&fac
rc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=bM_L3vefD6VeKM%253A%3BnPLNoYzXittWXM%
3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Ft1.ftcdn.net%252Fjpg%252F00%252F02%252F Native speakers have traditionally enjoyed prestige as language
48%252F04%252F400_F_2480476_hkUVW2umf2QwJyqi6yLVWX3vJpCiaT.
jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.fotolia.com%252Fid%252F2480476%
3B400%3B394
teachers, since they were considered authentic representatives of
original cultural contexts (Kramsh,2001). It was based on some features
of pronunciation, grammar and lexicon.
Nowadays this statement is becoming more and more controversial. A native speaker may have limited
vocabulary and low grammatical competence while the reverse may be true of a non-native speaker.
The fact that English is someone`s second or foreign language does not necessarily imply that his/her
linguistic competence is less than that of a native speaker (Jenkins, 2009).
In addition, some other factors have to be contemplated - whether a person should be considered a
native speaker by birth, or by education, or by the fact of being recognized and accepted as a member of
a cultural group. You, my dear student, may investigate more about this topic and make your contribution
into this field !
3.7. ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA (ELF)
The spread of English as an international lingua franca
Dear student, this is the last subtopic of unit three. This section introduces the term lingua franca. Before
reading the additional information provided in this guide, please study the corresponding pages in your
textbook. When you finish reading you may complement your knowledge with the information below.
I would like to begin the explanation of the term LINGUA FRANCA with the quotation of Brumfit: Not
only has English become international in the last half century, but scholarship about English has also become
international. We are not longer a language community which is associated with a national community or
even with a family of nations such as the Commonwealth aspired to be. We are an international community
(Brumfit, 1995:16).
As you may know, about 80 per cent of English users in the world are non- native speakers. They cause
a great impact on the English language. Of this 80 per cent of non-native English speakers, the largest

77
group is composed by speakers who belong to the Expanding Circle . They use English as a Lingua Franca
(ELF).What is English as a Lingua Franca? How do you understand this term?
English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) is a way to refer to communication in English

between speakers who have different first languages. In other words, ELF is used to
facilitate communication among speakers of different languages.
ELF interaction can include native English speakers, but in most cases, it is a contact language between
people who share neither a common native tongue nor a common national culture, and for whom
English is an additional or foreign language.
Conceptually it is very different from English as a Foreign Language (EFL).
To make it clearer, let us observe the following chart:
EFL vs ELF
English as a Foreign language English as a Lingua Franca
Part of modern foreign languages Part of World Englishes
Code-mixing and switching are seen as Code-mixing and switching are seen as
interference errors bilingual resources
Metaphors of transfer/ Metaphors of Metaphors of contact / evolution
interference /
(Jenkins, 2006 )
Because of its colonial past, English was destined to become one of the world most used languages in
international business, trade, etc. With the increasing role of the United States as the leading economic
power of the XX century, English became more appealing to the majority of people. With these factors
can be explained the position of English language nowadays.
According to Crystal (2003) there are some more reasons for English becoming a Lingua Franca. The
following can be mentioned among them:
Historical reasons
Internal political reasons
External / Internal economic reasons
Practical reasons
Intellectual reasons
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=english+language+in+the+world&sour
ce=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=AB7QUor2I-W_sQSQsIL4Cw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=
1366&bih=596#q=graduation+ceremony&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=2wVaE Entertainment reasons
ndZhLtz9M%253A%3B82HQMAFGieWq8M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F1.bp.blogspot.
com%252F-_l96B2VW7-8%252FT3SK1MvUp0I%252FAAAAAAAAAt4%252Fyj6JKEYupD
c%252Fs640%252Fgraduation1.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fpedama.blogspot.com
%252F2012%252F03%252Fgraduation-ceremony-had-touch-of.html%3B460%3B309

ELF speakers create innovations in English making use of their

multilingual resources to produce their own preferred forms, for
example :
the use of 3rd person singular zero marking, e.g. she think
extension of which to serve functions previously served only
by who and vice versa, ex. the person which, the book who
shift in article use
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=english+language+in+the+world&sourc
e=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=AB7QUor2I-W_sQSQsIL4Cw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1
366&bih=596#q=rock+concert&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=67frSX9yyzS1uM use of invariant question tag, e.g. isnt it?
%253A%3BvW-rHgtl0xLPBM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fstatic8.depositphotos.com%
shift in preposition use, e.g. to discuss about

252F1178962%252F1020%252Fv%252F950%252Fdepositphotos_10201390-Rock-con-
cert.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fdepositphotos.com%252F10201390%252Fstock-
illustration-Rock-concert.html%3B950%3B949
countable use of uncountable nouns, e.g. informations,

advices, staffs ( Jenkins, 2006).
Dear students, I invite you to find out the details of each of the reasons mentioned above!
ROLE OF ENGLISH
As you can see, English nowadays became the leading language of international discourse and the lingua
franca in many regions. Its role and importance are increasing all over the world .
It can be said that English is a massively international resource and a system of social exchange.
It has a great impact on literature, film industry, performance (music) .
It is the language of technology, telecommunications, Microsoft.
It is used in international commerce, air traffic control, science and education, advertising and pop
culture in general.
The recent increase in the use of English, the fact that it has become a lingua franca for a rising number
of people should be one of the concerns of applied linguistics. Why? Because the new changes in
languages, as a result of English influence, should be registered and described .We may mention some
more very important factors- new ways of teaching should be designed taking into consideration the
variations in World Englishes and changing standards.
I invite you to check your understanding and verify your knowledge by answering the questions of the
third self evaluation test.

79
Self- Evaluation 3
Activity 1. Complete each definition with the correct term. Choose from the
following options:
pidgin language related language native language
foreign language second language language death
1. When languages share common source or origin, they are called ---------------.
2. When a certain language is not in use anymore, we refer to -------------------- .
3. English is a --------------- in a community where another tongue is spoken .
4. English as a ----------------- refers to language learning where it is the official means of communication
around the country and the students native language IS NOT English.
5. ------------------- refers to language used by speakers who have different first l languages.
Activity 2. Answer TRUE or FALSE according to the statement.
1.() Attitude is a manner of acting, feeling, and thinking that shows one`s disposition,
opinion, or mental set.
2.() Related Languages share a common source.
3.() Language changes can occur as a result of people`s migration.
4.() The linguistic phenomenon of Language Death can be caused by certain social
conditions, like genocide.
5.() The terms English as Second Language and English as Foreign language are synonymous.
(See the answers at the end of the didactic guide)
THIS IS THE END OF UNIT 3

UNIT 4. ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
4.1. Historical Development
Dear student, this chapter discusses different methodological

aspects. You may see that some of this information might be
included in the course of Methodology. But since this unit is the
part of our course Introduction to Applied Linguistics , I invite you to
first read attentively the corresponding pages in your textbook and
then complement your knowledge with the information enclosed
below. I hope that you will find it useful for your future professional
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=teacher+in+class&hl=en&source=lnm
s&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=9cJ3UvvlMpTnkAez14GIDw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334
&bih=579#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=8EEa-DkRoyRxjM%3A%3B1enH3sJE0AsBeM%3
experience. I tried to focus on the main points of each method and
Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fus.123rf.com%252F400wm%252F400%252F400%252Farti
sticco%252Fartisticco1208%252Fartisticco120800002%252F14676185-illustration-of-a- its most significant characteristics together with the classroom
teacher-in-front-of-the-class-pointing-to-blackboard-showing-back-to-school.jpg%3Bhtt
p%253A%252F%252Fwww.123rf.com%2
activities.
You should know that there are much more teaching methods than those described in your textbook.
But the methods described there represent the most significant tendencies in the foreign and second
language pedagogy.
I would like to start this unit with the definition of methodology and teaching.
To your mind, what does teaching mean? Teaching is guiding and facilitating learning, enabling the
learners to learn.
The need for instruction in other languages has led to a variety of educational methods and approaches
aimed at fostering foreign language learning.
What is learning ? What is teaching ? How do they interact?
Learning refers to acquiring or getting of knowledge of a subject or a skill by study, experience, or

instruction.
Similarly, teaching, may be defined as showing or helping someone to learn how to do something,
giving instructions, guiding in the study of something, providing with knowledge, causing to know or
understand.
Learning is acquisition or getting and retention of information or skills.
Learning involves active, conscious focus on and acting upon events outside or inside the organism. It
is relatively permanent but subject to forgetting and involves some form of practice, perhaps reinforced
practice. It can be considered as a change in behaviour.
Teaching cannot be defined apart from learning. Nathan Gage (1964:269) noted that to satisfy the
practical demands of education, theories of learning must be stood on their head, so as to yield theories
of teaching .
Your understanding of how the learner learns will determine your philosophy of education, your teaching
style, your approach, methods, and classroom techniques.
One of the major interests of applied linguistic scholarship for the last half a century has been the foreign
or second language teaching.

81
A glance through the past century or so of language teaching gives us an interesting picture of how
varied the interpretations have been of the best way to teach a foreign language. We could observe
the appearance and declination of a great number of teaching methods. Teaching methods are the
application of theoretical findings and positions.
The notion of teaching methods has had a long history in language teaching. Some of the methods
became the leading teaching methods of the 1970s in many parts of the world. Other methods attract
little attention nowadays. Many teachers have found the notion of methods attractive over the last one
hundred or so years, since they offer apparently reliable systems for classroom instruction and are hence
sometimes embraced enthusiastically as a panacea for the language teaching problem. The 1970s and
1980s were perhaps the years of greatest enthusiasm for new teaching methods.
Dear student, in addition to the description of some methods in your textbook, I believe it would be of
some help to increase the information about teaching methodology.
4.2. THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD
The chapter starts with the Grammar Translation Method. In

the textbook you may find its general description. I decided to
complement it with the following additional information. I hope
that it will give you a clearer picture about the first teaching
method.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=teacher+in+class&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm
=isch&sa=X&ei=9cJ3UvvlMpTnkAez14GIDw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1334&bih=579#hl
=en&q=books&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=2i-cYqRFnU5-RM%3A%3BBNDh6W
AE_bp5hM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fmarketmybook.in%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads
%252F2013%252F05%252FLibrary-Books.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fmarketmybook.
in%252F%3B1698%3B1131
Why Grammar Translation?
For centuries, there were few if any theoretical foundations of language learning upon which to base
teaching methodology In the Western world. The main foreign language learned in schools were
Latin or Greek. As it is stated in your textbook, Latin was until relatively recently indispensable to an
adequate higher education. It was taught by means of what has been called the Classical Method: the
focus on grammatical rules, memorization of vocabulary and of various declensions and conjugations,
translations of texts, doing written exercises.
With time there was a need to learn other European languages educational institutions in the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries, the Classical Method was adopted as the only means for teaching foreign
languages. Little thought was given at the time to teaching someone how to speak the language; after
all, languages were taught for gaining a reading proficiency in a foreign language.
Dear student, you already know that the Grammar Translation method was originally based
on translation of classical texts.
If you have to use this method in your class what kind of reading would you suggest to your
students in order to make your class interesting and engaging ?

In the nineteenth century the Classical Method came to be

known as the Grammar Translation Method. The focus was on
grammatical rules as the basis for translating from the foreign to
the native language.
To learn language in order

GOAL to read the target language
literature.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=bored+student,+many+books&source=lnms&t
bm=isch&sa=X&ei=MWDQUtCeLKbQsATKzIGADA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1366&bih=596
#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=CK9SizLvbj8H9M%253A%3BAkPvLLv08KOnOM%3Bhttp%253A%2
52F%252Flivinglondonbynumbers.files.wordpress.com%252F2012%252F11%252Fbored_stu-
dent_by_woodsman819.png%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Flivinglondonbynumbers.wordpress.
com%252F%3B1280%3B930
Here are the main characteristics of this method:
1. Detailed analysis of grammar rules followed by application of this knowledge to the task of
translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language.
2. Reading and writing are the major focus ( little attention to speaking / listening) . Reading of
difficult classical texts is begun at an early stage of studying.
3. Vocabulary is based on reading texts used ( words are taught through bilingual isolated word
lists.
4. Much of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of the target language.
5. Accuracy is emphasizedstudents are expected to attain high standards in translation.
6. Grammar is taught deductively - by presentation and study of grammar rules, which are
practiced through translation exercises.
7. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
8. Class is taught in the students mother tongue. The native language is used to explain new items
and make a comparison between the foreign language and the students mother tongue.
NEGATIVE POINTS
It may create a sense of frustration for

students because of tedious experience
of memorizing rules and isolated
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?biw=1366&bih=596&noj=
vocabulary and endless exercises for
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?biw=1366&bih=596&noj
=1&tbm=isch&sa=1&q=thumb+down&oq=thumb+down&gs_l=img 1&tbm=isch&sa=1&q=tired+student&oq=tired+student&gs_l=img.3..0
.3..0l2.14641.17923.0.18241.10.8.0.2.2.0.185.1253.0j8.8.0....0...1c.1.32. .168911.175288.0.175674.15.15.0.0.0.0.237.2278.4j7j4.15.0....0...1c.1.32.
translation.
img..1.9.1076.78xnvEzFEeQ#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=jjPLev6xOmW img..6.9.1442.VCisBKWKtR8#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=uBBZ7D4J_Nk
AnM%253A%3BbeS_BbRPwEGn7M%3Bhttps%253A%252F%252Flh6. iLM%253A%3BXJ8PWkQqVHRCmM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F1.
googleusercontent.com%252FD5a1SMdHe13GPptMot6YRxObgetv bp.blogspot.com%252F_15AqvVLnsss%252FTITKlC5yREI%252FAAAAA
Ee_LsU2JFvKY1mXYAUeCoUD5KYI-blB2kdVmkUCi9zRvuyFSVX5I2Ti- AAAAAs%252Fh5AkhRvAIGM%252Fs1600%252F387.jpg%3Bhttp%253
00zwnb8eAQqXuoB5rnNsyjxYKSAvSeCI%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252
Fga-teapartychief.blogspot.com%252F2011%252F12%252Fsynthes
It makes few demands on teachers. A%252F%252Fforfriendz11cs.blogspot.com%252F%3B400%3B298
is-12-29-11-first-primary-primer.html%3B450%3B436
It is a method for which there is no

theory how to teach.
There is no literature that offers a
rationale or justification for it or
that attempts to relate it to issues of
linguistics, psychology or educational
theory.

83
POSITIVE POINTS
It is useful in the situations where understanding literally texts is the

primary focus of foreign language study .
It may be applied when there is little need for a speaking knowledge
of the language.
No specialized training and skills on the part of teachers. Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=happy+face&tbm=isch&
imgil=g_QCiNtrbRc2AM%253A%253Bhttps%253A%252F%252Fencryp
No special material for teaching.

ted-tbn2.gstatic.com%252Fimages%253Fq%253Dtbn%253AANd9GcTu
CINrPGB-nd6QGRcOd3jljDzAAIGUSQwx34q2GzHzfJJzB7IB%253B648%
253B557%253BCO2e_rr4aY9EZM%253Bhttp%25253A%25252F%25252
Fwww.goypaz.com%25252Fser-positivo-no-es-la-solucion%25252Fok-
Tests of grammar rules and of translations are easy to construct and happy-face_full%25252F&source=iu&usg=__0pOj7h7B13fL-4zBc7
gqxRhc3HM%3D&sa=X&ei=WMkEU6TYFsm5kQe7z4CABQ&ved=0
CC8Q9QEwAA&biw=1318&bih=554#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=g_
can be objectively scored. QCiNtrbRc2AM%253A%3BCO2e_rr4aY9EZM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%2
52Fwww.goypaz.com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2013%25
2F06%252FOK-happy-face_full.jpeg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.
It is successful in leading a student toward a reading knowledge of goypaz.com%252Fser-positivo-no-es-la-solucion%252Fok-happy-

face_full%252F%3B648%3B557
a second language.
The Grammar - translation method was also called the traditional method.
This does not mean that it is the oldest method. It has been extensively
used. The term
traditional probably relates to the fact that this method is a nearly perfect
reflection
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=pile+of+books&s
ource=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=KWLQUvTQA-qssQSp7YD4Cw
&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1366&bih=596#q=students+readin
g&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=-s4MmSJJBU3QUM%25
of the way Latin and Greek have been taught for centuries. The reason why
3A%3BIK3kjlTIRODVCM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fagapeleade
rs.com%252Fdocuments%252Freadingms.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%2 modern
52F%252Fagapeleaders.com%252FReading--and--Writing-Club.
php%3B361%3B259
languages were taught in the same way as the classical languages was
partly that in the competition between the two it had to be made clear
that the educational value of the modern languages was at least equal to
that of the classics.
The next method to be discussed is:
4.3. DIRECT METHOD
Dear student, please, read first the explanations of the textbook

and then complement the information with the description of
this method enclosed in this guide. I tried to provide you with
the main characteristics of the Direct method, emphasizing on
how this method can be applied in practice.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=teacher+explaining+to+kids&source=lnms&tbm=isc
h&sa=X&ei=z03UUqXmHNC1sAS6r4CwDA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1366&bih=576#q=++mail+
teacher+explaining+to+kids&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=4XMuEpBUJfB7xM%253A%3BL
17GCOJe8dv70M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fgraphics8.nytimes.com%252Fimages%252F2011%2
52F04%252F18%252Fopinion%252Ffixes_mighton%252Ffixes_mighton-blog427.jpg%3Bhttp%25
3A%252F%252Fopinionator.blogs.nytimes.com%252F2011%252F04%252F18%252Fa- tter-way-to-
teach-math%252F%3B427%3B279

As you already know from your textbook, this

method belongs to the so called naturalistic
methods , simulating the natural way in which
children learn first language.
The basic point of the Direct Method ( its founder

was German linguist Charles Berlitz, 1880) was that
second language learning should be more like
first language learninglots of oral interaction,
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=teacher+explaining+to+kids&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=z03UUqXmH
NC1sAS6r4CwDA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1366&bih=576#q=father+and+baby&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=8L_
spontaneous use of the language, no translation
OViHahZCboM%253A%3BwPFwkNZH-72cmM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.pueblounitedway.org%252FWho%25252520We%25
252520Help%252Fimages%252Fdad%25252520%252526%25252520baby.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.pueblounitedway.or
g%252FWho%252520We%252520Help%252Fsuccessstories.htm%3B600%3B400
between first and second languages, and little or
no analysis of grammatical rules.(Richards and
Rodgers (1986:9-10).
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=teacher+explaining+to+kids&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=z03UUqXmHNC1sAS6
r4CwDA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1366&bih=576#q=greeting+each+other&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=ic0bKF9wbGug_
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=teacher+explaining+to+kids&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=z03UUqXmHNC1s M%253A%3BYbATedTuTljpfM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.picturesof.net%252F_images_300%252FA_Car toon_Two_Men_Gree-
AS6r4CwDA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1366&bih=576#q=man+bowing+to+woman&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=spQu4 ting_Each_Other_Royalty_Free_Clipart_Picture_100509-137662-343053.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.picturesof.net%252Fpage
5-8DZIPWM%253A%3BqHRZGCOBkRtC9M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F1.bp.blogspot.com%252F-phAJoY68wzE%252FTZx4uOgc_ s%252F100509-137662-343053.html%3B300%3B186
dI%252FAAAAAAAAABc%252FT8-f9frIoiI%252Fs1600%252Fimage%25252B1.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwritingfortheweb-tasha.
blogspot.com%252F%3B400%3B361
Characteristics of the Direct Method
Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language.

Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression organized
around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small,
intensive classes.
Grammar was taught inductively.
New teaching points were taught through modeling and practice.
Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract
vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.
Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.
Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.

85
Limitations of the Direct Method
1. The Direct Method required teachers who are native speakers or

who have native-like fluency in the target language.
2. It is dependent on the teachers skills, rather on the textbook.
3. Problems with following strict D. M. techniques
4. It is counterproductive ( long teacher explanation in order to avoid
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=teacher+explaining+
to+kids&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=z03UUqXmHNC1sAS6r4 using the native language )
CwDA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1366&bih=576#q=boy+scratchin
g+head&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=ncLvJHkU0lnYqM%25
3A%3BLyl6D4_EYUy6rM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F2.bp.blogspot.
com%252F_snss6u0-WRI%252FTB6n8r0nqkI%252FAAAAAAAADV8%
5. It is difficult to apply in public secondary school education.
252Fs99cZe5WEQA%252Fs1600%252Fhead_scratch.png%3Bhttp%2
53A%252F%252Fzenoferox.blogspot.com%252F2010_06_01_archive.
html%3B281%3B456
Within the limitations of The Direct Method could be mentioned facts as classroom size( in public
schools), time, and teacher background . Moreover, the Direct Method was criticized for its weak
theoretical foundations. Its success may have been more a factor of the skill and personality of the
teacher than of the methodology itself.
POSITIVE POINTS
I would also like to mention some positive points of this method. Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=man+carrying+books&so
urce=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=3vXTUou8LbPNsQSNqoLACA&ved=0CA
cQ_AUoAQ&biw=1366&bih=596#q=thumb+up&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=
_&imgrc=zgstjXDNp3c1PM%253A%3BsE-Ttniy1j2MdM%3Bhttp%253A%252F
%252Fwww.natreview.com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2010%252
F10%252Fthumbs_up_bciy.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.natreview.
com%252F2013%252F07%252F29%252Fhair-products-thumbs-upthumbs-
down%252F%3B622%3B537
High motivation (Native- speaking teachers are a good speaking model)

Focus on conversational skills (students start speaking from the very first class).
The Direct Method enjoyed considerable popularity at the beginning of the twentieth century.
It was most widely accepted in private language schools where students were highly motivated and
where native-speaking teachers could be employed.
By the end of the first quarter of the twentieth century, the use of the Direct Method had declined both
in Europe and in the US. Most language curricula returned to the Grammar - Translation Method or to a
reading approach that emphasized reading skills in foreign languages. But it is interesting that by the
middle of the twentieth century the Direct Method was revived.
Dear students, how would you use this method in your class? What topic would you choose
and what visual material would you bring to class?
The next section of your textbook introduces so called natural methods of language learning. Please,
read the explanations offered there.

Dear student, I would like to complement the textbook explanation about the Natural approaches to
teaching with some additional information .I consider it interesting and useful for you. So please take
your time to read about:
4.4. THE NATURAL APPROACH
When we speak about The Natural approach , we need to speak about

Stephen Krashen.
Stephen Krashen is a Linguist at the University of Southern California. To

better understand the nature of this approach, I would like to cite his own
words : Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious
grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill. Acquisition requires
meaningful interaction in the target language natural communication -
Stephen Krashen
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=stephen+krashen&source=lnm
s&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=UGLUUpGeCYTSkQfb0oDYDw&sqi=2&ved=0CAcQ_AU
in which speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but
oAQ&biw=1366&bih=576#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=2rjsfRMyJd0BKM%253A
%3Blao5rzAoCnaXWM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fellkinderkids.wikispaces.
com%252Ffile%252Fview%252Fkrashen.jpg%252F146778615%252F249x252
with the messages they are conveying and understanding. (1982, 19).
%252Fkrashen.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fellkinderkids.wikispaces.com%
252FAll%252BAbout%252BKrashen%3B164%3B164
His views about teaching methodology were manifested in the Natural Approach, developed by one of
Krashens colleagues, Tracy Terrell (Krashen & Terrell 1983).
I invite you to get acquainted with the description of this approach in your textbook. Then continue
reading the following complement information I included in this guide.
As you already know, the main point of this approach constituted the idea that learner would benefit from
delaying production until speechemerges,that learners should be as relaxed as possible in the classroom,
and that a great deal of communication and acquisition should take place. It is a communicative
approach. It means that the main emphasis is made on development of the communicative competency.
According to Krashen, language is viewed as a vehicle for communicating meaning and message. The
learning process depends on the goals established for the purpose to achieve effective communication.
Goals are subdivided in long-term and short- term.
Long term goals refer to the final result ,what is expected to achieve at the end of learning process
( fluent communication in target language). Whereas, short term goals are aimed at achieving very
specific result during a class period ( application of a certain grammar structure, or pronunciation rules,
etc.).
There are a number of possible long - term goals of language instruction. In some cases second languages
are learned for oral communication; in other cases for written communication; and in others there may
be an academic emphasis on, say, listening to lectures, speaking in a classroom context, or writing a
research paper.
The Natural Approach was aimed at the goal of basic personal communication skills, that is, everyday
language situationsconversations, shopping, listening to the radio, and the like.

87
GOAL of Natural Approach
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search
?q=books&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&
ei=k2XUUsjOMqewsQTVl4CwDQ&ved=0CA
cQ_AUoAQ&biw=1366&bih=576#facrc=_&i
mgdii=_&imgrc=V4tQUOPkFwryNM%253A
To achieve basic personal communication skills: oral ( listening to public
%3BxvYoFIB_9fiaZM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%
252Fchatwithsharon.com%252Fwp-content
%252Fuploads%252F2011%252F04%252Fb
announcements)
ook_twocolor.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%2
52Fchatwithsharon.com%252F%253Fpage_
id%253D35%3B494%3B684 To achieve basic personal communication skills : written language (reading
and writing)
To develop academic learning skills: oral ( listening to a lecture ) and written
( taking notes in class)
Help beginners become intermediates
Specific objectives depend on learners needs and the skill (reading, writing,
listening , and speaking )
Develop basic communication skills , both oral and written, in every day
situations.
In this method, learners are not required to say anything during

the so called silent period ( time necessary for learners to process
and achieve some basic knowledge about the target language)
until they feel ready to do so. This is constitute the basis of this
method child language acquisition. The child listens first to what
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=books&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=k2
it is said , understands the message but he or she is still unable to
produce oral response. The speech is delayed until the child gets
XUUsjOMqewsQTVl4CwDQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1366&bih=576#q=c0nversation&tb
m=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=fx4jvplkUBeU0M%253A%3BNCLoesDqanN3wM%3Bhttp
%253A%252F%252Fenglishinteractive.net%252Ftalking.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fen
glishinteractive.net%252Ftutor.htm%3B1987%3B1041
enough knowledge of the language.
So as you can see, the same principle was adopted in the design of this method. The teacher was the source
of the learners input and the creator of an interesting and stimulating variety of classroom activities -
commands, games, skits, and small - group work.( as parents child communication ). Students started
to speak when they felt to be ready for oral communication.
We can summarize that in the Natural Approach, learners move through what Krashen and Terrell defined
as three stages:
(a) The preproduction stage:
It is the development of listening comprehension skills.

response to physical commands , pointing at something, etc.
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=books&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=k2XUUsjOMqewsQ
TVl4CwDQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1366&bih=576#q=children+pointing+at&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=
_&imgrc=yiU_g4nvQb489M%253A%3Bjf1j8rMWXD4AJM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fbrainmind.com%252F
images%252FChildrenCountingFingers.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fbrainmind.com%252FParietalLobes.
html%3B425%3B337

(b) The early production stage:
It is usually marked with errors as the student struggles with the language. The teacher focuses on
meaning here, not on form, and therefore the teacher does not make a point of correcting errors during
this stage (unless they are errors that block or hinder meaning entirely).
Students may utter single words, ask and answer simple questions and say short phrases.
(c) Speech emergent stage :
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=teacher+in+class&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=Px0FU6
TmHuehsATh8oGgBg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1318&bih=554#q=teacher+and+students&tbm=isch&fac
Students are able to perform role- plays, games, exchange
of opinions, group problem solving use open-ended
rc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=iCinsfFCz-cQPM%253A%3BK6pzbnaPMeUerM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fcecblog.
typepad.com%252F.a%252F6a00d83452098b69e2019b02a397f4970c-pi%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.
policyinsider.org%252F2013%252F12%252F%3B948%3B632
dialogues, discussions, and extended small-group work.
Since the objective in this stage is to promote fluency;

teachers are asked to be very sparse in their correction of
errors.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=teacher+in+class&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=P
x0FU6TmHuehsATh8oGgBg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1318&bih=554#q=boy+holding+puppet+&tb
m=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=V_W5Ui1ghThH_M%253A%3By5wARQIKCgDC0M%3Bhttp%253A%
252F%252F2.bp.blogspot.com%252F-ly66VVW3qHY%252FTXKzE8lG1EI%252FAAAAAAAADo0%252Ft-
o5xSiWSd0%252Fs400%252FP1100142.JPG%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fupdatefromthecoenens.blogspot.
com%252F2011%252F03%252Fpeople-puppets-by-aaron-connor.html%3B400%3B300
Language learning is an active process, and therefore an over reliance on the role of input at the
expense of the stimulation of output could thwart the second language acquisition process.
The most controversial aspects of the Natural Approach were its silent perod (delay of oral production)
and its emphasis on comprehensible input. The delay of oral production until speech emerges has
shortcomings (Gibbons, 1985). What about the student whose speech never emerges? And with all
students at different timetables for this so-called emergence, how does the teacher manage a classroom
efficiently?
The Natural Approach places no emphasis on teacher monologues, direct repetition, and formal
questions and answers; less focus on accuracy .
Natural Approach also emphasizes:
Exposure to target language , rather than practice

of its forms
Comprehension
Informal settings
affection and emotional preparedness for
learning Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=teacher+in+class&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=
Px0FU6TmHuehsATh8oGgBg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1318&bih=554#q=students+rising+hands+
prolonged period of attention before language

in+class&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=i1x356Nj81StjM%253A%3B0rW-_15NBoY1gM%3Bhtt
p%253A%252F%252Fhardik.practutor.com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2013%252F12%2
52FElementary-school-students-raising-hands-in-classroom..jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fhardik.
production practutor.com%252Findex.php%252Ftag%252Fstudent-assessment%252F%3B1000%3B667

89
TEACHER`S ROLE
In this method teacher :

generates a constant flow of language input
creates an interesting, engaging and friendly atmosphere
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=teacher+with+pointer&source
=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=-yMFU4- zCMnEsASl7YHIDg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoA
Q&biw=1318&bih=554#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=LdAgZAFl-lD3gM%253A% provides a low affective filter (no error correcting, subjects
of high interest) .
3BSCt5RU80EQBuWM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F3.bp.blogspot.com%252F-
xr6HtH2huj0%252FTdxM_j-U3JI%252FAAAAAAAAM9A%252FK001rIdrHdg%25
2Fs1600%252Fteacher-with-pointer.gif%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fbonniesb
ooks.blogspot.com%252F2011_05_01_archive.html%3B499%3B311
STUDENTS ROLE
Learner decides when to speak , what to speak about, what linguistic

expressions to use in speaking.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=students+in+class&source=lnms&tbm=is
ch&sa=X&ei=QGUHU9quHujPsAS7yYDQCw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1318&bih=554#
q=children++in+class&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=nz3BjRpWmnHflM%253A%
3Bs6DBm2HLhYCXcM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fstockfresh.com%252Ffiles%252Fn%
252Fnyul%252Fm%252F11%252F2931_stock-photo-school-children-and-teacher-in-art-
class.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fstockfresh.com%252Fimage%252F2931%252Fsch
ool-children-and-teacher-in-art-class%3B400%3B267
ROLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
Goal: make class activities meaningful, relate them to the real world, foster communication among
learners.
The use of realia : pictures, visual aids, schedules, advertisements, maps, books, etc.
Dear students, think what activities you would use during each of the stages of the NA:
Pre- production stage:
Early production stage:
Speech emergent stage:
Now let us continue with the next method.
The next teaching method to discuss :

4.5. THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
Dear student, please, read the corresponding pages of

your textbook. You will get acquainted with the essential
aspects of this method which resulted to be impacting and
influencing for the field of language teaching. You will also
see the reason for emphasis on communication skills.
Since this method had long lasting effects on all the

Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=speaking&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=oGgHU
subsequent language teaching methodology, I decided to 4noB8zNsQS87IKoAw&ved=0CAkQ_AUoAQ&biw=1318&bih=554#q=+dialogue&tbm=isch&facrc=
_&imgdii=_&imgrc=tlw4TEBZgIBPyM%253A%3BIWWTrqIRuTSo7M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fw
ww.book-in-a-week.com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2010%252F11%252Fdialogue-tags.
complement and expand the textbookinformation with bmp%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.book-in-a-week.com%252F2010%252F11%252Fhe-said-she-
said%252F%3B286%3B286
some additional points enclosed below.
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
This approach to foreign language teaching appeared in

British pedagogy in the late 1960`s. Communicative Language
Teaching was a radical departure from PPP type
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=woman+shouting+at+husband&
source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=Im4HU6enKJCvsQSA44C4Dw&ved=0CAcQ_
AUoAQ&biw=1318&bih=554#q=woman+shouting+at+husband+cartoon&tbm=isch&facrc=_
( Presentation, Practice, Production ) lessons which had tended to
&imgdii=AH232M-AeFYBcM%3A%3BKnEbFcGL-mgLhM%3BAH232M-AeFYBcM%3A&imgrc=A-
H232M-AeFYBcM%253A%3Bkl7Z-b601roiqM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F3.bp.blogspot. dominate language teaching.
com%252F-UUlye-gSWZg%252FToRrnoESqLI%252FAAAAAAAAExM%252Fe6kXIfj6Suk
%252Fs1600%252F442253-Cartoon-Woman-Chasing-Her-Husband-With-A-Rolling-Pin.
jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Frobert.foo.my%252F2011_10_01_archive.html%3B450%3B259
According to Dell Hymes (1972), this approach starts from a theory of a language as communication. The
goal is to develop communicative competence.
As you know, language is a system for the expression of meaning .The primary function of language is
to allow interaction and communication. So, learners within this method are the center of attention. It is
a learner centered approach . It means that teacher fosters the students initiative for communication .
Communicative Language teaching has two main points :
1. Language is not just bits of grammar , it also involves language functions ( discourse elements:
inviting, agreeing, suggestions, etc. ) which students should learn how to use .
2. If students get enough exposure to language and have opportunities to use it and if they are
motivated, then language learning will be successful.
Within the main elements of this approach the following principles can be emphasized:
activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote
Task principle
learning.
Meaningful
principle language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process.
Communication activities that involve real communication promote learning .

principle

91
Communicative language Teaching has had a beneficial effect since it made teachers realize that people
learn languages not only to `know `them, but to be able to communicate.
Giving students different kinds of language, pointing them to aspects of style and appropriacy, and
above all giving them opportunities to try out real language within the classroom gave a new turn to
teaching. Teachers are looking to learners as partners in cooperative venture.
Characteristics as a description of CLT:
1. It is a learner centered approach.

2. Learning a language through using it to communicate.
3. Authentic and meaningful communication is the goal
of classroom activities.
4. Fluency is given priority.
5. Integration of all language skills.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=http://images.google.com.ec/ 6. Communication is a creative process that involves trial
imgres%3Fimgurl%3Dhttp://www.haas.berkeley.edu/responsiblebusiness/images/IMG_4531_
WP.JPG%26imgrefurl%3Dhttp://www.haas.berkeley.edu/responsiblebusiness/undergraduatecour
ces.&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=338HU-eaDtHJsQSYhIHoBw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1
and error.
318&bih=554#q=in+class&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=d-sON3bGjFSCTM%253A%3Bs9t7
(Brown 2000, Richard-Amato 1996, Lee Van Patten

Nphtauw7bM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F1.bp.blogspot.com%252F-u-q4VtrJq7w%252FTNSXJVg
carI%252FAAAAAAAABpA%252FpKlFyNng4jc%252Fs1600%252Fstudents%252Bin%252Bclass.jpg
%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fspanishandillinois.blogspot.com%252F2012%252F04%252Fwhat-do-
your-spanish-community-service.html%3B1157%3B768
1995,Nunan,1991) .
Dear student, please read about classroom activities that can be used in this method.
Classroom activities:
Class activities are unlimited. All the activities should engage

learners in communication to achieve communicative objectives
of the curriculum, and require the use of such communicative
processes as information sharing, negotiation of meaning, and Source_: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=children+in+class&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=
interaction.
X&ei=uFkLU7bCJpDKsQTOkYCoCA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1318&bih=554#q=children+arou
nd+the+table+in+class&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=fdeXwTI1H-PGwM%253A%3BtESMlg
ejR4h5-M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.themodern.in%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F
2011%252F12%252FChildren-around-a-table.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.themodern.in
%252Fpage%252F3%252F%3B1647%3B1181
Classroom activities can be divided in three groups:
1. Task- Based:
comparing set of pictures and noting similarities and

differences.
comparing set of pictures and noting similarities and

differences.
working out a sequence of events in a set of pictures. Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=children+in+class&source=lnms&t

bm=isch&sa=X&ei=uFkLU7bCJpDKsQTOkYCoCA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1318
&bih=554#q=teacher+showing+pictures&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=S4
WHR4449mO1mM%253A%3BohSyfAFFOoQqqM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fvec
discovering missing pictures in a map or pictures.

to.rs%252F1024%252Fvector-of-a-proud-cartoon-teacher-showing-a-picture-book-to-
her-students-by-bnp-design-studio-8287.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fvecto.rs%25
2Fdesigns%252Fteacher%3B1024%3 044

giving instructions on how to draw a picture or shape or

how to complete a map.
following directions and solving problem.
games, role- plays, pair work, task based communication

activities, interviews.
Source:: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=children+in+class&source=lnms&tbm
=isch&sa=X&ei=uFkLU7bCJpDKsQTOkYCoCA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1318&bih=
554#q=teacher+showing+pictures&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=n6DbPJAIt
0hi3M%253A%3BNQGiVSNmgaM0kM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.picturesof.
net%252F_images_300%252FTeacher_Showing_Students_Art_At_a_Gallery_Royalty_
Free_Clipart_Picture_090530-126021-240042.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.
picturesof.net%252Fpages%252F090530-126021-240042.html%3B300%3B256
2. Social interaction activities:
Conversation and discussion sessions
Debates Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=children+in+class&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=uFkLU7bCJ

pDKsQTOkYCoCA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1318&bih=554#q=students++discussing&tbm=isch&facrc=_&img
dii=_&imgrc=8LlCayYb_QFoyM%253A%3BKn_fY-eOfsFtUM%3Bhttps%253A%252F%252Fwww.scholastic.com%2
52Fteachers%252Fsites%252Fdefault%252Ffiles%252Fposts%252Fu133%52Fimages%252Fimg_4755_1024x768.
jpg%3Bhttps%253A%252F%252Fwww.scholastic.com%252Fteachers%252Ftop-teaching%252F2014%252F01%25
Dialogues and role plays 2Fmath-talk-101%3B1024%3B768
Simulations and improvisations
Round table sessions
Projects
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=children+in+class&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=uFkLU7bCJp
DKsQTOkYCoCA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1318&bih=554#q=students++debating&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_
&imgrc=knVA27XredcfkM%253A%3BlyNbTzbr0d8qWM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fcdn2.edutopia.org%252Ffiles
%252Fimagecache%252Fgrid-3-column%252Fslates%252Fjoh nson-debate.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.
edutopia.org%252Fblog%252Fstudent-debate-deepens-thinking-engagement-ben-johnson%3B460%3B345
3. Text- Based:
discussing a lesson topic,
asking comprehension questions,

Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=role+play&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=VocLU9KVDsbKkQfr
taking notes,
8oDACg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=role+play+in+class&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgrc=2X4ob1pJ
qw0BVM%253A%3BP6_No5tqlLX80M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.virtualeducasinaloa.com%252Fwp-cont
ent%252Fuploads%252F2012%252F10%252Frole-play.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.virtualeducasinaloa.
com%252Fcreative-teaching-methods-through-role-play-is-fun-and-motivates-the-students.html%3B2518%3B1248
task analysis for thematic development (

understanding the message),
asking for more information ,
a practice situation description,

Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=role+play&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=VocLU9KVDsbKkQfr8o
conversations, etc.
DACg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=students+role+plays&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=HS
4A9kRwVbQNHM%253A%3BQZtnQORmc_GwTM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F3.bp.blogspot.com%252F-_-fFFXcMV
u8%252FUZZtuGHIRbI%252FAAAAAAAAAbI%252Fh4elI_qIrUA%252Fs400%252Fdps_img04.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%2
52F%252Fscentedcandles20.blogspot.com%252F%3B400%3B300

93
Learners role:
students interact with each other rather than with the teacher .
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=silhouette+students&s
learners see that failed communication is the joint
ource=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=VaELU5KvMoLekQfd64HgAQ&ved=
0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=AvfQJ
OFNt46FEM%253A%3BTHOEhyvxlzF1NM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F
responsibility, and not the fault of listener or speaker.
image.shutterstock.com%252Fdisplay_pic_with_logo%252F6833%25
2F107969711%252Fstock-vector-editable-vector-silhouettes-of-adult-
students-and-a-teacher-in-a-classroom-with-all-elements-as-107969711. ssuccessful communication is achieved collaboratively.
jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.shutterstock.com%252Fpic-
107969711%252Fstock-vector-editable-vector-silhouettes-of-adult-
students-and-a-teacher-in-a-classroom-with-all-elements-as.
html%3B450%3B213
Teachers role:
Facilitate the communication between all participants in

classroom
To act as an independent participant within the learning
teaching group
As a researcher and learner ,counselor, group manager.
Teacher assumes the responsibility through: one-to-one
sessions, In groups, planning group and individual Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=silhouette+students&source=lnms&tbm=is
ch&sa=X&ei=VaELU5KvMoLekQfd64HgAQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=
+teacher+at+the+board&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=zL7aSw9BAb0ZCM%253A
instructions. %3B0WvsmcSzVtWulM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Ftoonclips.com%252F600%252F11481.
jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Ftoonclips.com%252Fdesign%252F11481%3B600%3B620
Materials
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=silhouette+stu
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=silhoue
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=silhouette+students&source dents&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=VaELU5KvMoLekQfd
tte+students&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=VaEL Source https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=silhouet =lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=VaELU5KvMoLekQfd64HgAQ&ved=0CAcQ_AU 64HgAQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=menu
U5KvMoLekQfd64HgAQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1 te+students&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=VaELU oAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=newspapers&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&i s&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=Z2K3f_ZX3Bn7UM%3A%3B9qe
098&bih=462#q=magazines&tbm=isch&facrc=_&img 5KvMoLekQfd64HgAQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=109 mgrc=xs8BVXBznugoAM%253A%3BpboLQNZ-DyZ2oM%3Bhttp%253A%2 SMPpGMkitmM%3BZ2K3f_ZX3Bn7UM%3A&imgrc=Z2K3f_ZX
dii=_&imgrc=NlGhfYCRQGhW1M%253A%3Bnm1ll7Z 8&bih=462#q=charts+graphs+maps&tbm=isch&facrc= 52F%252Fi.telegraph.co.uk%252Fmultimedia%252Farchive%252F02515% 3Bn7UM%253A%3B0VnWzvFNpGhTsM%3Bhttp%253A%252F
ujzXDoM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fericksondigital. _&imgdii=_&imgrc=kBJEfv_Sc2ZZ2M%253A%3BNbq- 252Fnewspapers-cover_2515843b.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww. %252Fwww.valuemd.com%252Fattachments%252Famerican-
com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2012%252F tvAxRPk-xM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww. telegraph.co.uk%252Fnews%252Fpolitics%252F9953444%252FNewsp university-caribbean-auc%252F11896d1264643247-itt-restaurant-
11%252Ftop-magazines1.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%25 rainbowresource.com%252Fproducts%252F008888. aper-regulation-almost-certainly-illegal-under-EU-laws-says-Lord-Black. menus-pizza-hut.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.valuemd.
2Fericksondigital.com%252Fadvertising%252Fmagazine- jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.rainbowresource. html%3B620%3B387 com%252Famerican-university-caribbean-auc%252F191051-itt-
advertising%3B747%3B320 com%252Fprodlist.php%253Fsubject%253D14%2526categ restaurant-menus.html%3B1600%3B1248
ory%253D4711%3B600%3B790
Material is taken from real life (realia: authentic materials): signs, magazines, advertisements,
newspapers, use of maps, charts, graphs, menus, etc.. This gives the students opportunity to become
acquainted with authentic language.
Dear student, please brainstorm what social interaction activities you can offer to learners.

I invite you to learn more about this method in the following site:
http://www.onestopenglish.com/support/ask-the-experts/methodology-questions/
methodology-community-language-learning/146410.article
Dear student, in the same section of textbook you can also read about one more teaching method,
Task Based; and I think that to know more about this method can help you to become an efficient
professional.
I included below the main points of this method and the description of class activities /tasks. Since the
tasks form the basis of this method, I consider it important to provide you with their detailed descriptions.
So, please first read your textbook and then complement it with the additional information about this
method .
4.6. TASK- BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING (TBLT), 1970-1990`S
The idea of getting learners to acquire English during a process

of doing other tasks was developed in India by N. Prabhu (India)
in the 1980s. The main focus of Task- Based method is on the
use of authentic language and on asking students to perform
/do meaningful tasks using the target language. In his work,
Procedural Syllabus, he emphasized that acquiring a language
consists not only of learning language items, but of tasks requiring
increasingly complex use of language.
N.Prabhu Dev Such tasks can include various real- life situations , such as visiting
a doctor, conducting an interview, or calling customer service for
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=N.+Prabhu,+task+-based+language+learn
ing&client=firefox-a&hs=jpO&rls=org.mozilla:es-ES:official&channel=fflb&source=lnms&t
bm=isch&sa=X&ei=6LALU6X4NZOLkAeAr4C4Bw&ved=0CAkQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=
462#channel=fflb&q=N.+Prabhu&rls=org.mozilla:es-ES:official&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgd
ii=_&imgrc=ghb3DC_OaPEzJM%253A%3BxWgQgNzIrKqkiM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252
Fwww.hindu.com%252F2010%252F04%252F03%252Fimages%252F2010040364910401.
help.
jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.hindu.com%252F2010%252F04%252F03%252Fstorie
s%252F2010040364910400.htm%3B319%3B350
This makes TBLT especially popular for developing target language

fluency and student confidence.
The problem solving or practical tasks, usually done in groups, were designed to interest and challenge
the learners sufficiently to get them use the English they already knew and incorporate new items
provided by input materials and the teacher. That led to a general proposal for Task Based Learning,
suitable, in principle, for its use in most English teaching situations.
It can be said that TBLT is an approach based on the use of tasks requiring increasingly complex use
of language. The tasks are done in groups where learners use English they already know. The fact that
students already have mastery of English represents the main distinctive feature of this method. (Note:
It is NOT suitable for beginners !).
Assessment is primarily based on task outcome (in other words, the appropriate completion of real world
tasks rather than on accuracy of prescribed language forms).
To sum up,
Main point: Engaging learners in task work provides a better context for the
activation of learning process then form-focused activities( activities based on
grammar exercises ).

95
TBLT emphasizes the importance of activities:
which involve real communication ( conversation ).
in which language is meaningful and is used for

carrying out meaningful tasks. Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=business+people+reading&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=
ucQLU76bL8mskAe2t4GwBA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=business+people+discussing&sp
ell=1&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=UlGqIl0DTvnqiM%253A%3BUqTjnsNDL1pcIM%3Bhttp%253A%25
2F%252Fus.123rf.com%252F400wm%252F400%252F400%252Fpressmaster%252Fpressmaster1112%252Fpres
smaster111200401%252F11634003-three-business-people-discussing-new-project-in-office.jpg%3Bhttp%253A
%252F%252Fwww.123rf.com%252Fphoto_11634003_three-business-people-discussing-new-project-in-office.
html%3B1200%3B801
Since tasks constitute the main role in this method, I would like to specify them.
According to the purpose, tasks are divided in two groups:
a. real - world tasks (ex: students may be asked to perform a real

phone conversation, filling hotel forms, or job application forms),
etc.
b. pedagogical tasks (ex: students are asked to do a grammar exercise,
practice concrete grammar structure, or perform writing activities, )
etc.
According to procedure, a three stage procedure is recommended:
1. Pre- task. In this stage teacher is responsible for:
Introduction to the topic and task.
Provision of useful input ( listening, reading,

brainstorming, etc.)
If necessary, reactivation or provision of essential

language (vocabulary, grammar, etc.)
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=pLwMU6DF
E5LOkQfO64DwDA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462&q=teacher%20explaining#
Definition of the task (objectives, procedures, time q=teacher+and+students+cartoon&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=u6mDpW1lvznrU
M%253A%3Bzvbo1894WEqwEM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fjillmackellar.files.wordpress.
limits, etc.)
com%252F2012%252F08%252Fcartoon-classroom.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fjillmackell
ar.wordpress.com%252Fcategory%252Fclassroom%252F%3B500%3B395
2. Task. At this stage, students are:
Planning the task
Doing the task
Source:http://www.google.com.ec/imgres?imgurl=&i
mgrefurl=http%3A%2F%2Fprinceshanny.wordpress.co
Reporting on the task or presenting the product of the task( teacher
m%2Fpage%2F2%2F&h=0&w=0&sz=1&tbnid=eBvSfC
PHhyIPgM&tbnh=226&tbnw=223&zoom=1&docid=E
UizOVHqDw79lM&ei=uQYNU8XLD5HGkQe3soDwCw&
monitoring and guiding as necessary all the time).
ved=0CAgQsCUoAg

3. Post Task
At this stage, teacher and students :
Focus on the language used
Practice of the language as necessary Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=thinking&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&e

i=sQYNU7qdH9KskAfgtoHYDQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=students+d
iscussing+around+the+table+cartoon&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=UYFS9xnduI
May perform retrospective discussion of the task

ijIM%253A%3B5iAduKXU3f6CsM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Facademic.cuesta.edu%252F
acasupp%252Fas%252Fimages%252Fdictionary.gif%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Facademic.
cuesta.edu%252Facasupp%252Fas%252F501.HTM%3B482%3B359
It is important to emphasize that tasks in Task Based Learning should have very clear objectives and
conclude with a very tangible sense of achievement for the learners.
Tasks also provide input to learners and opportunities for meaningful language use , both of which
are generally considered valuable in promoting language acquisition. Tasks create a rich linguistic
environment capable of activating learners interests.
As you can conclude from all above, a task is really a special form of technique.
In some cases, task and technique may be synonymous (a problem - solving task /technique; a role-
play task / technique, for example) . But in other cases, a task may be comprised of several techniques
(for example, a problem-solving task that includes, lets say, grammatical explanation, teacher-initiated
questions, and a specific turn-taking procedure through a dialogue ).
It can be summarized that ask-based instruction is not a new method. Rather, it places task at the center
of ones methodological focus. It views the learning process as a set of communicative tasks that are
directly linked to the curricular goals they serve.
The Task- Based Instruction was well received in the educational field. Learners found the experience to
be rewarding, intrinsically interesting, and educationally beneficial.
I would also like to mention some positive and negative aspects of this method.
POSITIVE POINTS of this method:
Tasks improve learners motivation and promote

learning.
Tasks require the learners to use authentic language.
Tasks are varied in format and operation. Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=ok+symbol&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X
&ei=5fkNU9arM-mjsQToyoFA&sqi=2&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=thumb
s+up&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=rltCYpUJHLxkjM%253A%3BpqOXkiimINw4SM
Tasks include physical activity, they involve partnership

%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F1.bp.blogspot.com%252F-yfyp8XITuA4%252FTMcf1djnL1I%2
52FAAAAAAAAGXo%252Fqg6RHHBaTDU%252Fs1600%252Fsmiley_with_thumbs_up.gif%
3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fthebooksonmyshelf.blogspot.com%252F2013_09_01_archive.
and collaboration. html%3B654%3B398

97
NEGATIVE POINTS
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=tired+student&source=lnms&t Source

https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=tired+student&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei
bm=isch&sa=X&ei=A_8NU6vfHsW5kQfg2oDoBg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=
1098&bih=462#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=Vv8aZGD5mb203M%253A%3BrPA8 =A_8NU6vfHsW5kQfg2oDoBg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=thumbs+d
sABhLla_dM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fvecto.rs%252F1024%252Fvector-of- own&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=CoclxigHoRanUM%253A%3BR19BCCD4uSSe
a-tired-cartoon-student-sleeping-over-school-book-by-ron-leishman-13013. iM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fpakteahouse.net%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F
jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fvecto.rs%252Fdesign%252Fvector-of-a-tired-cartoon- 2012%252F12%252Fdislike.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fpakteahouse.net%252F2012
student-sleeping-over-school-book-by-ron-leishman-13013%3B1024%3B1044 %252F12%252F17%252Fthumbs-down-part-i%252F%3B400%3B224
Teacher should be very careful in selecting and assigning tasks .Difficult tasks
may reduce the attention, therefore, fluency may develop at the expense of
accuracy.
Dear students, what activities can you do during pre- tsk, task , post-task period?
You may learn about Task-Based approach in this web site: http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/
articulo?codigo=919479
Dear students, you may check your knowledge by answering the questions of the fourth self evaluation
test below.

Self- Evaluation 4
Activity 1. Circle the letter of the correct answer:
1. When concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstrations, ,objects and pictures, and when the
classroom instructions are given in the target language, it means that we apply:
a. Direct method
b. Grammar-Translation method
c. Task-Based Language Teaching
2. Students may be engaged in real-world task-use situations, such as short dialogues between a
customer and a waiter in a restaurant, or filling in job application form, etc. This is description of:
a. Direct method
b. Task Based Language teaching
c. Natural Approach
3. When grammar rules are practiced through translation exercises; little or no attention is paid to
speaking; reading and writing are used as main class activities, we apply:
a. Grammar-Translation method
b. Task Based Language Teaching
c. Direct method
4. This method is designed for beginners. Teacher gives very simple commands. Students may
perform very simple dialogues using fixed conversational patterns. Speaking can be delayed until
learners feel ready to do it. We describe:
a. Direct method
b. Communicative Approach
c. Natural Approach
5. This method makes the focus on communicative competence:
a. Natural Approach
c. Task Based Language Teaching
6. Which of these methods are learner centered:
a. Grammar Translation
b. Direct method
c. Communicative Approach

99
7. Which of the following methods does not allow the use of students mother tongue?
a. Natural approach
b. Task Based language teaching
c. Direct method
8. One of these methods is still popular nowadays:
a. Communicative Language Teaching

b. Natural approach
c. Grammar Translation
9. This method places a special emphasis on the development of speaking skill as a goal:
a. Natural Approach
c. Task Based Language Teaching
10. The Natural Approach was designed by:
a. Dell Hymes
b. Dev Prabhu
c. Stephen Krashen
( See the answers at the end of this guide)
Dear student
We have come to the end of the first term of the studies. I hope that it was successful and
enriching process. You may check how well you learned the contents and know whether you
are ready for the first on site evaluations by answering the questions in self evaluation tests.

SECOND TERM
6.5. Generic Competences

SECOND TERM
GENERIC COMPETENCE OF UTPL :
Reflexive and critical thinking

Oral and written communication
6.6. Planning for students work
Specific competences of Specific ACTIVITY

the program competences of Unit Contents LEARNING INDICATORS LEARNING ACTIVITIES TIMETABLE
the course Estimated Time
Ability to manage the Ability to use the Unit 5. Language and Identifies the role of language in Attentively read unit 5 in the textbook Week 1
pedagogical knowledge language for Communication communication and the corresponding additional
and the language at a effective information in the didactic guide.
5.1. Knowing a Language Analyzes the applications of
level in which the student communication 4 hours of
5.2. Linguistic Competence language for effective Take notes of the main ideas while you
can demonstrate an interaction( each
Expertise to apply communication read, so they can help you develop the
excellent professional 5.3. Communicative week)
pedagogical tasks.
performance in the Competence Identifies the difference between
knowledge in Week 2
teaching of EFL/ESL. Communicative competence and Identify main differences between.
teaching EFL 5.4. The influence of
Linguistic competence linguistic competence and 6 hours of self-study
Ability to recognize and to communicative communicative competence
value the cultural competence Applies the knowledge of 4 hours of
implications from the Communicative competence in Complete the recommended interaction (each
native language as well as 5.5. Description of Language
teaching activities, related to the topics of unit week).
from the English language. and Language Use 5.
Solve the self-evaluation 5.
Check the announcements at EVA.
Interaction on EVA.
Start the completion of the second at-
distance evaluation.
101
102
Ability to manage the Ability to use the Unit 6. Context and Culture Identifies the notion of culture and Read and study information of unit 6, Week 3
pedagogical knowledge language for 6.1. Systematizing context: its importance for language both in the textbook and the didactic
and the language at a effective teaching. guide.
discourse analysis and
pragmatics Understands the cultural
Complete the recommended activities
can demonstrate an interaction.
Expertise to apply 6.2. Culture implications for teaching foreign related to the topics of unit 6.
excellent professional
pedagogical language Week 4
performance in the 6.3. Translation, culture, and Solve the self-evaluation 6.
knowledge in
teaching of EFL/ESL. context Understands the importance of 6 hours of self-study
teaching EFL Check the announcements at EVA.
Discourse Analysis for effective
Ability to recognize and to 6.4. Own language: rights and 4 hours of
communication in target language. Interaction on EVA.
value the cultural understanding interaction (each
implications from the Distinguishes the relationships Continue the completion of the second- week).
native language as well as 6.5. Teaching culture
between language, discourse, and at-distance evaluation.
from the English language. culture and how it is reflected in
language use
Understands cross cultural
differences when translating to and

from foreign language
Applies techniques to teach culture
in EFL/ESL class.
Ability to manage the Ability to use the Unit 7. Persuasion and poetics; Identifies different literary genres Read and study information from unit Week 5
pedagogical knowledge language for rhetoric and resistance and styles in literary texts 7, both from the textbook and the
and the language at a effective didactic guide.
7.1. Literary stylistics Distinguishes elements proper for
7.2. Language and Persuasion different literary styles. Follow the recommendations
can demonstrate an interaction (each
Expertise to apply provided in the didactic guide.
excellent professional 7.3. Critical Discourse Analysis Identifies the field of Critical week).
pedagogical
performance in the (CDA) Discourse Analysis. (CDA). Complete the recommended
knowledge in Week 6
teaching of EFL/ESL. activities, related to the topics of unit
teaching EFL 7.4. Teaching Language skills Establishes the difference between
7. 6 hours of self-study
Ability to recognize and to (Listening, Speaking, CDA strategies (passivizaion,
value the cultural Writing, Reading nominalization, Solve the self-evaluation 7. 4 hours of
implications from the conversationalization) interaction (each
native language as well as Check the announcements at EVA.
week).
from the English language. Analyzes the ways of teaching the
Interaction on EVA
four basic language skills
Continue the completion of the second
Applies techniques to teach the
at-distance evaluation.
SECOND TERM
four language skills

Ability to manage the Ability to use the Unit 8. Past, present, and future Identifies the changes in Read and study information from unit Week 7
pedagogical knowledge language for directions approaches to applied linguistics 8, both from the textbook and the
and the language at a effective didactic guide.
8.1. Early orientation Analyzes the factors that affect
SECOND TERM
8.2. Subsequent Changes second language acquisition. Follow the recommendations

can demonstrate an interaction (each
Expertise to apply provided in the didactic guide.
excellent professional 8.3. Second- Language Identifies the phenomenon of week).
pedagogical
performance in the Acquisition (SLA) language transfer ( positive and Complete the recommended
knowledge in Week 8
teaching of EFL/ESL. negative transfer). activities, related to the topics of unit

teaching EFL 8.4. Corpus Linguistics
8. 6 hours of self-study
Ability to recognize and to 8.5. Being applied Analyzes the field of Corpus
value the cultural Linguistic . Solve the self-evaluation 8. Hand in 4 hours of
implications from the 8.6. Critical Applied Linguistics the second at-distance evaluation in interaction (each
native language as well as Differentiates Applied linguistics
8.7. Postmodern applied your Associated Center. week).
from the English language. and Critical Applied Linguistics
linguistics Check the announcements at EVA.
8.8. A harder future :
Interaction on Eva.
mediation.
103
Gua didctica: Introduction to Applied Linguistics SECOND TERM
6.7. Specific guidelines for learning through competences
UNIT 5. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION
5.1. Knowing a Language
Dear student, do you know what it means to know a language well ? And what does language mean?
Does it refer to the grammar? Vocabulary? Discourse? Or all of the above? Do we need to know the
body language that accompanies human speech? So many questions. It is said that to know a foreign
language well means to use the appropriate word in the appropriate situation. Do you agree with this
statement?
As we discussed in Unit 1 last bimester, there are many aspects implied by the term language:
correctness, appropriateness, discourse elements , gesticulations, intonation, accents, dialects, etc.
As you can see, language is a complex notion. What do we need to know to use language correctly?
Please read this section in Unit 5 of your textbook very attentively. To have a clearer idea about the topic
I invite you to also read the following additional information to complement your knowledge.
Do you know that every individual learns to speak before he/she learns to write?
Writing is a representation of speech which has been acquired previously.
Therefore, speech is the most potent force for language change . Why? Because no community may live
without language .So, here we have an interesting question: Why do we need language? Dear student,
can you answer the question without looking at the explanations below? We need language :
For communication
For transmission of knowledge
For conveying information and facts
For ceremonial purposes
To influence people ( orders, commands) Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=people+speaking&sourc
e=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=WGIOU9_lDc20kQetnIDgBg&ved=0CAcQ_
AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=gT2ZHiFBEjw
To self-express qXM%253A%3B58bds9eftCBYyM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.
wholelifecc.com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2013%252F
01%252F2-people-speaking.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=people+speaking&sourc wholelifecc.com%252Fthe-simple-principle%252F2-people-
e=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=WGIOU9_lDc20kQetnIDgBg&ved=0CAcQ_
AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=86P-j3d1OdVC To express emotions and feelings speaking%252F%3B649%3B495
jM%253A%3B7yMHR6CzAJZJQM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Feliz
abethkuhnke.files.wordpress.com%252F2011%252F06%252Flang
uage.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Felizabethkuhnke.wordpress.
com%252Ftag%252Fbody-language%252F%3B701%3B720
To form thoughts
Can you continue this list? I am sure you can!

SECOND TERM Gua didctica: Introduction to Applied Linguistics
Dear students, write a list of the various uses of language; be sure to provide your own
definition of the term language.
Now let us see whether your definition coincides with the following:
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=people+speaking&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X
&ei=WGIOU9_lDc20kQetnIDgBg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=conversation&tb
m=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=fx4jvplkUBeU0M%253A%3BNCLoesDqanN3wM%3Bhttp%253
A%252F%252Fenglishinteractive.net%252Ftalking.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fenglishintera
ctive.net%252Ftutor.htm%3B1987%3B1041
LANGUAGE IS
Human speech
A system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which
meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts
and feelings.
Any means of expressing or communicating, as gestures, signs ( traffic
symbology ), or nonverbal communication ( body language).
special set of symbols, letters, numerals, rules, grammar sets, etc, used for the
transmission of information.
All the vocal sounds, words, and ways of combining them common to a
particular nation, tribe, or other speech community.
The particular form or manner of selecting and combining words
characteristic of a person, group, or profession.
Form or style of expression in words.
special set of symbols, letters, numerals, rules, grammar sets, etc, used for the
transmission of information.
We may sum up the above statements with one made by linguist Chomsky : language is a set of very
specific universal principles which are intrinsic properties of the human mind and part of our specie`s
genetic endowment (1986:15 f ).

105
As you know, LANGUAGE is a mental phenomenon. It

is KNOWLEDGE about sounds, meaning, and grammar
.Language is best described in terms of grammar, a
system of rules. Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=grammar+rules+book&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=ako
PU_v8M9LHkAeEpYHADg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=thinking&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=
u2qrwH0hthTanM%253A%3BkTUrCv5Ju2b-EM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fralucamacovei.files.wordpress.com%252F201
As your textbook indicates , speaking a language

1%252F12%252Fthinking.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fralucamacovei.wordpress.com%252F2011%252F12%252F09%
252Fthinking-of-nothing%252F%3B350%3B340
involves usage of a lexicon ( vocabulary ) and rules to

combine this lexicon (grammar).
For a communication system to be called language, it

must have a lexicon and a grammar. What is grammar? It
is a system of elements ( words) and rules of phonology, Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=gramma
r+rules+book&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=ako
PU_v8M9LHkAeEpYHADg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=109-
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=people+
speaking&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=WGIOU9_
morphology, syntax, and semantics and the study of 8&bih=462#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=6Z581PALeEccBM

%253A%3BhE_h-Y6ufGSWfM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%25
lDc20kQetnIDgBg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=
462#q=dictionary+&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=
2Fwww.pdfbook.co.ke%252Fimages%252Fbooks%252F0 TbVrkzCgMmQl4M%253A%3BmUcOaO66tpHOBM%3Bht
those elements and rules. yb8tkcz94668772.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.
pdfbook.co.ke%252Fdetails.php%253Ftitle%253DGramm
tp%253A%252F%252Fenglishwell.info%252Fuploads%25
2Ftaginator%252FJun-2012%252Fenglish-dictionary.jpg%
ar%252520Rules!%2526author%253DMary%252520S.%2 3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fenglishwell.info%252Fenglish-
52520Schatz%2526category%253DLanguage%2526eid% dictionary.html%3B760%3B1148
253D15153%2526type%253DBook%3B168%3B219
But what exactly is the lexicon?
A lexicon is a mental dictionary , the vocabulary that we have stored in our brain. Without these two
components it is impossible to use any language. But what else do we need to know to become efficient
users of language?
We need to discuss it in a more detailed way.
The next section of your textbook gives you interesting information about this issue. Dear student,
please read about Linguistic competence in your textbook .
5.2. LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE
A new term has entered to our discussion of language, competence. How would you describe it?
Dear student, try to explain the meaning of the term competence. What is its meaning?
Was it difficult? I hope that your answer is similar to the following definition: competence refers to
someone`s ability, condition, or quality of being competent, it is to know or do something well. However,
we still need to define competence with regards to language. Since competence means ability, we can
conclude that it refers to the knowledge that enables a person to speak and understand a language.
In other words, Linguistic competence is the system of linguistic knowledge possessed by all native
speakers of a concrete language. It is a principle for correct sentence formation, and the creation of
grammatical sentences.
Competence is also the study of grammars which are psychologically real, and which contain all
linguistic knowledge, both innate and acquired.

From your textbook you already know that this concept was first introduced by Noam Chomsky ( see
Unit 2 of this guide ! ) as part of the foundation for his Generative Grammar .I would like to briefly remind
you the main points of this work.
According to Chomsky, language learning basically revolves around the idea that all humans have an
internal capacity to acquire language( meaning, sounds, vocabulary choice, grammar ).In other words,
it implies that this ability to learn and analyze linguistic information is universal and innate. Competence
is the ideal language system that makes it possible for speakers to produce and understand an infinite
number of sentences in their language, and to distinguish grammatical sentences (correct) from
ungrammatical ( incorrect) sentences.
For each speaker, there is a right and wrong way of constructing

and understanding sentences. Language cannot be explained in
terms of habits or customs. It is rule governed . It means that we
all follow certain grammar rules in our speaking. We are able to self
- correct our accidental mistakes ;and we realize when someone is
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=boy+and+girl+speaking+cartoon&sourc making mistakes in speech .
e=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=n2sPU5O6IYrLkAeC4IDIBw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=109
8&bih=462#q=kids+speaking+cartoon&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=TAGBydU
M1h7P2M%253A%3B5osIS9j5MdgG4M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwomenfordecency.
org%252Fblog%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2013%252F12%252Ftalking.jpg%
3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwomenfordecency.org%252Fblog%252Fwhy-speaking-up-in-
numbers-makes-a-difference%252F%3B498%3B258
A speaker who is willing to correct him/herself or others shows that for him or her there is a right and
wrong way of saying things. These grammar rules we follow are combined with each other to form a
system - a grammar which gives an explicit description of every sentence of a language.

107
The functions of grammar are
Provide a means of Describes sentences Register and

association each with no mistakes at all correct
sentence of a language mistakes
with its correct
pronunciation and
meaning. (we
understand the message
regardless
mispronouncing the
parts of a sentence, it is
our prior knowledge )
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=boy+and+girl+speaking+cartoon&source=lnms&tbm=isch
&sa=X&ei=n2sPU5O6IYrLkAeC4IDIBw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=grammar&tbm=isch
&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=DdwD-gOEOSc1hM%253A%3B7Qnvk9XN3YIL1M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%25
2Fwww.protrainco.com%252Finfo%252Fpix%252Fmissg.gif%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.protrainco.
com%252Finfo%252Fgrammar.htm%3B241%3B261
Components of Linguistic Competence
PHONETICS - the physical production and perception of

sounds used in producing language .
PHONOLOGY - the mental organization of physical sounds

and the patterns formed by the way sounds are combined in a
language.
MORPHOLOGY - the SYNTAX- the structure and formation of

identification, analysis and sentences.
description of units of meaning
in a language. SEMANTICS - understanding the meaning
of sentences.
LEXICON - wordstock of a
language , its vocabulary,
including its words and
expressions.
This theory has since been adopted and developed by other linguists, particularly those working in
the generativist tradition. In the generativist tradition competence is the only level of language that
is studied, because this level gives insights into the Universal Grammar that is seen as underlying all
human language systems.

The term Universal Grammar is credited to Chomsky. In your textbook you may find a brief explanation
of it. I would like to give you more details on this fundamental work by Chomsky, in order to provide you
with more information .
Universal grammar is a theory in linguistics that suggests that there are

properties that all possible natural human languages have .According to
this theory , some rules of grammar are already in the human brain, and
manifest themselves without the need of being learned or taught.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=boy+and+girl+speak
ing+cartoon&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=n2sPU5O6IYrLkAeC According to Chomsky, the brain is already programmed to understand
4IDIBw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=gbrain+carto
on&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=DHlohmWpQA9AWM%25
3A%3BWlEHdYWkI1D60M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.ideals- certain sentence structures, and it explains why and how children can
hape.com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2011%252F01%25
2Fcartoon-brain-1.gif%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.idealshape.
com%252Fchange-your-brain%252F%3B239%3B204
understand and speak sentences that they have never heard before.
Source: http://www.google.com.ec/imgres?imgurl=&imgrefurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.shutterstock.com%2Fpic-85733111%2Fstock-vector-cute-
cartoon-children-with-speaking-bubbles.html&h=0&w=0&sz=1&tbnid=fL8PMHKWQ25DdM&tbnh=151&tbnw=333&zoom=1&docid=ysY3kOZJt6a
tuM&ei=xJwPU7ydGMfmkAfXzoDQCg&ved=0CAIQsCUoAA
All human beings subconsciously know and use the rules of their native language , that is to say that if
humans grow up under normal conditions , they always develop a language with property X .
For example, we all are able to distinguish parts of speech ( nouns from adjectives, adverbs from verbs,
etc. ) or distinguish function words. According to Chomsky , development of language in the individual
must involve some factors like genetic endowment, ( the innate ability to learn language), and external
data, ( selection of one or another language within a narrow range) .
The topic of Universal Grammar and Chomsky`s position about it is quite ample. Those of you who might
be interested to know more about it, can investigate and research this controversial linguistic theory.
Dear student , research on Universal Grammar Theory by Noam Chomsky and its role for
linguistics.
Closely related to this topic is the notion of :

109
5.3. Communicative Competence
Linguists have found communicative competence as a superior model

of language following Dell Hymes opposition to Chomskys linguistic
competence (grammar knowledge).
Dear student, you need to read the corresponding section of your textbook in
order to understand the difference between Communicative and Linguistic
competence. After reading this chapter you will see that these two terms are Source: http://www.google.com.ec/imgres?imgurl=&img
refurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpersonaltrainerbusinesssystems.
com%2Fpersonal-trainer-sales-meeting%2F&h=0&w=0&sz
opposed to each other in some way. =1&tbnid=5l4DDru-f9cgOM&tbnh=220&tbnw=229&zoom=
1&docid=gM339yNsMCplfM&ei=IZ8PU76BBdG1kQfV4oDA-
Bw&ved=0CAUQsCUoAQ
The notion of communicative competence is described within the discipline of Sociolinguistics. As you
already know, sociolinguistics deals with the study of language use in society and in sociocultural
contexts.( see Unit 2 of this guide ).
Since all human societies possess a knowledge of languages, we may say that language is a part of
society, and we need to use language for communication with the members of this society.
Not only we need to know grammar rules and lexicon to be able to communicate, some other aspects of
language are also involved in communication.
I recommend you to read the section in your textbook where you can get acquainted with some
important types of knowledge that are necessary for successful communication and to know whether
our message is transmitted and understood successfully.
I think that the additional explanation included in this section of the guide will help you better understand
the main points of the Dell Hymes Communicative Competence theory explained in the textbook.
Dell Hymes (1927 - 2009, USA)
As one of the first sociolinguists , Hymes helped to establish the

connection between speech and human relations and human
understandings of the world. He created the Dell Hymes Model of
Speaking and proposed the term of communicative competence
within language education, or knowledge necessary to use
language in social context ( appropriate language use). He stated
that in order to speak a language correctly, one needs not only to
Dell Hymes
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=boy+and+girl+speaking+cartoon&source=ln
learn its vocabulary and grammar, but also the context in which
ms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=n2sPU5O6IYrLkAeC4IDIBw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=
462#q=Dell+Hymes&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=qYcz3uofDY58yM%253A%3Bopr
bcRhrXkQ-xM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fmedia.philly.com%252Fimages%252F20091119_
words are used.
inq_o-phymes19-a.JPG%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fblog.aaanet.org%252F2009%252F11%2
52F19%252Faaa-mourns-passing-of-dell-hymes-past-president%252F%3B295%3B410
I BRIEFLY SUMMARIZE HIS THEORY AS FOLLOWS:
Hymes` original idea was that speakers of a language need to have more than grammatical
competence ( knowledge of the rules) in order to be able communicate effectively in
a language; they also need to know how language is used by members of a speech
community to accomplish their purposes. Hymes developed a model to identify and
label the components of linguistic interaction.

COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
Dell Hymes explanation What is needed for effective communication is competence for use help us
understand the importance of possibility, feasibility, appropriateness, and attestedness.
In your textbook these terms are briefly explained. To gain a more complete understanding of their
meanings, please read the following descriptions I included here. These components can be explained
as follows:
POSSIBILITY
It refers to the formal aspect of a language- whether utterances are

grammatically correct or not. In other words, it is about whether (and to
what degree) something is formally possible.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=boy+and+girl+speaking+
cartoon&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=n2sPU5O6IYrLkAeC4IDIBw&v
ed=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=girl+t+school+cartoon&tbm
Example: =isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=EEzgYR2NWnS21M%253A%3BTdYqDPB
v89llbM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fcdn.graphicsfactory.com%252Fclip-
art%252Fimage_files%252Fimage%252F7%252F1371057-Education-
039-color.gif%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.graphicsfactory.com%
252Fsearch%252Fback%252520to%252520school_P7.html%3B300%3B300
She goes to school ( grammatically correct, it is possible)
Versus
She go to school ( incorrect, not possible)
Knowledge of possibility helps deciding whether an

instance conforms to language rules or not.
FEASIBILITY
It refers to the process in the mind. Since the capacity of the brain is
limited, complicated ( or very extended) sentence are less feasible than
the simpler ones. Thus, simpler sentences are more feasible and less
ambiguous. In other words, it is about whether (and to what degree) Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=boy+and+girl+speaking+cartoon
&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=n2sPU5O6IYrLkAeC4IDIBw&ved=0CAcQ_AUo
AQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=idea&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=Uj6V7YM
something is feasible in virtue of the means of implementation hBRtA6M%253A%3Bjgl_pFopyf1jeM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F1.bp.blogspot.
com%252F-E2d_kDqSDX8%252FUZaKOhm6ObI%252FAAAAAAAAEJ4%252FCUm
available.
Or8uA8rE%252Fs1600%252Fidea-negocio.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fggh-
energy.blogspot.com%252F2013%252F05%252Fideas-para-crear-empresas-
dentro-y.html%3B475%3B385
Feasibility helps processing language instances and it is an important

component of language competence , as it makes information easily
accessible. ( Widdowson, 2007,pp14-14).
Example :
The mouse that the cat the dog chased ate

had a little white tail .
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=boy+and+girl+speaking+cart
oon&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=n2sPU5O6IYrLkAeC4IDIBw&ved=0C
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=boy+and+girl+speaking+c
AcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=mouce+cartoon&tbm=isch&facrc=_&i
mgdii=_&imgrc=nji7nIJ7-jxc4M%253A%3BZRxD9bTivbousM%3Bhttp%253A
%252F%252Fwww.clker.com%252Fcliparts%252F4%252Fb%252F3%252F3%
(it is grammatically correct, but it is
artoon&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=n2sPU5O6IYrLkAeC4IDIBw&ved
=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=dog+chasing+a+cat&tbm=isch&
facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=AMtfXpnLqPdvqM%253A%3Bk3sLuPUJ6oeGTM
252F12154415481161002556lemmling_Simple_cartoon_mouse_2.svg.med.
png%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.clker.com%252Fclipart-simple-cartoon-
mouse-1.html%3B300%3B296
difficult to grasp what it means at the
%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fcomps.canstockphoto.com%252Fcan-stock-
photo_csp10430383.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.canstockphoto.
com%252Fcat-and-dog-10430383.html%3B450%3B390
first, so, it is less feasible).

111
APPROPRIATNESS
It is about whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate, (adequate, happy, successful) in relation
to a context in which it is used and evaluated. It also refers to the importance of the context of an utterance.
Language should be interpreted within specific situation, in which it occurs (context).
I would like to cite the words of Hymes regarding this term: a normal child acquires knowledge of
sentences not only as grammatical, but also as appropriate. He or she acquires competence as to when
to speak, when not, and as when to talk about with who, when, where, in what manner. In short, a child
becomes able to accomplish a repertoire of speech acts, to take part in speech events, and to evaluate their
accomplishements by others. (Hymes, 1972,p. 277).
Example:
It is not appropriate to address a boss darling, or when complaining

to a police you cannot address him /her as sweet heart or darling,
etc. Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=boy+and+girl+speaking+cartoon&s
ource=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=n2sPU5O6IYrLkAeC4IDIBw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&
biw=1098&bih=462#q=people+speaking+cartoon&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&i
mgrc=0BS7X05XpiSCOM%253A%3BlU9xN-fL-6D5EM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fw
Speech behaviour varies according to culture ( G. Cook, 2003 ). ww.mnsu.edu%252Fmedia%252Fnewsletter%252F2010-10-20%252F20101020-03.

jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.mnsu.edu%252Fmedia%252Fnewsletter%25
2F2010-10-20%252F%3B214%3B140
To sum up, a language learner/user needs to use the language not only correctly but also appropriately.
Appropriateness refers to the relation of a language and a context.
ATTESTEDNESS
It refers to the actual occurrence of something.
Some constructions may be possible, feasible, appropriate,

but they do not occur- they are not attested.
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=boy+and+girl+speaking+cartoon&source=lnms&tbm=i
sch&sa=X&ei=n2sPU5O6IYrLkAeC4IDIBw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=dictionary&tb
m=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=UGuh42BG0dpBFM%253A%3BbHKzQLYGRcst_M%3Bhttp%253A%
252F%252Fi.telegraph.co.uk%252Fmultimedia%252Farchive%252F01550%252Fdictionary_1550558c.
It is about whether (and to what degree) something is in fact
jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%252Fculture%252Fbooks%252Fbooknews%252F7
970391%252FOxford-English-Dictionary-will-not-be-printed-again.html%3B460%3B288 done, actually performed, and what its doing entails. ( Hymes,
1970:281).
Example: walk and perambulate
Both are synonyms, both are listed in the dictionary. But

the difference between them is the frequency of the
occurrence.
Walk- more common Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=boy+and+girl+speaking+cartoon&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=

X&ei=n2sPU5O6IYrLkAeC4IDIBw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q=walking&tbm=isch&facrc=_&im
gdii=_&imgrc=SbHYCBg3kSYZqM%253A%3B4U7p-mUBsrneDM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fblog.corewalking.
Perambulate - less common

com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2013%252F08%252Fwalk1.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fblog.
corewalking.com%252Fwalking-15000-steps-a-day-gets-easier%252F%3B634%3B1128

To be communicatively competent, it is necessary to take into

consideration fixed phrases, idiomatic expressions and speech
patterns that are different in the students native and the target
language. Thus, communicative competence involves knowledge
of the fixed word combinations of the target language as well
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=boy+and+girl+speaking+cartoon&source=lnms
( Cook, 2003pp.45-46; cited by Widdowson, 2007, p.16).

&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=n2sPU5O6IYrLkAeC4IDIBw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1098&bih=462#q
=people+speaking+cartoon&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=IhTviLcxk_XoWM%253A%3
BdjMxkR4seqgiJM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fsecondarycontent.pbworks.com%252Ff%252Fr
eadWrite%252520cartoon.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fsecondarycontent.pbworks.com%2
52Fw%252Fpage%252F9977577%252FLearning%252520Styles%3B801%3B747
Dear student , I recommend you research more on the Dell Hymes Model of Speaking. (
Knowledge of this theory may help you find the most appropriate way to teach
functional aspects of foreign language).
To put it clearer, I summarize the difference between Linguistic Competence and Communicative
Competence in the chart below.
LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

It deals with the language structure, e.g. It is the knowledge of communication.
grammar, syntax , morphology, phonology, etc.
It is how you actually use the language.
It is about how to use the grammar, syntax, and
For effective communication, speakers
vocabulary of a language.
need to know the norms of interaction
Linguistic competence asks: What words do I and interpretation , and use correctly
use? How do I put them into phrases and the four elements: possibility,
sentences? feasibility, appropriatness, attestedness.
Linguistic competence is what you actually
know about a language.
Dear student ,please try to fill in this chart with your own examples to illustrate each of
the components of Communicative competence.
possibility feasibility appropriateness attestedness
The Dell Hymes Model of Speaking had great influence on many areas of sociolinguistics. This theory had
a great number of followers who contributed to the original idea of the importance of emphasizing the
communicative functions of language. It also served as a basis for the creation of the Communicative
approach in teaching foreign/second language ( see Unit 4 )where the main emphasis was on real
communication.

113
Please, dear student, read the corresponding chapter in your textbook to learn more about:
5.4. The influence of communicative competence
Hymess theory left a deep mark on the subsequent development of sociolinguistics and linguistics
in general. We can see that the communicative approach in language teaching became widely
accepted because today communicative competence is considered the goal of language education
and is mandatory for efficient classroom practice.(This is in contrast to the previous theory put forth by
Chomsky in which grammatical competence was given priority).
The communicative competence theory also influenced the field of pragmatics ( we are going to discuss
this discipline in the next unit ) and the philosophy of language concerning speech acts.
To sum up, I summarize the influence of Communicative Competence for the Communicative approach
to language teaching in the following chart:
Meaning is more important than the structure and form.

Dialogues if used around communicative functions, are not to be memorized.
Language item should be presented in a context. They should not be taught in isolation.
Language learning does not imply learning structures, sounds and words but learning to
communicate.
Effective communication is emphasized.
Reading and writing need not weigh for ones mastery over speech. They may start from
the very first day.
Instead of linguistic competence, communicative competence is the desired goal.
Linguistic variation is accepted as a central condition in method and materials.
The sequence of units is determined not by the principle of linguistic complexity but by
the consideration of content, function, and meaning, which maintain interest.
Dear student, after reading the unit on the influence of communicative competence, I invite
you to write about positive and negative aspects of the Hymes theory .
Positive influence of CC Negative influence of CC
5.5. Description of Language and Language Use.
Please, read the corresponding section in the textbook
Dear student, check what you have learned in this unit . Answer the questions in the self evaluation
below.

Self- Evaluation 5
1. Phonetics, phonology, syntax, semantics, and morphology are components of:
a. Linguistic competence
b. communicative competence
c. pragmatic competence
2. The notion of competence refers to:
a. expertise
b. ability
c. creativity
3. One of the functions of grammar is to:
a. register and correct mistakes

b. describe languages
c. establish standards for language
4. The universal grammar theory implies that:
a. the same set of grammar rules is shared by all human languages

b. certain languages have very primitive grammar systems
c. all human beings have an inner ability to use grammar rules in their native language.
5. The system of linguistic knowledge possessed by all native speakers of a concrete language and
a principle for correct sentence formation and the creation of grammatical sentences is known as:
a. Linguistic competence
b. Communicative competence
c. universal grammar
Activity 2. Answer TRUE or FALSE according to the statement:
1.() The notion of communicative competence is described within the field of

Psycholinguistics.
2.() The terms possibility, feasibility, appropriateness, and attestedness are described in
communicative competence.
3.() The Pragmatics is influenced by communicative competence.
4.() The notion of Communicative Competence plays an important role in Applied

Linguistics.

115
5.() For the areas of Discourse Analysis and cross-cultural communication, Linguistic
competence plays very significant role.
( see the answers at the end of this didactic guide)


UNIT 6. CONTEXT AND CULTURE
Dear students, our next unit deals with some important issues necessary
for successful communication. They are: context discourse elements
,and cultural aspects. In the introductory section of unit 6, you will find
the term context.
I am sure that this term is not new for you. The following example
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=context+and+culture&sourc
e=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=6jUXU7apHMjukQfegYGoDw&ved=0CAcQ_AU
will help you recall its meaning. You have misinterpreted my remark
oAQ&biw=1109&bih=462#q=+culture&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc
=GTA_LTo3V8ZK7M%253A%3BUVLFfIwvmkWDRM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%
252Fwww.macrobusiness.com.au%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2
because you took it out of context.
013%252F04%252Fculture-cute-kids.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.
macrobusiness.com.au%252F2013%252F04%252Fwhen-culture-is-the-best-
explanation%252F%3B300%3B294
As you can see that besides the direct or literal meaning of words, we
need to know something else that enables us INTERPRET the message
appropriately. We need to know the context in which the words were
uttered. The context represents the condition necessary for the correct
understanding of the message. Please, read the corresponding part in
the textbook. This section describes some factors for interpretation of Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=context+and+culture&so
urce=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=6jUXU7apHMjukQfegYGoDw&ved=0CA
meaning. As you will see, context is a part of effective communication, cQ_AUoAQ&biw=1109&bih=462#q=+men+reading+cartoon&tbm=isch&f

acrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=6sueaFkAEsQ-ZM%253A%3BkGdnCTMbMrP3xM
%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fthumbs.dreamstime.com%252Fz%252Fmen-
and it influences the meaning of words. reading-news-171633.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.dreamstime.
com%252Fstock-photos-men-reading-news-image171633%3B1300%3B1390
CONTEXT
the relevant constraints of the communicative situation

that influence language use, language variation, and
discourse.
For a successful communication to take place some other

conditions should be present. Not only is knowledge
of grammar rules , vocabulary, and pronunciation
needed, but other elements of speech act are also
involved in communication event. These elements that
help to determine the interpretation of language are
mentioned in your textbook and I invite you to read
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=context+and+culture&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=6jUXU7apHM
jukQfegYGoDw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1109&bih=462#q=speaking+bubbles&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&img
it with due attention. You will notice that a new term
rc=P1mkRiJb66xT6M%253A%3BiK0t9it_U1fccM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fimage.shutterstock.com%252Fdisplay_
pic_with_logo%252F310255%252F310255%252C1245080586%252C3%252Fstock-photo-shiny-d-cartoon-chat-
characters-with-speech-bubbles-32075146.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.shutterstock.com%252Fes%252Fpic-
appears in our vocabulary - discourse analysis .
32075146%252Fstock-photo-shiny-d-cartoon-chat-characters-with-speech-bubbles.html%3B450%3B357
Your textbook introduces you some main points of this discipline .Since it represents one of the subfields
of applied linguistics, I believe you will find the additional information enclosed in this guide useful and
enriching for your knowledge .

117
6.1. Systematizing context: DISCOURSE ANALYSIS ( D.A.) and PRAGMATICS
The field of discourse analysis is quite vast and deserves to be studied as a separate university subject . I
intend to provide you with just a brief introducton to this discipline.
WHAT IS DISCOURSE ANALYSIS?
We have to be clear that discourse analysis is NOT a method for

teaching languages.
It is a way of describing and understanding how language is

used.
It is a general term for a number of approaches to analyzing

written, spoken or signed language use.
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=communication&source=lnm
s&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=Q5oYU-QByO-RB-LngZgP&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw
Discourse analysts analyze naturally occuring language use,

=1119&bih=462#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=ch40CFCnDN8bbM%253A%3B
U6rA4sbXTNgYRM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.dynavoxtech.com%2
52Fimg%252Fconditions%252Fintellectual-disability%252Fcommunication.
gif%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.dynavoxtech.com%252Fconditions%252Fi
ntellectual-disability%252Fcommunication%252F%3B666%3B662 and not invented examples.
Discourse Analysis is a branch of linguistics that focuses on language use

above and beyond the sentence.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=secret&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=XkYXU_CrEs-
dkAeE44B4&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1109&bih=462#q=writing+&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=leuBnGZGtQbG
Source: http://www.google.com.ec/imgres?imgurl=&imgrefurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpersonaltrainerbusinesssystems. NM%253A%3B8JioYUegtMaqnM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fdebrabell.com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F201
com%2Fpersonal-trainer-sales-meeting%2F&h=0&w=0&sz=1&tbnid=5l4DDru-f9cgOM&tbnh=220&tbnw=229&zoom=1&d 1%252F10%252Fwriting.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fdebrabell.com%252F2013%252F04%252Fhow-do-you-get-kids-
ocid=gM339yNsMCplfM&ei=o1QXU9eOJo2ukAezoYHQBQ&ved=0CAIQsCUoAA interested-in-writing%252F%3B2005%3B1356
The objects of Discourse .Analysis : discourse, writing,

talk, conversation, communicative event, etc. are
defined in various ways ,in terms of coherent sequences
of sentences, propositions, speech acts, or turns - at -
talk.
Discourse Analysis refers to the analysis of language in

Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=discourse&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=VpAXU_
WZJci1kQeep4HoAw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119&bih=462#q=speaking+in+public&tbm=isch&facrc=_&img
dii=_&imgrc=PbtRI0cdbZRHEM%253A%3B1iLIuoAipQ46tM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.mind-solutions.co.
its social context. uk%252Fcommunities%252F4%252F004%252F008%252F184%252F694%252F%252Fimages%252F4537261640.

jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.mind-solutions.co.uk%252Fpublic-speaking%252F4544040399%3B550%3B366
Besides linguistics, discourse is studied in a number of other social science disciplines:
- linguistics - sociology
- social work - social psychology
- human geography - anthropology
- communication studies - cognitive psychology
- international relations - translation studies

Dear student, I invite you to research about the role of Discourse Analysis in the
above mentioned disciplines.
What is in the focus of Discourse

Analysis?
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=discourse&source=lnm
Discourse Analysis analyzes both written
and spoken language.
s&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=VpAXU_WZJci1kQeep4HoAw&ved=0CAcQ_AU Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=discourse&source=lnms&tb
oAQ&biw=1119&bih=462#q=speaking+in+public&tbm=isch&facrc= m=isch&sa=X&ei=VpAXU_WZJci1kQeep4HoAw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw
_&imgdii=_&imgrc=YdrWYEYHA5fzKM%253A%3BHwF4JZuBBw_6q =1119&bih=462#q=reading&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=6CQYnS
M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F2.bp.blogspot.com%252F_bE7Mw-gk MNgPRSQM%253A%3BZCsUi7hE8K85SM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fcour
KG4%252FTTTjWGs24SI%252FAAAAAAAAFYk%252FYACV8HX- seweb.hopkinsschools.org%252Fpluginfile.php%252F139621%252Fcourse
pH0%252Fs1600%252Fpublic-speaking.jpeg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%2 %252Fsection%252F20404%252FReading-writing.png%3Bhttp%253A%25
52Fstraightforwardtalk.blogspot.com%252F2012%252F08%252Fwhat- 2F%252Fcourseweb.hopkinsschools.org%252Fcourse%252Fview.php%253
you-will-learn-from-public.html%3B520%3B720 Fid%253D1663%3B588%3B596
When analyzing written texts ,we must have some knowledge of certain factors in order to correctly
interpret the language and the message in general. These factors are:
The need to know the participants in the discourse ( the writer and reader(s), the speaker(s) and
listener(s)),
relationships between the participants ( whether they are equals or not, since the different social
status, age , level of education require different type of language used),
elements of language ( intonation, stress ,voice modulations) , and other factors (style of speaking:
sarcasm, irony, etc.) that enable us to interpret the text,
some clues in the surrounding text which help us understand the meaning.
Why do we need to know about

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS?
Knowledge about discourse can help learners better understand the

Source::https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=discourse&source=lnms&tbm=is kinds of language they are exposed to outside the classroom: - the
ch&sa=X&ei=VpAXU_WZJci1kQeep4HoAw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119&bi
h=462#q=speaking&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=9B-IDYc4Vtis8M
%253A%3ByBkQLxUYwrIOnM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Famirulmokhtar.
language of service encounters in shops, banks, restaurants, together
with the language of newspapers, the everyday language and informal
com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2014%252F02%252Fpubulicspeak
ingfear1.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Famirulmokhtar.com%252Fovercome-
your-fear-of-speaking-english%252F%3B448%3B306
conversation.
Discourse analysis of a spoken language is very complex and vast. Language is studied and analyzed
according to its type. Within the types of speech we can mention:

119
language-in-action ( talk accompanying doing )
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=person+explaining+something&sour
ce=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=O_AYU8P_FYbskAeUggE&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=
1119&bih=462#q=person+explaining++cartoon&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=bl7oW
WPE7JgIWM%3A%3B8thvvfRUJWhNWM%3Bbl7oWWPE7JgIWM%3A&imgrc=bl7oW
WPE7JgIWM%253A%3B-jzgL6blC-y2GM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F1.bp.blogspot.
com%252F-zEfcMepqOSo%252FUX4_PnH1JRI%252FAAAAAAAABUU%252FD9yPI
z6XNvM%252Fs400%252FBelie.png%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.lexicolatry.
com%252F2013_04_01_archive.html%3B342%3B388
monologues (speeches, stories, jokes )
classroom talk ( lectures, classes, seminars, tutorials)

Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=person+explaining+something&source=
lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=O_AYU8P_FYbskAeUggE&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119&b-
ih=462#q=seminar++cartoon&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=g-mHK734Pe6F
1M%253A%3B31iUe0UM-3T0WM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fthumb7.shutterstock.
com%252Fdisplay_pic_with_logo%252F515401%252F102071959%252Fstock-
vector-vector-cartoon-of-man-at-business-seminar-and-bored-audience-102071959.
jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.shutterstock.com%252Fs%252F%252522seminar
%252Bcartoons%252522%252Fsearch.html%3B450%3B451
Interviews ( job, journalistic, in official settings)
service encounters (banks, shops, travel agent, etc.)
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=person+explaining+something&sourc
e=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=O_AYU8P_FYbskAeUggE&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=11
19&bih=462#q=job+interviews+cartoon&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=QEEy
8uR3_NtrHM%253A%3BAA-YA0DreXGglM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.eynjuls.
com%252Fharsha%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2012%252F02%252Finte
rview.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.eynjuls.com%252Fharsha%252Findex.
php%252Fmy-first-ever-interview%3B320%3B311
organizing and directing people

( in the street, work, home)
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=person+explaining+something&source=l
nms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=O_AYU8P_FYbskAeUggE&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119&bih
=462#q=giving+directions+cartoon&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=OiUc_LseQQP
dxM%253A%3BfzeT5hwKI5zSRM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Ftx.english-ch.com%252Fte
acher%252Fdai%252Fdirect.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Ftx.english-ch.com%252Ftea
cher%252Fdai%252Flevel-b%252Fdirections-%252F%3B400%3B400
In spoken discourse, different kinds of processes work together to produce coherence.
The goal is to verbalize thoughts , introduce new information, repair errors in what we say , take turns
talking, think of others ,and perform acts .
We achieve these goals by using and connecting a range of different units: speech acts, idea units,
turns at talk, and sentences. The speaking elements provide necessary cues that determine our use of
language. In other words, the certain language units are used according to the relationship between the
speakers, their age, and the type of conversation.

In discourse, one of the most significant elements for conversation analysis

is TURN TAKING , or turn - the basic unit of speech of the individual
speaker.
A turn is when one speaker talks and this turn ends when another speaker
Source: http://www.dreamstime.com/stock-images-orange-man-
conversation-image4142494
begins speaking( takes a turn).
The goal of conversation analysis is to know how speakers achieve

smooth turn-taking.
Within turn- taking , the following elements can be mentioned :

Source:http://rolandmillward.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/Wo-
man_Presentation.jpg
Dropping intonation may signal that a point is made, so a response is in order. It

may also signal the end of conversation or the end of the though; or express
intonation hesitation, or show a need for encouragement on the part of participants in the
speaking act.
may also be taken as an opening of conversation or thinking time before

pauses for breath answering.
is a very significant turn-seeking signal, for example, eye contact,

body language gesticulation (see more about it below in the PARALANGUAGE section).
like ah! oh! wow! Right ! OK, so, well ,now, you see, I see, don`t tell me (
phrases or In Spanish you may use one of these :no cierto, mira, oye ) ,etc. can
interjections also indicate the speaker`s reaction to information conveyed by the
participants of the conversation.
(or minimal silence) of approximately 1-2 seconds of the

participant or participants can be used to communicate and
silence express unwillingness to continue the conversation or the desire
to stop or interrupt communication, etc.
Different situations require different patterns , depending on the roles of participants ( who starts the
conversation first) , and settings( formal vs informal ).
Conversations are based on speakers taking turns to make an utterance. Ideally, these come in adjacency
pairs an initiation of conversation or request for information that needs an immediate response. There
may also be feedback to express satisfaction or thanks.

121
Please, read some ways to get to the next turn:
If I may ask a question of / about
Can I speak?
Shut up for goodness sake, I can`t get a word in!
I wonder if I might
If I may Source:http://www.myronstaana.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/using-hand-gestures.jpg
Can I .?
Dear student, please, listen to different conversations around you and pay attention
to the ways speakers take turns.
What elements do speakers use to indicate the beginning or end of the conversation?
How do the speakers express disagreement / agreement?
Can you continue the list of turn taking elements?
To make these instructions more explicit, I included the conversation below. Read and analyze it
attentively and then answer the questions above.
Pupil: - Will you look at my personal statement, sir?

Teacher: - Im teaching now, but come at lunchtime. OK?
Pupil: - Oh, thanks.
Teacher: - Do you know what courses you want to apply for?
Pupil: - Most of them, well I think so. Yeah! I am sure,the
majority of them.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=teacher+speaking+with+student&
source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=VLwgU7WhNtLokQfft4GQDQ&ved=0CAcQ_AU
oAQ&biw=1119&bih=462#facrc=_&imgrc=v3jX6jNm9ZCvZM%253A%3BvgHbsP
Cs7ux68M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.bangkokpost.com%252Fmedia%25
Teacher: - Yes, and were only in December.
2Fcontent%252F20120120%252F351051.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.
bangkokpost.com%252Flearning%252Feasier-stuff%252F275993%252Fmission-
impossible-getting-thai-students-to-speak-english%3B500%3B315
Pupil: - Oh! Yeah, I see
In addition , cultural differences should be also taken into consideration when taking turns in
conversation. Minimal silence and the so called thinking time before a response may vary from culture
to culture. Another very important element of turn-taking is body language ( including eye contact
as a turn - seeking signal, gesticulation ). Each culture has its own set of gestures that may signal as an
opening or closing elements in conversation.

Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=teacher+speaking+with+student&sou
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=teacher+speaking+with+student&source
rce=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=VLwgU7WhNtLokQfft4GQDQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&
=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=VLwgU7WhNtLokQfft4GQDQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=11
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=teacher+speaking+with+stude biw=1119&bih=462#q=students+in+India++speaking&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_
19&bih=462#q=arab+and+european++businessmen&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&img
nt&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=VLwgU7WhNtLokQfft4GQDQ&ved=0CA &imgrc=JHlB6EbD4TnDaM%253A%3BKhIpIcZOLWvpFM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F
rc=IqQ2U8smiXtXqM%253A%3B7AWRpxTGwNGotM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.
cQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119&bih=462#q=conversation&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc www.thehindu.com%252Fmultimedia%252Fdynamic%252F01094%252F26BGRTE_1
gentlemansgazette.com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2013%252F07%252FTw
=pzhoSd5_d-Bn7M%253A%3Bg5GM62Ldkhn-vM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fhaltonsb 094082f.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.thehindu.com%252Fnews%252Fnatio
enty-first-century-etiquette-is-global.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.gentlemans-
ec.files.wordpress.com%252F2011%252F07%252Fconversation.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%25 nal%252Fkarnataka%252Frte-act-can-pave-way-for-greater-commercialisation-says-
gazette.com%252Frules-of-civility-etiquette-guide%252F%3B5616%3B3744
2F%252Fhaltonsbec.wordpress.com%252F2011%252F07%252F04%252Froc-in-halton- expert%252Farticle3456678.ece%3B636%3B346
return-on-conversation%252F%3B1024%3B1024
Close to the notion of discourse analysis is the term paralanguage.
Paralanguage refers to non verbal elements of communication. These elements are used to modify
meaning and convey the emotion of the speech act participants.
Paralanguage may be expressed consciously and unconsciously.
It may include the elements described for turn taking : pitch, volume of the voice, and intonation.
The study of paralanguage is known as Paralinguistics.
Since it refers to elements of communication , so it should also be mentioned that within the field of
paralanguage is BODY LANGUAGE movements and gestures that speakers usually produce during
speech acts. Language of hands, body , and facial expressions is universal. Even Cicero, Quintillian , and
other ancient philosophers gave advice that is still used in training of public speakers.
Body language and gestures were thought to represent natural language ( similarities between gestures
and speech). Power of gestures in the expression of feelings gives them status of language (that is why
it is known as nonverbal communication ).
To learn more about paralanguage, I invite you to continue reading the information on this topic provided
in the corresponding unit of your textbook.
As you can understand from the textbook, an important point within paralanguage is body language. As
mentioned above, since the importance of gestures in the expression of feelings gives them the status of
language , it would be beneficial for you to read the extra information enclosed below.
Source::https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=calm+d
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=calm+d own+gesture&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=3Mg
own+gesture&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=3Mg Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=calm+dow Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=calm+d gU_LJC4XfkQfDo4HYCw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119&bi
gU_LJC4XfkQfDo4HYCw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119&bih= n+gesture&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=3MggU_ own+gesture&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=3Mg h=462#q=+Italian++man+speaking+&tbm=isch&facrc=_&im
462#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=Kd3obRXmkhdHQM%253A%3B LJC4XfkQfDo4HYCw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119&bih=462 gU_LJC4XfkQfDo4HYCw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119&b gdii=_&imgrc=GGMY6Ooys4BYOM%253A%3BhuBaofRVNtQf
VOlm0YRoOSOOcM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F3.bp.blogspot. #q=imploring++gesture&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=Il ih=462#q=+reproachful+gesture&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii wM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fimages.nationalgeographic.
com%252F-S5UUn_1399Q%252FUds4rY_FrMI%252FAAAA WHTANXhxIgXM%253A%3BfWroneGj1H2hKM%3Bhttp%253A% =_&imgrc=fF4qxFT0ZpBl_M%253A%3BRrQVLHmKtOmf-M% com%252Fwpf%252Fmedia-live%252Fphotos%252F000%252F
AAAACdg%252FTQnWXm3R0-4%252Fs1600%252Fimgres. 252F%252Fimage.shutterstock.com%252Fdisplay_pic_with_log 3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwwwdelivery.superstock.com%2 416%252Fcache%252Fbarbagia-elder-long-life_41632_600x450.
jpeg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fmurderiseverywhere. o%252F102438%252F102438%252C1259620724%252C1%252Fs 52FWI%252F223%252F1558%252FPreviewComp%252FSup jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Ftravel.nationalgeographic.
blogspot.com%252F2013%252F07%252Ffrench-gestures. tock-photo-business-women-with-her-hands-crossed-imploring- erStock_1558-141862.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww. com%252Ftravel%252Fhappiest-places%252Fblue-zones-
html%3B239%3B211 something-41938024.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww. superstock.com%252Fstock-photos-images%252F1558- sardinia-photos%252F%3B600%3B337
shutterstock.com%252Fpic-41938024%252Fstock-photo- 141862%3B233%3B350
CALM DOWN ! I AM TELLING YOU!!

business-women-with-her-hands-crossed-imploring-something.
html%3B300%3B470
REPROACH
I IMPLORE !

123
Both gestures and words relate to the mental representations that constitute thinking.
A language of gestures exists and varies from culture and culture and follows established rules. All
human communication consists of verbal and non verbal behaviour.
All social interactions usually involve a conjunction of verbal and non verbal aspects, speech doesn`t
occur in isolation ( exception: telephone calls, dancers, mimes, deaf-dumb , and neuropsychiatric ) .
Gestures as a way of communication exist in different professions. They are called TECHNICAL GESTURES.
You can see them in the streets ( for example, police officers controlling the traffic, workers in the airports,
etc.).
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=calm+down+gesture&source=lnms& Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=calm+down+gesture&source=lnms&t

Source:http://www.shutterstock.com/es/pic-96816028/stock-photo-air-traffic-controller- tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=3MggU_LJC4XfkQfDo4HYCw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119 bm=isch&sa=X&ei=3MggU_LJC4XfkQfDo4HYCw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119&b
holding-light-signs-at-the-airport.html?src=j0uft3L3kNR2yZ5RSW5iQg-1-9 &bih=462#q=street+traffic+policewoman&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=6X ih=462#q=flag+signals&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=q1tcN2USFeyGkM%25
3MPg_jRIpvKM%253A%3BhrH-t68EaV-_XM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fimg.cdn2. 3A%3BiTI2K6EHLXcyaM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fupload.wikimedia.org%252Fwik
vietnamnet.vn%252FImages%252Fenglish%252F2012%252F12%252F28%252F16% ipedia%252Fcommons%252F9%252F9a%252FUS_Navy_051129-N-0685C-007_Quar-
252F20121228164506-2.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fenglish.vietnamnet.vn%25 termaster_Seaman_Ryan_Ruona_signals_with_semaphore_flags_during_a_replenish-
2Ffms%252Fsociety%252F55820%252Fhanoi--policewomen-to-control-traffic-from- ment_at_sea.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fen.wikipedia.org%252Fwiki%252FFlag_
january-2013.html%3B450%3B296 semaphore%3B2100%3B1368
There are many elements of non verbal communication such as :
Eye Contact .
It varies according to culture. In some cultures ,during a

conversation eye contact should be limited, while in others
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=eye+contact&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=XNEgU93
EIumf0AGU9oHACg&sqi=2&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119&bih=462#q=staring+at+each+other&tbm=is
it is one of the main elements of speaking acts.
ch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=Vr28YXq0RI7V5M%253A%3BRgNw1Cb9l1aGfM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252
Fimage.shutterstock.com%252Fdisplay_pic_with_logo%252F85699%252F85699%252C1172602400%252
C1%252Fstock-photo-caucasian-mid-adult-businessman-and-woman-staring-at-each-other-with-hostile-
expressions-2935220.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.shutterstock.com%252Fpic-2935220%252Fstock-
photo-caucasian-mid-adult-businessman-and-woman-staring-at-each-other-with-hostile-expressions.
html%3B450%3B470
Proxemics- (physical proximity).
It refers to a space bubble that speakers of different

cultures maintain during the conversation. For example, in
Spanish speaking countries, the physical distance between
speakers during a conversation may not be very significant
, while in most of Europe, the USA, Canada, and some other
countries ,the speakers keep a certain distance from each
other
Source:http://www.google.com.ec/imgres?imgurl=&imgrefurl=http%3A%2F%2Flizprovasi.wordpress.
com%2F2012%2F04%2F01%2Fpersonal-space%2F&h=0&w=0&tbnid=1mWXX4K8K-HpZM&tbnh=248&tbnw=
203&zoom=1&docid=ForW7aU585iXxM&ei=kiciU5CcDYbo0QG1gYGYBQ&ved=0CA4QsCUoBA

Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0
%BA%D0%B0&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=biQiU9-iOIzskAeliYDwBw&sqi=2&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119&bih=46
2#q=proxemics&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=xdF7fPGsIsdsxM%253A%3BcXEBZH21UTFdkM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%
252F2.bp.blogspot.com%252F-kAaiGzztsls%252FTt68EZr6lYI%252FAAAAAAAAABY%252FYzp0YRnvZsw%252Fs1600%252Fco
Source: http://www.google.com.ec/imgres?imgurl=&imgrefurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.almostsavvy. mm1.gif%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fcoms-group-03.blogspot.com%252F%3B582%3B323
com%2F2009%2F04%2F06%2Fis-there-such-a-thing-as-virtual-personal-space%2F&h=0&w=0&tbnid=Tn5JYp8at2oubM&tbnh
=198&tbnw=255&zoom=1&docid=HeStzaK_-cnqXM&ei=cykiU7_lH4r40gHxl4HgBA&ved=0CAUQsCUoAQ
Another element , Kinesthetisc ( touching a partner during conversation ) also varies according to culture.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1
%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=b Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1 Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B
iQiU9-iOIzskAeliYDwBw&sqi=2&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119&bih=462#facrc=_&img %81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei= A%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0&source=lnms&tbm=isch
dii=_&imgrc=-CkpMzVeIj3HeM%253A%3BdMvn87hV5KnOxM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%2 biQiU9-iOIzskAeliYDwBw&sqi=2&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119&bih=462#q=%D0%B &sa=X&ei=biQiU9-iOIzskAeliYDwBw&sqi=2&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119&bih=
52Ftipolog.narod.ru%252FStatyi%252Frukopogatie_daleko.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%2 F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0&tb 462#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=e8Hol395jLVhmM%253A%3B7yLpwDYN-W_
52Ftipolog.narod.ru%252FStatyi%252Fobzor_tipologiy_04.html%3B278%3B176 m=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=xbZZQl1JliZWmM%253A%3B4kvNHeQAGybRcM%3 IgM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.anypsy.ru%252Fsites%252Fdefault%252Ffiles%25
Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.training-center.bg%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%25 2Fimages%252Fneverbalnoe_obshenie.%2525D0%2525B4%2525D0%2525BB%2525D1
2F2012%252F10%252F1-250x150.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.training-center. %25258F%252520%2525D1%252581%2525D1%252582%2525D0%2525B0%2525D1%2
bg%252Fproksemika-proximity%252F1-2%252F%3B250%3B150 52582%2525D125258C%2525D0%2525B8.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.anypsy.
ru%252Fcontent%252Fneverbalnoe-hchenie%3B250%3B250
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=touching+a+shoulder&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=cxYqU5PDNIa Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=touching+a+shoulder&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=cxYqU5PDNIagk

gkAeAroGYAw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119&bih=462#q=body+language+touching+a+shoulder&tbm=isch&facrc AeAroGYAw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119&bih=462#q=two++male+pensioners+speaking&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii
=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=TNScIRPh3eMf9M%253A%3BK8pzwJxE6SIsbM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwestsidetoastmasters. =AloNrOmEXgm5eM%3A%3BDSqsgk7Yi0dlNM%3BAloNrOmEXgm5eM%3A&imgrc=AloNrOmEXgm5eM%253A%3BtKL2b
com%252Fresources%252Fbook_of_body_language%252Fimages%252F056-shoulder_hold.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%2 4eQ_4I73M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fak2.picdn.net%252Fshutterstock%252Fvideos%252F2355467%252Fpreview%252-
52Fwestsidetoastmasters.com%252Fresources%252Fbook_of_body_language%252Fchap2.html%3B385%3B256 Fstock-footage-active-retirement-with-old-friends-two-happy-senior-men-talking-while-sitting-on-bench-in-city-park.
jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Ffootage.shutterstock.com%252Fclip-3261802-stock-footage-active-retired-elderly-
people-and-free-time-small-group-of-happy-senior-african-american-and.html%3B400%3B224
Dear student, having a basic knowledge of how communication works and its main elements( described
in the textbook and in this guide) may help you interpret the messages correctly. In addition, it may help
you in your teaching of English as a foreign language.
Dear student, please observe the body language ( gestures, face expressions)of people during
a conversation. Try to interpret them.
You may visit the following site to learn more about this topic:
http://coral.lili.uni-bielefeld.de/Classes/Winter97/PhonMM/phonmm/node36.html

125
Dear student, while speaking about communication and its elements, it is necessary to introduce one
more element . In this unit, you will be introduced to another term PRAGMATICS. It is briefly explained
in your textbook. As you will see, it is closely related to communication, discourse, and context.
Due to the importance of this subfield of linguistics, I considered it necessary to complement the textbook
information and include additional explanation in this didactic guide. So, first , read the explanation in
your textbook and then continue with the information that follows below.
Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics which studies how the context

contributes to the meaning of words and how context influences
the interpretation of meaning.
Pragmatics explains that the meaning depends not only on the linguistic knowledge (e.g. grammar rules,
vocabulary, etc.) of the speaker and listener, but also on the context of the utterance, and knowledge
about the status of those involved in conversation.
So, context is crucial for understanding the message appropriately. It contributes both to what is
communicated directly ( literal meaning of words) and to what is implied, or expressed indirectly.
We need Pragmatics to use language correctly and to avoid misunderstandings about meanings and to
be able to communicate and interact with speaker of other languages more naturally.
Pragmatics also focuses on cultural differences in context during the speech act.
In this respect, pragmatics explains how language users are able to overcome ambiguity since meaning
relies on such points as the manner, place, time etc. of an utterance. The ability to understand another
speakers intended meaning is called pragmatic competence.
To understand the influence of context on the use of language, it is necessary to take into consideration
the following features:
1. The participants:
We need to know who the speakers are, their roles in conversation, the difference in power( example:
boss- employee), the degree of closeness or distance between them ( peers, strangers, etc), and the
number of people involved in the speech act ( whether it is monologue, dialogue, public speech, etc.) .
2. The message content:
We need to know how beneficial the message is to the hearer/speaker, hearer / speaker, whether the
conversation is or not within the rights of the relationships between the participants.
3. The kind of communicative activity:
We need to know whether it is a job interview, informal conversation between friends, a lecture, etc.
These norms of the activity influence language behavior . The signals indicate the beginning or end of
the conversation ( see above turn- taking elements!!! ) , and level of formality between the participants
of speech act. ( Shcmitt, , 2011).

Dear student, a question arises: How can the knowledge of pragmatics be useful for language
learning and teaching a second or foreign language? I invite you to make an attempt to
answer this question.
Now see whether your answer was correct or not.
We might need Pragmatics to use language correctly and to avoid misunderstandings about meanings.
As you already know, in order to achieve successful communication, besides of grammar rules and
vocabulary we also need to know discourse elements, paralanguage, and of course, the context of
the speech act . Since pragmatics investigates the different aspects of the relationship between the
linguistic meaning and the interpretation of the context, it should be paid a due attention in learning
and teaching a language.
In addition, pragmatics also focuses on cultural differences in context during the speech act.
For example, people of different cultures may react to the same situation differently, and choose a certain
word or phrase according to their cultural backgrounds .In some countries it is acceptable to answer to
a compliment with thank you, while in others, a polite silence or compliment in return might be more
appropriate. In relation to this, I would like to mention another example .
All of you know the traditional greeting How are you? or

How do you do?. You know that these formulas do not
require the partner to start answering these questions with
a long narration of how your life is, or what your problems
are. It is just a traditional greeting , an expression of
politeness. However, in some cultures it would be considered
inappropriate to respond to these questions without a
detailed explanation of your life! On the other hand, it can
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=how+are+you&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=iGArU
4PfOoTJkAezgIH4DQ&sqi=2&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119&bih=462#q=how+are+you+%3F&tbm=i
be considered a lack of good manners for the person who
sch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=9GIXtjyIbimwdM%253A%3Bl5dHWKBwXmYv2M%3Bhttp%253A%252F
%252F1.bp.blogspot.com%252F-y8N-1CEBmbE%252FUT0KE70dUBI%252FAAAAAAAAAA8%252Fpk0Jxr used these greetings to not stop to listen to your life story!
X2rIs%252Fs1600%252Fhow%252Bare%252Byou.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fastridvasm.blogspot.
com%252F%3B326%3B317
Pragmatics tries to explain the differences found in many languages and cultural groups .(It is the field
of interlanguage pragmatics) .
To sum up, we can say that we need to learn pragmatics to be able to communicate and interact with
speaker of other languages more naturally.
Dear student, please think about more techniques you consider practical and necessary to
get a correct meaning of the context.

127
From the above explanation we can conclude that successful communication is a complex issue. All the
implications of language use vary according to the culture of the speakers. When teaching language, we
also have to teach cross - cultural aspects .
In our next section, CULTURE, we are going to analyze these elements .
I recommend you first read the corresponding information in your textbook and then complement it
with the material provided in this guide.
6.2. CULTURE
Language
Culture Thinking
The notions of culture and language cant be separated from each

other. The relationship between language and culture is so close
that you cannot understand or appreciate one without a knowledge
of the other. This relationship influences the thinking process, (see
the picture above).
Peoples culture finds reflection in the language they employ; they

use their language in ways that reflect what they value and what
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=how+are+you&source=lnms&tbm=isch&s
a=X&ei=iGArU4PfOoTJkAezgIH4DQ&sqi=2&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1119&bih=462#q=
they do. The structure of a language determines the way in which
cglobe+cultures&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=oOmCg6i6K0CgkM%253A%3B2M
MH8k-LhMIVeM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Ftech.worlded.org%252Fdocs%252Fculture%
252Fglobe.gif%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Ftech.worlded.org%252Fdocs%252Fculture%25
speakers of that language view the world.
2Fculture.htm%3B300%3B252
I offer you some definitions of culture:
John Donne (1624) said about culture: No man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the
continent, a part of the main;any mans death diminishes me, because I am involved in mankind; and
therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee.
A more modern definition belongs to American novelist Richard Thomas Condon(1973 ) who wrote :
Culture is a system of integrated patterns , most of which remain below the threshold of consciousness, yet all
of which govern human behaviour just as surely as the manipulated strings of a puppet control its emotions .
From the sociocultural point of view, culture is our collective identity. It guides the behaviour of
people in a community and is formed by our family life. It governs our behaviour in groups, makes us
sensitive to matters of status and helps us to know how far we can go as individuals ,and teaches us
what our responsibility to the group is. Culture can be also defined as the ideas, customs, skills, arts, that
characterize a given group of people in a given period of time.

Culture establishes for each person a context of cognitive and affective behaviour, a basis for personal
and social existence.
Culture, the set of behaviors and modes of perceptions, is highly important in the learning of a
second language.
A language is a part of culture, and a culture is a part of language; we cannot separate the two
without losing the significance of either language or culture.
It is a profound cross-cultural learning experience, a set of situations or circumstances involving

intercultural communication in which the individual, as a result of the experiences, becomes aware
of his or her own growth, learning and change.
As mentioned in your textbook, there is a strong necessity to learn cultural elements in order to avoid
cross-cultural misunderstandings. These misunderstandings can occur at many levels: they may cause
wrong interpretation of some gestures ( hand shakes, kisses between people of the same sex), body
language ( the same gestures may have different meanings in different cultures), and usage of certain
phrases and words in similar situations may be appropriate in one culture but not acceptable in other.
So when teaching a foreign language, we also have to teach elements of cross-cultural communication
, since this is a part of applied linguistics. Please read about it in your textbook.
Dear student, research how people of different cultures:

- greet each other
- say farewell
The next section in the textbook is continuation of the topic of the relationship between culture and
context . This subtopic provides you with clear explanation about how cultural differences may influence
translation from and into the target language. Please, read the next section about:
6.3. Translation, culture, and context
Dear student, after reading and analyzing the information in your textbook you may complement your
knowledge with the additional explanation offered in this guide.
As it was already mentioned at the beginning of this unit , language is an expression of culture. It
influences the way the speakers perceive the world and it has significant implications for translation.

129
According to Hariyanto ( 2010) , in translation , culture manifests itself in two ways. First, the concept or
reference of the vocabulary items is specific for the given culture. Second, the concept or reference is
specific to the source language culture.
When translating from and into the target language , translators and interpreters should always be aware
of cultural implications.
Please read the following definitions of translation:
Catford (1965: 20) wrote that translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by
equivalent textual material in another language. In this definition, the most important thing is equivalent
textual material. Yet, it is still vague in terms of the type of equivalence. Culture is not taken into account.
Very similar to this definition is that of Savory (1968) who maintains that translation is made possible by
an equivalence of thought that lies behind different verbal expressions.
And one more definition, by Newmark, (1981:7) : Translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to
replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in
another language
As you can see from the above definitions, cultural aspects are not taken into consideration in translation.
It is stated in your textbook that cross cultural differences SHOULD BE considered in translation. They
are necessary to achieve a correct understanding of the message. The same phrases and words may have
different connotations and if literally translated may distort the original meaning.
To this respect, I would like to mention an anecdote about literal translation. During an international
congress of translators and interpreters , there was a need to translate a Spanish phrase hechar un
vistazo. It was literally translated from Spanish into one certain language, than from that language into
another one, and so forth. At the end it arrived to Spanish language as se le cayo el ojo.It resembles a
children `s game of broken telephone ( also known as Chinese whispers), doesn t it?!
Another example comes to mind. In Spanish , when you need to travel you may say Voy a tomar / coger
el bus , which cannot be literally translated into Russian . Its literal meaning would be Voy a asaltar el
bus! It is quite similar with vistazo /ojo, isn`t it? What about you? Do you eat or drink an ice-cream? (
tomar helado/ eat an ice-cream).
From the above examples , you can easily conclude that translation cannot be limited just by finding
literal and direct word equivalents . This should be also taken into translation with electronic translators.
So you can understand that when translating, it is crucial to take into consideration the context and
specific cultural connotations in order to get the correct meaning of the words! In the example above ,
we can see the element of transfer of native language experience into foreign one.( the phenomenon of
TRANSFER is explained in detail in unit 8) .
Dear student, please think of some Spanish phrases that cannot be literally translated
into English and vice versa.

Dear student, from all that we have discussed in this unit you can understand that teaching a language
cannot be separated from teaching culture. Language and culture are truly intertwined.
We need to introduce knowledge of elements of cross cultural communication into language classrooms.
To understand the reasons for it, read the next section of this unit in your textbook. To complement it, I
included some techniques explaining how this might be done.
Dear student, please, read in your textbook the next section.
6.4. Own Language: rights and understanding
Dear student, please, read this section in your textbook. The information there will help you understand
the next part of the course content, which is about:
6.5. Teaching Culture
Teaching a language cannot be separated from teaching culture.

The acquisition of a second language is also the acquisition of a
second culture.
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=culture+in+classroom&source=lnms&tbm=isch
&sa=X&ei=xW49U7-DAuPN2AWejoHoBA&sqi=2&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#fa
crc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=DUsG3wtE3ZLcQM%253A%3BGuz9duJBWLRcbM%3Bhttp%253A%2
52F%252Fwww.ierg.net%252Fnews-items%252Fculture-in-the-classroom-lucid%252Fimage_
mini%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.ierg.net%252Fnews-items%252Fculture-in-the-classroom-
lucid%252F%3B181%3B200
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=teaching+culture+in+class&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=bZA1U7jG
CrPLsQS404KYAQ&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=5zFEi0RBL8_JNM%253A%3Bsh
bnCcI2PFuqcM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F4.bp.blogspot.com%252F-zDY0t76MO_Y%252FUf9tlmyf2CI%252FAAAAAAA
AF4U%252Fr5evT6o8_CM%252Fs1600%252FIMG_0826.JPG%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fcockroachesladybugs.blogspot.
com%252F2013%252F10%252Fhow-do-cultural-differences-affect.html%3B800%3B600
Moscow London
Source https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=san+basil+Cathedral+Moscow&source= New York
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=san+basil+Cathedral+Moscow&s Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=san+basil+Cathedral+Moscow&source=lnms&
lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=q7EsU9zCF8PtkQezoIGABQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=111
ource=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=q7EsU9zCF8PtkQezoIGABQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUo tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=q7EsU9zCF8PtkQezoIGABQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q
8&bih=462#q=House+of+parliament+london&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=SIj
AQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=Kremlin+Moscow&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&im =Time+Square&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=aOX-HbG-LR4LWM%253A%3BSXgjctoY
PRcYSi3HLrM%253A%3BuPORnhYJwmP8BM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.tourist-
grc=__nx7G_N4tmCAM%253A%3Bk0wLkVxIuGZ98M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%25 gZwwjM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fupload.wikimedia.org%252Fwikipedia%252Fcommons
information-uk.com%252Fuploads%252Fimages%252Fattraction_images%252F238%2
2F4.bp.blogspot.com%252F_qrNR5aHBFfI%252FTGMMnz7X2UI%252FAAAAAAA %252F4%252F47%252FNew_york_times_square-terabass.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fen.
52Fxlarge%252F00012_2.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.tourist-information-uk.
AB3g%252FYnKZj70VS7E%252Fs1600%252Frussia0001.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252 wikipedia.org%252Fwiki%252FTimes_Square%3B3904%3B2602
com%252Fparliament.htm%3B500%3B333
F%252Fpostalpicture.blogspot.com%252F2010%252F08%252Fmoscow-kremlin.
html%3B1152%3B784

131
When we learn a second or foreign language, we also learn a second / foreign culture. It may be said that
we acquire a second identity. Any time you successfully learn a language, you will also learn something
about the culture of the speakers of that language. This principle focuses on the complex interconnection
of language and culture:
Whenever you teach a language, you also teach a complex system of cultural customs, values, and ways
of thinking, feeling, and acting.
Culture is a way of life. It is a context within which we exist, think, feel, and relate to others. It is a glue
that binds a group of people together. Culture is our collective identity.
Culture might also be defined as the ideas, customs, skills, arts, and
tools that characterize a given group of people in a given period of
time.
We tend to perceive reality within the context of our own culture .Perception is always subjective.
Misunderstandings are likely to occur between members of different cultures. People from other cultures
may appear , in your eyes, to be loud or quiet, conservative or liberal, in reference to your own
point of view.
It is obvious that culture becomes highly important in the learning of a second language. A language is
a part of culture and culture is a part of language. If people recognize and understand different world
views, they will adopt a positive and open-minded attitude toward cross-cultural differences . The
acquisition of a second language is also the acquisition of a second culture.
Both learners and teachers of a second language need to understand cultural differences, to recognize
openly that people are not the same beneath the skin. There are real differences between groups and
cultures.
Nowadays teachers of ESL /EFL should be aware of this and incorporate aspects of culture into the
teaching/learning process.
This can be done using different techniques that promote cultural understanding .

For example:
Through discussions of cross- Teach the students the cultural

The use of role-plays to cultural differences with the connotations, especially the
overcome cultural students, emphasizing that sociolinguistic aspects of
fatigue. no culture is "better" than language.
another.
Through direct exposure to

The use of Through the use
the target language culture : Through discourse
readings, of direct
the use of movies or analysis of the
simulation communication
documentaries about the language.
games. (invite native
country of the target
speakers).
language.
Through
culture capsules
( Brown, 2001)
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=watching+movie&source=lnms&tbm=isc Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=watching+movie&source=lnms&tbm=isc

h&sa=X&ei=WDwwU7_SOo_NkQfmwYHgBA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462 h&sa=X&ei=WDwwU7_SOo_NkQfmwYHgBA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462
#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=yIYxt_HUSD1B2M%253A%3BX7j_jcc0cVIXUM%3Bhttp%253A Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=watching+movie&source=lnms&tbm=isch #q=discussion+class&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=d-sON3bGjFSCTM%253A%3
%252F%252Frakstagemom.files.wordpress.com%252F2011%252F12%252Fmoviereel.jp &sa=X&ei=WDwwU7_SOo_NkQfmwYHgBA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462# BGYaFysIZSUwWGM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F1.bp.blogspot.com%252F_oirQRbekVg
g%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Frakstagemom.wordpress.com%252Ftag%252Fspielberg- q=+school+students+role+play&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=TXWpTyrl_bcyaM U%252FTNSXJVgcarI%252FAAAAAAAABpA%252FBOLuNBmfTUw%252Fs1600%252Fstu
films%252F%3B500%3B452 %253A%3B6SR8OJ5p_9H1pM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.knightonhouse.dorset. dents%252Bin%252Bclass.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fspanishandillinois.blogspot.
sch.uk%252Ftheorchard%252FOPagePics%252FearlyYears%252FEarlyYears%252FrolePl com%252F2010_11_01_archive.html%3B1157%3B768
ay1.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.knightonhouse.dorset.sch.uk%252Ftheorchar
d%252Fopages%252FearlyYears%252FEarlyYearsFoundationStage.htm%3B432%3B324
Dear student, brainstorm some ideas and techniques that help incorporate the teaching of
culture into the classroom.
Please check what you have learned! Answer the questions in the following self-test.

133
Self- Evaluation 6
1. The branch of linguistics that focuses on language use above and beyond the sentence is:
a. discourse analysis
b. pragmatics
c. communicative competence
2. Which of these sciences is interested in discourse analysis?:
a. cognitive psychology
b. pragmatics
c. semiotics
3. Discourse Analysis is interested in:
a. spoken language
b. written language
c. both a and b
4. Which of the following fields of linguistics studies the influence of the context into the word
meaning:
a. semantics
b. pragmatics
c. linguistic competence
Activity 2. Answer TRUE ( T ) or FALSE ( F ) according to the statement:
1.() One of the most significant elements of oral discourse analysis is turn-taking.
2.() Some of the turn-taking elements are silence and body language .
3.() Teaching discourse elements is necessary to achieve effective communication .
4.() The notions of CULTURE and LANGUAGE do not influence each other.
5.() Cross-cultural communication improves the abilities to express ones thoughts and
ideas.
6.() When teaching foreign language it is necessary to teach the cultural elements which
are part of that language .
( see the answers at the end of the guide)
THIS IS THE END OF UNIT SIX

UNIT 7. PERSUASION and POETICS, RHETORIC and RESISTANCE
One of the main issues to be discussed in this unit is literary stylistics. Even though it is not considered
as a topic of applied linguistics, it is important to realize that the use that speakers and writers make of
the language goes beyond the literal meaning of words; speakers and writers add a variety of linguistic
devices to create their own style, devices such as rhyme, rhythm, parallel constructions and other ways
in which words, phrases and sentences increase meaning. There is much to be said about meaning.
Usually speakers and writers attach different connotations to words, not only in literary use, but also in
daily speech.
7.1. Literary Stylistics
It is the study of style as means of analyzing

works of literature and their effect. (Webster
dictionary,1991).
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=stylistics&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=jEkwU7mtFMeFkQeD1IGw
BQ&sqi=2&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=literary+stylistics&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=2Hp_
mwefPrGfzM%253A%3BhS_qaJ3_10gk8M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fctlt.ubc.ca%252Ffiles%252F2009%252F12%252Feng-322.
jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fctlt.ubc .ca%252Fdistance-learning%252Fcourses%252Fengl%252Fengl322%252F%3B580%3B200 The Stylistics is defined as follows :
In other words, it is the study and interpretation of texts from a linguistic perspective.
The main object of stylistic studies is literature, and other forms of written texts such as advertisements,
pop culture materials, or religious texts.
Stylistics also tries to explain the particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use
of language, the production and reception of meaning, critical discourse analysis , and literary criticism.
I invite you to read the corresponding chapter of your textbook to get acquainted with some features of
stylistics.
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=stylistics&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=jEkwU7mtFMeFkQeD1IGwBQ&sqi=2&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=lite
rary+styles&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=lOcXLE4KBFnImM%3A%3BAk7qF6JszROGJM%3BlOcXLE4KBFnImM%3A&imgrc=lOcXLE4KBFnImM%253A%3B3y_Li1HusuT2rM%3Bhttp%2
53A%252F%252Fhelpmewithbiblestudy.org%252F5system_skillbuilder%252Fimages%252Fobserve5.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fhelpmewithbiblestudy.org%252F5system_
skillbuilder%252Fobserve5.aspx%3B600%3B441

135
Some important features should be also mentioned:
the use of dialogue

regional accents
people`s dialects
the use of descriptive language
figures of thought : focus on meaning ( metaphors , figurative language, hyperbole,
irony, allegory)
the use of grammar (active / passive voice, etc. )
the distribution of sentence lengths, etc.
alliteration ( repetition of consonants at the beginning of the words) Ex: Upon thy side
against myself I`ll fight, And prove three virtuous though thou art forsworn
consonance ( repetition of consonants at the end of the words)
assonance ( the repetition of vowel sounds)
rhyme (the repetition of both the vowel and the consonantal sound at the end of the
word) Ex: support retort spitefully- delightfully
parallel structure-( the use of the same pattern of words to show that two or more
ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause
level) .
The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctions
such as and or or. Ex: Henry likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling./ Henry likes to hike,
to swim, and to ride a bicycle.
eye rhyme( two rhyming words that are spelled the same , ex: great meat )
(Brown, 2011)
Dear student,
Research any written material available and find examples to illustrate the linguistic devices
listed above.
In the next section of this chapter,
7.2. LANGUAGE AND PERSUASION
In the following unit you will read about some language uses. These language functions are very
important issues and constitute a special focus of applied linguistics. Your textbook explains how
language functions to achieve different effects in communication, especially in persuasion.
Persuasion language is not new. It was used in ancient times. Aristotle wrote about persuasion
techniques more than 2.000 years ago, and they have been used by speakers, writers, and media makers

for even longer than that. The goal of most media messages is to persuade the audience to believe or
do something.
Linguistic techniques of persuasion are used by many people and organizations - politicians, government,
etc. using ads, speeches, newsletters, websites, and other means try to persuade us to vote for or support
them, using ads, speeches, newsletters, websites, and other means
These techniques are used to catch our attention, to establish credibility and trust, and to motivate us to
act (buy, vote, give money, etc.).
Dear student, analyze any newspaper advertisement. What graphs call your attention? What
words are used to persuade you?
Among some persuading techniques are the following:
persons name. Using a persons name is one of the most powerful persuasion techniques.
motivating words ( such as think about, today, and now, and do this).
the same language as the audience. Change or adapt your language to more closely match theirs.
rhetorical questions (they are designed to get us to agree with the speaker).
These are just some of the big list of persuasion techniques.
Dear student, can you continue the list? What persuasion techniques can you mention? Do
you know any other technique?
The next subtopic of this chapter continues the theme of linguistic communication. It analyzes the
choice of vocabulary for different purposes and its effect on the audience. This is the field of Critical
Discourse Analysis (CDA).
7.3. Critical Discourse Analysis
I prompt you to read in your textbook about this discipline and get acquainted with some strategies of
CDA.
In Unit 6 we already discussed the notion and the field of discourse analysis. I hope that you remember
that discourse analysis refers to the use of written, spoken, signed language use and naturally occurring
language ( formal informal conversations, elements of turn- taking, etc ).

137
In contrast, Critical Discourse Analysis refers to the approach to the study of discourse in general that
views language as a form of social practice and focuses on the ways social and political domination are
reproduced by text and talk.
CDA does not limit its analysis to specific structures of text or talk, but systematically relates these to
structures of the sociopolitical context.
Conversationalization refers to the style of public discourse that simulates intimacy by

adopting features of informal, conversational language. It is also known as public colloquial
language. People who may look as though they are having an ordinary conversation on a
television chat show are in fact, of course, performing in front of the cameras and as much
in the public domain as you could possibly imagine. (Talbot, 2007).
In this unit the strategies of CDA are described. I would like to explain the term conversationalization
since your textbook doesn`t provide its definition.
Conversationalization includes colloquial vocabulary and paralinguistic features of colloquial language

including questions of accent; modes of grammatical complexity characteristic of colloquial spoken
language, colloquial modes of topical development ; colloquial genres, such as conversational narrative.
(Talbot, 2007).
Dear student, please read the textbook and try to understand each strategy of CDA , including the
differences between them and also pay attention to the main elements of each , and then try to do the
following:
Dear student, find in any written material available ( newspapers, magazines, etc) examples
for each of the CDA strategies.
passivization nominalization conversationalization
Dear students, as you can see the table in the textbook and this didactic guide have different subtopics
in each unit. During your university studies you will take separate courses about each of the language
skills and how to teach them and assessments. But since the topic TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS is of a
great interest for applied linguistics ,you need to get acquainted with it. That is why this topic is included
in this didactic guide.
Please, read the information I offer you below.

7.4. TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS
The first skill to be discussed is LISTENING.
Listening- is a process of decoding the sounds that one

hears in a linear fashion, from the smallest meaningful
units (phonemes) to complete texts. Listening is
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=listening+activities&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=3MsxU9KgMYzqk
fundamental for speaking.
AezpIGwBQ&sqi=2&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=listening+games&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgr
c=tVVj7apQHrtjUM%253A%3B6_7xRt9kNUbxmM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.buzzle.com%252Fimg%252Farticle
Images%252F555019-22227-57.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.buzzle.com%252Farticles%252Flistening-games-
for-adults.html%3B381%3B254
Listening became fashionable in the 1980`s with

Krashen`s ideas about comprehensible input ( see the
Natural Approach, Unit 4, in this didactic guide) , and
with Asher`s Total Physical Response method of teaching
foreign languages.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=listening+activities&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=3MsxU9KgM
YzqkAezpIGwBQ&sqi=2&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=+in+language++lab+&tbm=isch&facrc=_&i
mgdii=W-905grS0JD0SM%3A%3B5-RVZaSQSK1fvM%3BW-905grS0JD0SM%3A&imgrc=W-905grS0JD0SM%253A%
3BD3vbJAN96oc8pM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.psshda.org%252Fimagessmall%252Flanguage-lab.
jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.psshda.org%252Flanguage-lab.php%3B300%3B250
What are some reasons for teaching LISTENING skills ? Among them could be mentioned the following:
It helps the students to acquire

Listening to spoken English
language subconsciously( students
let the students hear
are exposed to language
different language varieties
pronunciation, rhythm, intonation,
and accents.
stress).
When preparing to teach listening, teachers should

be aware of some rules. They are:
The teacher Preparation is

Tape recorder or Different listening
should have less vital. The teacher
CD player is as stages demand
interventionist should always
important as the different listening
role, encourage start listening
tape; they both tasks.
learners to listen activity with a
should be in good
and re-listen and brief introductory
condition to allow
do as much of the phase in order to
clear and
work as possible engage and
comprehensible
by themselves. motivate students.
material.

139
What Kind of Listening Should Students do?
There is a debate between pedagogues about what kind of

listening material should be used during a class period. Should
it be authentic material? ( real announcements, conversations
telephone exchange, news broadcast, interviews, radio /TV
programs, stories read aloud) Or for time sake it should it be
something less complex and simplified according to the students
level?
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=listening+activities&source=lnms&tbm=isch&
sa=X&ei=3MsxU9KgMYzqkAezpIGwBQ&sqi=2&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=
A new trend in teaching is to accept the importance of authentic
+students+in+language++lab+&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=se0SyVdsPbrI8M%253
A%3Bib1-R-E0wrrVdM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.hindu.com%252Fyw%252F2005%25
2F08%252F26%252Fimages%252F2005082606430601.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.
material since it offers real and authentic language, real life
hindu.com%252Fyw%252F2005%252F08%252F26%252Fstories%252F2005082606430600.
htm%3B308%3B350 listening experience and a natural speed of delivery together
with the correct model for pronunciation.
When choosing the authentic material for the class, the teacher should take into consideration the
following:
Tasks depend on the students level.

RULE to follow: Instead of simplifying the language of the
text, simplify the task.
Example: If the students are beginners, the teacher may choose easy to understand authentic pre-
recorded announcements, phone messages, and ask students to say what words were mentioned in
listening part, etc. Students have to be encouraged to listen for general comprehension rather than pick
out details.
If students are at an advanced proficiency level, authentic: scripted material , authentic lectures, etc ,are
the best choice.
Listening may be subdivided in the Extensive and Intensive listening.
Extensive listening is usually performed outside the class room ,( It is then followed in class by general
questions establishing context ). It offers greater motivation because the students choose the source
for the listening activity.
Students may be asked to listen to published audio tapes, CDs, watch movies, and listen to radio
programs, congresses, speeches , etc.

Source:
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=listening+activities&s Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=listening+activi https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=listening+activities
ource=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=3MsxU9KgMYzqkAezpIGwBQ&sqi ties&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=3MsxU9KgMYzqkAezp Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=listening+activities&so &source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=3MsxU9KgMYzqkAezpI
=2&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=+warching+TV+c IGwBQ&sqi=2&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q= urce=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=3MsxU9KgMYzqkAezpIGwBQ&sqi=2 GwBQ&sqi=2&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q
artoon&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=ggnc2b7BhkZnVM%2 +listening+to+CD+player&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgr &ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=+working+on+compu =listening+to+CD+player+cartoon&tbm=isch&facrc=_&im
53A%3BlxtrMNbwIlQJjM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F1.bp.blogspot. c=0yUOEpyGR_cHRM%253A%3BOTXCGclCAXgyFM%3Bhttp% ter&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=axrRP6lklEWGBM%253A%3 gdii=_&imgrc=PS_Wcye7CmfHgM%253A%3BV0yWJU2tfjb
com%252F_0KLV36BXdqU%252FSwfsqckGmbI%252FAAAAAAAAL 253A%252F%252Fwww.ebps.net%252Fcms%252Flib04%252F BeQxB801gUosmFM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.valleysqueeze. z8M%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.cartoonstock.com%25-
v0%252FJsRTlkXQ6wE%252Fs320%252F9.png%3Bhttp%253A%25 MA01000450%252FCentricity%252FDomain%252F102%252F com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2011%252F10%252Fw 2Fnewscartoons%252Fcartoonists%252Fena%252Flowres%
2F%252Fprocultura10.blogspot.com%252F2009%252F11%252Ftv- rk8_boy4.gif%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.ebps.net%252F orking-hard1.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.valleysqueeze. 252Fmusic-music-radios-cd_players-cd-cd_player-enan55l.
mundial.html%3B320%3B284 Page%252F312%3B300%3B268 com%252F2011%252F10%252Fthe-importance-of-computer- jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.cartoonstock.com%25
skills%252F%3B293%3B300 2Fdirectory%252Fc%252Fcassettes.asp%3B400%3B303
As follow up activities teacher may ask students:
to fill in report forms list

the topics heard, assess
to record their
the level of difficulty,
responses to what
summarize the contents
they have heard.
of a recording, etc.
to write comments and

their responses on a
to share information class listening poster.
with the classmates.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=recording+speaking&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=oNcxU5HnMobqkQemmIH
QDQ&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=recording+voice&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=oGPGBvBmqPw__M%2 Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=stylistics&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=jEkwU7mtFMeFkQeD1IGwBQ&sqi=2
53A%3B4NP2Y72Y6uJAyM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fstatic.guim.co.uk%252Fsys-images%252FGuardian%252FPix%252Fpictures &ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=writing&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=MgBVmV3kLBIXbM%253A%3B8y
%252F2013%252F2%252F21%252F1361466110681%252Frecord-smart-phone-008.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.theguar- QHRHifm7MWTM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.thesaleslion.com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2013%252F05%2
dian.com%252Feducation%252F2013%252Ffeb%252F26%252Fvoice-recording-english-language-teaching%3B460%3B276 52Fwriting-first-blog-paragraph.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.thesaleslion.com%252Fwrite-first-paragraph-blog-article-
business%252F%3B1750%3B1183

141
In contrast, Intensive Listening is a class listening ,followed by detailed comprehension questions.
Among the disadvantages of Intensive Reading are the

class size ( large ), poor acoustic conditions, having to
move at the same speed for everyone.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=recording+speaking&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=oNcxU5H
nMobqkQemmIHQDQ&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=+language+lab&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii
=_&imgrc=4irEMC4LksWb1M%253A%3BKoXafShSFIvNIM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fperwitanusaraya.files.wor-
dpress.com%252F2010%252F02%252Flab-bahasa.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fperwitanusaraya.wordpress.
com%252Ftraining-course-institution%252Flab-bahasa%252F%3B3313%3B2485
For Intensive Listening the following activities can be suggested:
repetition of chunks of
reading aloud (together
material during short
with the recording).
pauses.
For better results , classroom Listening should follow a certain sequence : Pre-, While-, and Post Listening
stages.
PRE LISTENING WHILE -LISTENING POST LISTENING

This stage prepares students Its purpose is to help the It serves to help the learners
for what they are going to learners understand the text. connect what they have
hear. heard with their own ideas
It is important not to expect
and experiences and
The teacher presents the students to understand
reinforce recently learned
indispensable key words. It every single word but rather
material.
should not be long stage. the general meaning.
The teacher should not test
students understanding
but help them understand
the listening material.

PRE- LISTENING WHILE- LISTENING POST- LISTENING activities

activities activities
brainstorm vocabulary take notes of two or more ask students to give and
pieces of information share opinions
review grammar
listen to a specific piece relate similar experiences
discuss the topic of the
of information and
listening material role play
answer questions
provide sufficient context write a brief report
complete sentences, fill
discuss a relevant picture the blank spaces, or write a similar text , a
complete a map, picture, story , or dialogue
discuss a relevant
experience or a table debate the topic
associate ideas with the engage students in class
topic discussion
associate vocabulary with ask students to prepare
the topic questions about the text
predict information examine functional
about the topic language (e.g.: How
would you say?)
write questions about the
topic infer vocabulary meaning
use story telling perform interviews and
(students may be asked free conversations
to predict what is coming
next in the listening
material, to describe
people or events in the
story, etc. ).
What activities can you offer for EXTENSIVE listening?

What exercises can you do in the POST-LISTENING phase?
Teaching Speaking
The next skill to discuss is SPEAKING.
Its main goal is to enable learners to use English effectively. It is

a very complex activity that involves different aspects.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=recording+speaking&source=lnms&tbm=isch&s
I invite you to observe the graphic below to understand the
components of this skill .
a=X&ei=oNcxU5HnMobqkQemmIHQDQ&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=speakin
g&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=8iAW8w7T-T0SPM%253A%3B8rafhW6fEYwTIM%3Bhttp
%253A%252F%252Fwww.english-speaking-only.com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F20
12%252F06%252Fspeaking-english-conversation-292x300.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Feng
lishspeak.wpengine.com%252Fpractical-english-speaking-how-to-continue-a-conversation-in-
english%252F%3B292%3B30 0

143
Grammatical
competence
Strategic Sociolinguistic
competence Speaking competence
poficiency
Discourse
competence
To achieve good speaking proficiency is the goal of any English course. Teachers should take into account
the following speaking implications.
fear of speaking in front of a group of people

recognizable pronunciation is necessary for speech to be intelligible
speaking takes place in ``real time``
It is the responsibility of the teacher to provide conditions for a successful process of speaking. To achieve
this, it is necessary to create a relaxed atmosphere so that students are not frightened of speaking in
front of the class. It can be done through pair /group work . In addition, teachers should:
Expose the learner as much as possible to naturally pronounced speech

Integrate some pronunciation work into the lessons, for example lists of
words , drilling, etc.
Combine listening and speaking in real time, in natural interaction-
dialogues, debates, free conversations, etc.
Why should teachers encourage students to do speaking tasks?
Among the many reasons, we should mention the following :

Getting students to have a
Many speaking activities-
Good speaking activities free discussion gives them a
role- playing , discussion,
can and should be highly chance to rehearse having
problem solving, etc are
motivating. discussions outside the
motivating and enjoyable in
class.
themselves. Teachers If all the students are
should take advantage of participating fully and if Having them take part in a
this fact. the teacher has set up the role-play at an airport check-
activity properly they will in desk allows them to
get satisfaction from it. rehearse a real-life event in
the classroom.

Source:http://
www.google.com.ec/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&docid=aHQ4BQLB
7ay-HM&tbnid=MBP5WTS3IgDe_M:&ved=&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.socialmoms.com%2Fcategory%2Fh
ealth%2Fpediatrics%2F&ei=JqE1U6DPO6P00gGFyoAY&psig=AFQjCNG0kl_kKz85VVnhxeDkHh5aNoTrXA&u
st=139610999159489497
Teaching Pronunciation is another very significant aspect in teaching speaking.
The main goal of teaching pronunciation in EFL is to promote the acquisition of accent- free speech , but
this is often something that is difficult to achieve for non-native speakers . For this reason, the majority of
teaching pronunciation classes are centered on having students produce comprehensible and natural-
sounding speech.
Teaching speaking goals depend on the students proficiency level.
At the beginning level, we want learners to achieve clear, comprehensible pronunciation.
At the advanced levels pronunciation goals can focus on elements of intonation, voice quality, and
rhythm.
To achieve better results in teaching speaking, we need to know some aspects that affect pronunciation:
Native Language: the most influential factor. It can be overcome through a focused effort on the
learners part.
Age: children under the age of 11- 13 have an excellent chance to sound like a native.
Exposure : quality and intensity of exposure to a foreign language.
Innate phonetic ability an ear for

language.
Identity and language ego factors :

students need to become aware of the
second identity they learn together
with the target language.
Motivation and concern for good

pronunciation.
Source: http://www.cliseetiquette.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/Woman-listening.jpg

145
FEEDBACK and CORRECTION TECHNIQUES
It is very important to know how to correct speaking mistakes. :
a. selfcorrection techniques
( This is when students correct themselves ) How? The teacher should give students the chance to realize
that mistake was made. It can be done by:
repeating the incorrect form with a questioning intonation,

giving the correct form or the beginning of it,
repeating the sentence up to the error
b. self - correction with teachers help
The teacher may use facial expression , or ask Sorry?

The teacher may use no gestures with his or her hands
The teacher may give the learner a choice ( Ex: cheap- cheaper.. more cheap?).
All correction techniques should be appropriate for the specific error and clear for the learners.
REMEMBER
Teachers should give learners the opportunity to correct themselves ( selfcorrection )
and then provide help if necessary.
If a learner fails to self correct, invite others to make the correction ( peer correction ).
Teacher correction should be the last option .
Learners will be passive if teacher constantly corrects them.
The teacher should correct the mistakes when student finishes the activity.
Dear students, I invite you to investigate how to provide feed back and correction
techniques.
Please visit this site to learn more about this topic :
http://www.onestopenglish.com/support/methodology/classroom-management/
classroom-management-speaking-correction-techniques/146455.article

WRITING
The next skill to discuss is WRITING. It has always been part of applied
linguistics. It is probably the most difficult skill for learners to master. It is
a very complex skill. In the past, it was believed that writing reflected a
student`s knowledge of other skills such as speaking. Nowadays, writing
does not represent only the speaking ability of students, but communicative
competence in general.
When writing, we have to generate and organize ideas , and translate those
ideas into a readable text. In addition, writing involves skills such as spelling,
Source:http://bestclipartblog.com/clipart-pics/writing-clips-art-4.gif
punctuation, capitalization, word choice, appropriateness of style, etc.
So as you understand, there are many REASONS FOR TEACHING WRITING.
They are:
REINFORCEMENT . Students benefit from seeing the language in written form.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT. The process of writing helps students to learn language.
Writing is appropriate as a slower reflective activity.
WRITING AS A SKILL is necessary for writing letters, reports,

etc. Students need to know punctuation, and paragraph
construction.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?tbm=isch&biw=1118&bih=462&q=thinking%20and%20
writing%20in%20class#noj=1&q=writing&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=YnkslEMkaghmwM%25
3A%3BVLgTyfyBy5txaM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.writinglives.org%252Fwp-content%252Fuplo
ads%252F2013%252F04%252F55327_girl-writing_lg.gif%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.writinglives.
org%252Fcategory%252Flife-writing-class-identity%3B1024%3B998
There are many TYPES OF WRITING.
Dear student, Try to make a list of all the kinds of writing that you can think of.
And now compare your list with this one below:
Narration
Description
Persuasion
Types of Writing Exposition
Research Writing
Response to Literature Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=stylistics&source=lnms&tbm=isch
&sa=X&ei=jEkwU7mtFMeFkQeD1IGwBQ&sqi=2&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=111
8&bih=462#q=teacher+with+pointer&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=7qtJ
pUyJbXWH8M%253A%3B9ibnSlRrVJwQmM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fvanvba
Writing for assessment ll.com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2011%252F10%252Fa_talking_tea-
cher_with_a_pointer_0521-1005-1219-0216_SMU.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fvanv
ball.com%252Fteacher-sponsors%252F%3B300%3B260

147
According to its purpose, writing can be divided into two categories:
REFLEXIVE writing: a postcard to a friend, a

note to yourself in your agenda, or a personal EXTENSIVE writing : is for others and for
journal essay is a writing from you and for you. others. This is a general writing.
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=writing+a+postcard&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=cN01U8vbG6jmsA
SQ7YDYDw&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=writing&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=z1fuaG_02IiXQ
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=writing+a+postcard&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=cN01U8vbG6jmsASQ7Y M%253A%3BFhBxcKeVHXPchM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fblog.princetontutoring.com%252Fwp-content%252Fupload
DYDw&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=writing+to+a+friend&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=2-QA3oQDFal s%252F2014%252F01%252Fwriter.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fblog.princetontutoring.com%252Ftag%252Fwriting-
LkM%253A%3BuR_ftwCIZaACgM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fblogs.longwood.edu%252Fwaskeycl%252Ffiles%252F2013%252 tips%252F%3B1551%3B1600
F02%252FWriting-writing-31277215-579-612-283x300.jpg%3Bhttps%253A%252F%252Fblogs.longwood.edu%252Fwaskeycl%
252F2013%252F02%252F%3B283%3B300
Kind of Writing Students Need
When preparing activities to practice writing skill, we have to bear in mind cerain ASPECTS TO CONSIDER.
They are:
AGE
PROFICIENCY LEVEL
INTERESTS
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=writing+a+postcard&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=cN01U8vbG6jmsASQ7YDYDw&ved
=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=writing+class&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=fRWAGH_TSozJUM%253A%3Bbp7q_7Wtl1-
nkM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.illinoiswritingproject.com%252Fillinoiswritingproject.com%252FTeaching_Writing_With_English_Lan-
guage_Learners_files%252Fteacher%252520with%252520writing%252520class.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.illinoiswritingproject.
com%252Fillinoiswritingproject.com%252FTeaching_Writing_With_English_Language_Learners.html%3B512%3B343
In addition, writing involves: spelling, constructing grammatical sentences, punctuation and

capitalization rules.
At higher levels, WRITING involves
Gathering information and ideas relevant to the topic.

Organizing the information and ideas into a logical sequence.
Structuring the sequence into sections and paragraphs.
Expressing the information and ideas in a written draft.
Editing the draft and writing out a final text.
In the picture below you may observe how the writing process is organized. I am sure that during
the Academic writing course you will study the writing process in detail. I am just reminding you the
elements of the writing process.

Process
ACTIVATED
PLANNING DRAFTING
Process
TERMINATED EDITING REVISING
How should writing be corrected?
Remember: over-correction is not

motivating. Be accurate and
truthful. Write a comment or
suggestion about strong/weak
points or provide the necessary
feedback.
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=writing+a+postcard&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=cN01U8vbG6jmsASQ7YDYDw
&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=writing+correcting&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=bDEtLGuiQHBrzM%253A%
3BhjYPRMy2-KO8ZM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.exponentialprograms.com%252Finternet%252Fblog%252Fwp-content%252
Fuploads%252F2012%252F05%252FEmail-Tip-4-Stop-Editing-300x234.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.exponentialprograms.
com%252Finternet%252Fblog%252F6-quick-tips-to-write-emails-more-effectively%252F%3B300%3B234
TEACHING IDEAS
Dear students, below I offer you some ideas about

writing activities in class. During your Academic
writing course you will be given more detailed
information and tips, but I consider it convenient
to provide you with some activities you may use
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=writing+a+postcard&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=cN01U8v
with all proficiency levels. bG6jmsASQ7YDYDw&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=teaching+wrting&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii
=_&imgrc=0Av2h_0OISX7pM%253A%3B7KfE0DKz39HEFM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F2.bp.blogspot.com%252F-
6ZLSwdykmhg%252FUB7MK3VUGWI%252FAAAAAAAAAFg%252FoblbKqAC-Io%252Fs1600%252FSlide2.jpg
%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fspoonfulofsugarteaching.blogspot.com%252F2012%252F08%252Fwriting-traits.
html%3B720%3B540

149
BEGINNERS
Students may be asked to :
write simple poems ( be sure use common everyday

students have enough language styles: write letters,
knowledge to complete the task, postcards, filling in forms (
or provide them with all necessary job application- for adult
key words. learners).
write invitations of various

kinds ( for a birthday party, write e-mail messages to other
wedding, house-warming, English speakers around the world.
etc ).
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=writing+a+postcard&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=cN01U8vbG6jmsAS
Q7YDYDw&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=teaching+wrting&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=8bTAqKVEfMnpkM Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=writing+a+postcard&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=cN01
%3A%3BKGFUgQzP60KabM%3B8bTAqKVEfMnpkM%3A&imgrc=8bTAqKVEfMnpkM%253A%3Bkgb1hszJGOGyqM%3Bhttp U8vbG6jmsASQ7YDYDw&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=students+are+writing&tbm=isch&fac
%253A%252F%252Fapi.ning.com%252Ffiles%252FTzAHbi5di*L1LYjQs3Yf1WZ2lPDQ4PZdouUuYA8B-X9Uy2kq-118-SzVKG- rc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=5BmtLvLPEquoUM%253A%3BX5oVwaYxpw9KZM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.
L8EkEV*K09wWQBYeHxdSEOrjeE4OlJH*3PrP-%252Fexpressyourself074.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fddeubel.edublogs. successfulreader.com%252Fcommunity%252Fcfs-file.ashx%252F__key%252FCommunityServer.Blogs.Components.
org%252F2009%252F09%252F22%252Fteaching-writing-activities-and-ideas%252F%3B1854%3B1367 WeblogFiles%252F9d227a68-7172-42dc-bd11-47ec709a8e18%252Fgroup-of-students-writing.-pencil-drawing.
jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.successfulreader.com%252Fcommunity%252Fgroups%252Fval_holden%252Fbl-
og%252Farchive%252F2010%252F11%252F19%252Fleading-book-club-part-4-review-amp-reflect.aspx%3B635%3B464

BEGINNER INTERMEDIATE
Students can be asked:
to write a radio news bulletin, reports, etc.

to write a description (of a room, of a concert, a city, museum, etc.).
to write Parallel composition (use someones composition to write a similar work , of any
topic - animals, cities, movies, etc.).
to write Parallel letters ( use the personal information of someone looking for a pen pal,
and follow the format of original letter).
to write advertisements / menus.
Another interesting activity could be:
Altering dictations the teacher dictates statements which students have to change to suit
their own preferences and priorities.
Ex: Teacher: - Human beings do not treat animals well)Students have to re-write the sentence to
express their own feelings.
Student: Some people think that human beings do not treat animals well, but I do not think this is
very important, because there are some more important things to care about.
Or Human beings must treat animals better because they are living creatures, too, and they constitute
part of our world.
INTERMEDIATE ADVANCED
Students writing activities can be more complex. Students may be asked to :
write narrative compositions.

write letters to a newspaper in response to a controversial article.
write newspaper and magazine articles / dialogues and play scripts
expand a variety of headlines into newspaper articles.
create picture compositions stories based on a sequence of pictures.
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=writing+a+postcard&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=cN01
U8vbG6jmsASQ7YDYDw&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=set+of+pictures+that+tell+a+story&
tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=7ji7Qug3UkfuCM%253A%3BCeFcCCzMqm_SSM%3Bhttp%253A%252F
%252Fvintageindie.typepad.com%252Fphotos%252Funcategorized%252F2008%252F06%252F26%252Fsum
meratthebeach_storiesdivinations.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fvintageindie.typepad.com%252Fvintage_
indie%252F2008%252F06%252Fthe-daily-swa-7.html%3B430%3B498

151
TEACHING READING
The next skill we have to discuss is READING.
Why Teach Reading?
There are many reasons why getting students to read English texts
is an important part of the teachers job.
Many students need to learn this skill in order to be able to read

texts either for their careers, for study purposes , or simply for
pleasure. Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=reading&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei
=feA5U8CYEMXLsATVjIGYBw&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#facrc=_&imgdii=
_&imgrc=isTLTJFnKlv7tM%253A%3BRqsUcIHsjgdcMM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fculture
ofyes.files.wordpress.com%252F2012%252F05%252Freadingpage.gif%3Bhttp%253A%252
F%252Fcultureofyes.ca%252F2012%252F05%252F08%252Fharry-potter-and-more-young-
Reading is beneficial for language students. Any exposure to people-and-reading%252F%3B750%3B563
English texts provides them understanding of grammar structures,

allows them to expand vocabulary, learn idiomatic expressions,
punctuation, the way to construct sentences, and paragraphs ,etc.
In addition , reading texts provide good models for English writing and interesting topics to stimulate
discussions during speaking practice.
What kind of Reading should students do ?
The greatest controversy centered around the kind of texts suitable

for teaching reading skill is: should it be an authentic text or text with
over simplified , artificial and untypical language ? As it was already
mentioned in the section about teaching listening, the authentic
material is recommended for teaching purpose. Remember? Instead
of simplifying the text, simplify the task. You may use the same kind
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=reading&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa
=X&ei=feA5U8CYEMXLsATVjIGYBw&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=
bookworm&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=bL3mkIH8JocsVM%253A%3BPPF
of authentic material but use different activities with students of wIQ2tYdEhrM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Ftinkerblue.typepad.com%252Fphotos%

252Funcategorized%252F2007%252F08%252F04%252Fbookworm.gif%3Bhttp%2
53A%252F%252Fcrimesceneni.blogspot.com%252F2008%252F08%252Fcolmans-
different proficiency levels. roundup-keepin-it-swift-and.html%3B544%3B629
For this, you need to take into consideration:
student`s interests: choose a balance

topics and types of reading who students are between real
students` level
texts ( short stories, menus, (adults, children, English and the
and interests
time-tables, novels, articles, professionals, etc.) students
business letters) capabilities

What reading skills should students acquire?
According to proficiency levels, students should be able to:
scan the text for particular information (they do not have to read every word and line),
skim to get a general idea of what the text is about,
read for detailed comprehension looking for detailed information,
to read for general understanding,
retain chunks of language of different length in short- term memory,
recognize a core of words, and interpret word order patterns and their significance.
recognize grammatical word classes, systems, rules, etc.,
recognize that a particular meaning may be expressed in different grammatical forms,
recognize the rhetorical forms of written discourse and their significance for
interpretation,
recognize the communicative functions of written texts, according to form and purpose,
infer context that is not explicit by using background knowledge,
infer links and connections between events, ideas, etc., deduce causes and effects, and
detect such relations as main idea, supporting idea, new information, given information,
generalization, and exemplification,
distinguish between literal and implied meanings,
recognize Genre Conventions ( styles and literary genres).
In addition, students should distinguish between formal / informal / colloquial style, etc.)
(Davis, 2002)
Extensive Reading
Applied linguists have in recent years begun to move away from

a preoccupation with the best methods of language teaching to
a view that seeks to better understand the nature of language
learning and teaching. Rather than introducing new methods of
teaching, they are now more concerned with describing language
pedagogy that is based on a principled understanding of second
language learning.
Brown and Kumaravadivelu (1994), for example, have proposed a

set of teaching / learning principles to which any good language
pedagogy should conform. Examples of these principles include Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=reading&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=
X&ei=feA5U8CYEMXLsATVjIGYBw&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=rea
providing a rich linguistic environment, respecting and capitalizing ding+a+book&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=qNtDIbezGXdEPM%253A%3Bxs

DXALIt-GlahM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.ibn-tv.com%252Fwp-content%252F
uploads%252F2011%252F09%252F242.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.ibn-tv.
on learners contribution to the learning process, and emphasizing com%252F2011%252F09%252Fbenefits-of-reading%252F%3B1084%3B1133
fluency over, but not at the expense of, accuracy .

153
WHAT IS EXTENSIVE READING ( ER)?
According to Carrell and Carson (1997, pp. 49-50), extensive reading involves rapid reading of large
quantities of material or longer readings (e.g. , whole books) for general understanding, with the focus
generally on the meaning of what is being read rather than on the language.
Reading Characteristics of ER:
Students read self-selected large amounts of reading materials.

It is a supplementary activity.
Students read at their own level and time.
Students read for pleasure ( no testing or marks).
Students read different materials in terms of topic and genre.
The reading material is within the students level of comprehension .
The teacher and students keep track of the students progress.
Benefits of Extensive Reading:
Enhanced language learning in spelling, vocabulary, grammar,

and text structure.
Increased knowledge of the world.
Improved reading and writing skills.
Reading for pleasure.
More positive attitude toward reading.
Higher possibility of developing a reading habit.
Extensive Reading tasks:
Students may keep records of what

they read.
Create wall chart for subsequent
discussion in class.
Write summaries of the whole text of
each chapter, etc.

Intensive Reading (IR) characteristics:

-Students work with short texts with close guidance from the
teacher .
Students read to obtain detailed meaning from the text.
The main goal of IR is to develop reading skills:
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=reading&source=l
nms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=feA5U8CYEMXLsATVjIGYBw&ved=0CA
to identify the main idea,
YQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=reading+in+class&tbm=isch-
&facrc=_&imgdii=yYP-e6-6Y2f6JM%3A%3BT3keZ4bEP4PpWM%3ByYP-e6-
6Y2f6JM%3A&imgrc=yYP-e6-6Y2f6JM%253A%3BlqyrdGEkRFgZpM%3Bhtt
p%253A%252F%252Fstatic.abcteach.com%252Fcontent_preview%252Ft%
to recognize text connectors,
252Fteacherreadingtoclassbnw_pw.png%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.
abcteach.com%252Fdocuments%252Fclip-art-teacher-reading-to-class-bw-
28540%3B300%3B263 to enhance vocabulary and grammar knowledge, etc.
Intensive Reading activities
The teacher can use a lot of activities. Below you can read some of them:
Match nouns and verbs

Split sentences
Combine sentences
Make summaries ( for each paragraph)
Reorder sentences
Reorder paragraphs
Fill the gaps
Take sides ( discussion, debate)
Read and choose ( True / False , multiple choice exercises
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=reading&source=l
nms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=feA5U8CYEMXLsATVjIGYBw&ved=0CA
related to vocabulary, comprehension)
YQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=reading+class&tbm=isch&facr
Select a summary
c=_&imgdii=Eol_VuxODQKNkM%3A%3ByDSq-Nul21VjPM%3BEol_
VuxODQKNkM%3A&imgrc=Eol_VuxODQKNkM%253A%3BlKJYaM1Dfop-
AM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.dynamicmindsph.com%252Fwp-co
ntent%252Fuploads%252F2011%252F01%252Frk8_teacher2.
gif%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.dynamicmindsph.com%252Fsummer-
reading-camp%3B300%3B284 Compare versions
Identify facts and opinions
Focus on form and style ( specified grammar points, such as the
use of passive voice, indirect speech, the concrete grammar
tenses , etc. ).
Dear student, try to answer the following questions:

1. Can you explain the difference between Extensive and Intensive reading?
2. What are the benefits of each kind of reading?
Dear student, I hope that this additional information about teaching basic skills satisfied your expectations.
As you can see, the topics discussed above are ample and represent separate courses studied during this
language program. I just tried to provide a survey to help you understand the field of applied linguistics.

155
At the same time I invite you to investigate this topic more and enrich your knowledge about how to
teach the four skills.
Dear student, as we come to the end of this unit I recommend you answer the questions if the following

Self- Evaluation 7
1. -------- tries to explain the particular choices made by speakers in their use of language, production,
and reception of meaning.
a. pragmatics
b. stylistics
c. paralanguage
2. The stylistic analysis discusses:
a. derivations from the norms of language

b. creation of parallel constructions
c. both a and b
3. The terms passivization and conversationalization form a part of:
a. critical linguistics
b. corpus linguistics
c. literary stylistics
4. Within stylistics features are the following:
a. body language
b. kinesthetic
c. figures of thoughts and descriptive language
Activity 2. Answer TRUE or FALSE according to the statement:
1.() One of the language usages is Persuasion.
2.() Techniques of persuasion are used to minimize cross-cultural misunderstandings.
3.() Critical Discourse Analysis views language as a form of social practice and how it is
reflected in spoken and written communication.
4.() During Listening practice, the teacher should translate all unknown words in a
recording.
5.() During Speaking practice, teacher should correct every mistake made by students.
6.() Writing is a reflexive activity.
7.() Intensive reading is a class reading.
( see the answers at the end of this didactic guide)
THIS IS THE END OF UNIT SEVEN

157
UNIT 8. PAST, PRESENT, and FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Dear student, this is our final unit. It explains the role of applied linguistics and the reasons for the latest
changes in this field. I invite you to read the first section of this unit and then do the following
Dear student, answer the following:

Explain how Linguistics is related to Applied Linguistics.
Dear student, I invite you to read in your textbook these two sections:
8.1. Early Orientation and 8.2. Subsequent changes

The next section of Unit 8 is about a very interesting and complex topic:
8.3. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (SLA)
The field of second language acquisition became important with

the increasing flow of immigrants to the USA and Western Europe
after World War II. There was a need to learn the languages of
those countries. This gave a rise to a scientific interest in how
people learn languages .
SLA is closely related to psychology and psycholinguistics. The

center of interest of its research is the study of how children and
Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%84%D1%81%D1%
adults learn foreign or second language. This knowledge is of
80%D1%88%D1%82%D0%BF+%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%84%D0%B2%D1%88%D1%82%
D0%BF&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=WXY9U_UXq8yxBJfRgPgO&ved=0CAYQ_AUo
AQ&biw=1118&bih=462#facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=RfX_PylJvEsuyM%253A%3BhyTtNd-
great importance for developing effective teaching practices
imPksSM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.teachenglishtoday.org%252Fwp-content%252Fuplo
ads%252F2010%252F11%252Freading.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.teachenglishtoday.
org%252Findex.php%252F2011%252F01%252Fcoaching-of-teachers-found-to-boost-student-
and techniques.
reading%252F%3B600%3B593
In your textbook you will read that within one of the interests of SLA research is the topic transfer from
the first, or native , language, into the target language . I would like to explain this further.
LANGUAGE TRANSFER
What is language transfer and why does this phenomenon

occur? Adult learners have already established a system in
their mind about how their native language is structured
and works. So when learning second or foreign language,
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=san+basil+Cathedral+Moscow&source=lnms&tbm=isch&
sa=X&ei=q7EsU9zCF8PtkQezoIGABQ&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=language+transfer they tend to make comparisons with the already known
&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=3QA50q9epvHsfM%253A%3B5N-dxrGdgHJJ9M%3Bhttp%253A
%252F%252Fimages.indiegogo.com%252Fmedias%252F363890%252Fprimary_pictures%252Ffull%25
2F20120731112430-Logo_Blanco.jpg%253F1343759080%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.indiegogo.
native language and a transfer of knowledge can occur.
com%252Fprojects%252Flanguage-transfer-educating-freely%3B600%3B400

Language Transfer refers to speakers or writers applying

knowledge from their native language to a second
language.
Learners think that the foreign

language operates in the same
way as their native language
and apply the native language
rules to the target language.
Source: http://www.google.com.ec/imgres?imgurl=&imgrefurl=http%
3A%2F%2Fwww.4pointoh.com%2FConcerns.htm&h=0&w=0&tbnid=a
v-1HG85E4AfM&tbnh=268&tbnw=188&zoom=1&docid=iIPrTeo3SBH
A6M&ei=-7osU8OFINCa0gGijoHQAg&ved=0CAIQsCUoAA
Language transfer can be POSITIVE or NEGATIVE. When the grammar structure of native language helps
students understand and produce correct sentences in target language we speak about positive transfer.
In positive transfer , learners benefit from their first language.
Note: Positive transfer occurs when the grammar structure of both languages ( target and native) is the
same, linguistic interference can result in correct language production .
Note: Positive transfer helps learners to produce target language correctly.
Examples:
Plural formation:
DOG +S = PERROS+S
Grammar tenses:
I have finished the work = Yo he terminado el trabajo
Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=watching+movie&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=W
DwwU7_SOo_NkQfmwYHgBA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=puppies+golden+retrie
ver&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=rZ4BD9_cWt8okM%253A%3B8exhR92KiG7ETM%3Bhttp%2
Cognates: 53A%252F%252Flovesgolden.com%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2013%252F09%252FDog-
Pictures-Golden-Retriever-Puppies-Smiling-HD-Wallpaper1.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Flovesgolden.
com%252F%3B1200%3B832
abominable - abominable , absolute - absoluto , actor-

actor, bomb- bomba, attention atencin
Note: Negative transfer occurs when speakers and writers transfer items and structures that are not
the same in both languages. Why does this happen? As it was mentioned above, adult learners make
errors as a result of an attempt to discover the grammar rules of a foreign language apart from the rules
of their first , or native , language. This explains why some native Spanish language speakers ask How
many years old do you have ? instead of How old are you?In this example, we can see that the grammar
structure of Spanish is transferred into English. As a result, an incorrect sentence is produced.

159
Examples:
Sentence structure:
Cuantos aos tiene? - How many years do you have? (

correct: How old are you?)
Pluralization of adjectives:
buenas noticias - goods news(correct: good news)

Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=watching+movie&source=lnms&tb
m=isch&sa=X&ei=WDwwU7_SOo_NkQfmwYHgBA&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=111
8&bih=462#q=how+many+fish&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=QThBZvnw_
rEGHM%253A%3B6EOW0_M7RgHKqM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F3.bp.blogspot.com%252F-
UffkkR_Au7E%252FTxG_llzXjCI%252FAAAAAAAAHXQ%252FSRdDe9Lg8Bg%252Fs1600%25
2Fhow%252Bmany%252Bfish%252B2.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fterry-eng14.blogspot.
libros interesantes - interestings books, beautifuls flowers com%252F2012%252F05%252Fcounting-to-10.html%3B310%3B225
(correct: inetesring books, beautiful flowers).It occurs because

adjectives can be pluralized in Spanish.
Plural form of irregular nouns:
childrens ( correct: children)

fishes ( correct: fish )
Note: Negative transfer hampers correct language production.
Observe the following picture: Positive
transfer
MOTHER LANGUAGE FOREIGN / SECOND
Negative
Dear student, I invite you to think about examples of positive and negative transfer for both
English and Spanish .
When teachers are aware of the effects that the first language can produce during the second or foreign
language acquisition, they can apply the appropriate methodology and use techniques that can help
learners overcome this phenomenon.
Your textbook mentions some other aspects that influence SLA. Teachers of ESL / EFL should also take
into consideration such factors as the motivation of learners, sociocultural and personality factors, and
attitudes toward language learning ( see Unit 2 of this guide) .
In addition to what is stated in your textbook, I would like to describe some of the factors that educators
have to consider during second/ foreign language acquisition.

Self esteem: it is an important personality factor in second

language acquisition, particularly in view of the cross- cultural
factors of second language learning.
The learning of a second language cannot be successful if the

student doesnt t have belief in his/ her abilities .The level of
self esteem is important for willingness to communicate in a
second) foreign language ( Brown, 2001). Source:https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=self+esteem&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=Z
4A9U_vMBIjo2AWKoYBw&sqi=2&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#facrc=_&imgdii=_&
imgrc=HyyuyBfdqpkNoM%253A%3B-36--9qr7E1yYM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fblog.lib.umn.
edu%252Fvanm0049%252Fpsy1001section08spring2012%252F2012%252F04%252F08%252FSelf
-Esteem-and-Perception.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fblog.lib.umn.edu%252Fvanm0049%252-
Fpsy1001section08spring2012%252F2012%252F04%252Fcorrelation-between-self-esteem-and-p
ersonality.html%3B298%3B393
Motivation plays a very significant role in SLA. It consists of effort, desire, and favourable attitudes
toward second language speakers and learning the second language , and interest in foreign language
in general (Brown, 2009).
Attitude is an element of motivation. In the decision to

learn a second / foreign language people may be influenced
by their parents, peers, social environment , feeling of ethnic
solidarity , etc. Educators should be aware of the learner`s
attitudes during SLA( Brown, 2009).
Aptitude - should be also considered in SLA process.
It refers to abilities of people to learn language easily and

Source: https://www.google.com.ec/search?q=self+esteem&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=Z4A quickly .All learners have different levels of aptitudes. Some
9U_vMBIjo2AWKoYBw&sqi=2&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ&biw=1118&bih=462#q=attitude&tbm=isch&fac
rc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=0p-4UH3PurqsuM%253A%3BfsalRJS07E6ieM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F3.
bp.blogspot.com%252F_pMV1z0cUqfg%252FR5QZ2T1_jWI%252FAAAAAAAAAB0%252FM0bR6z- people have a slower process for second language acquisition,
O6zs%252FS730%252FFinal_attitude_logo_small3.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fmindfullychange.
blogspot.com%252F2010%252F07%252Fattitude-changes-everything-short-story.html%3B300%3B247
and educators should adopt an individualized approach in
their teaching (Brown. 2009).
Risk Taking is another personality factor that affects SLA. It is a significant aspect of successful learning
of the second language: learners have to be able or to be willing to try out the new language and take
risks of being wrong. In contrast with little children and first language acquisition, adult learners not
always feel ready enough to try foreign language . In the classroom, the teacher should establish an
adequate affective atmosphere so that learners might feel comfortable as they try to speak the foreign
language( Brown, 2001).
Dear student, please explain why learners have difficulties in SLA.
Dear students , the next section of your textbook deals with the notion of Corpus Linguistics:

161
8.4. CORPUS LINGUISTICS
The textbook provides clear and sufficient information about this topic. I suggest you read it attentively
and try to understand the role of corpus linguistics within the field of applied linguistics.
The main point of corpus linguistics is the notion of collocations. As your textbook explains, a collocation
is two or more words that often go together.
The English language is characterized by a significant amount of word combinations .
Collocations should be incorporated into the teaching of English as foreign or second language .Why?
Here are some reasons:
The language will sound more natural and more easily understood by English native speakers.
Speakers will have more varied and richer ways of expressing themselves
There are several different types of collocations.
Adverb + Adjective: completely satisfied (NOT downright satisfied)

Adjective + Noun: excruciating pain (NOT excruciating joy)
Noun + Noun: a surge of anger (NOT a rush of anger)
Noun + Verb: lions roar (NOT lions shout)
Verb + Noun: commit suicide (NOT undertake suicide)
Verb + Expression With Preposition: burst into tears (NOT blow up in tears)
Verb + Adverb: wave frantically (NOT wave feverishly)
( Crystal, 1995).
They may be formed by combining verbs, nouns, adjectives etc. Some of the most common types are:
Crystal also discusses institutionalized expressions ( ex: give me a break, pleased to meet you, etc. ),
highly constrained phrases ( ex: as I was saying, as far as I can see, etc.), and sentence builders ( ex. My
point is that, let me begin by ,etc.).
The Syntax course will provide you with more detailed explanations about the types of collocations and
their analysis.
Dear student, Try to place each word below in the corresponding column to create collocation :
the bed, my homework, dinner , an effort, a cake, the dishes, one`s best
Make Do

I invite you to learn more about Corpus Linguistics by visiting this link:
http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/corpus-linguistics.htmhttp://www.tlumaczenia-
angielski.info/linguistics/corpus-linguistics.htm
8.5. Being Applied

Please, read the corresponding section of the textbook.
The applications of corpus linguistics are not limited exclusively to language teaching . In your textbook,
you may read about some of its other uses.
Apart from different aspects of language teaching, there are many other fields of applied linguistics
that deserve to be mentioned. For example,translation and especially through machines ( translators)
.Computers need to be programmed and
told about the structure of the two languages , and the ways to find equivalents . Another application
could be done at the phonetic level (TV and radio transmissions, for example).
The next section of the last chapter explains the difference between applied linguistics and critical
applied linguistic (CALx). You already know what is the domain of applied linguistics. CALx refers to a
critical approach to applied linguistics.
Please, read the following definitions of CALx.
8.6. Critical Applied Linguistics
Critical Applied Linguistics is the

Critical Applied Linguistics is the
study of language and linguistics in
study of second or foreign language
relation to practical problems, such as
learning and teaching.
lexicography, translation, and speech
pathology, etc.
(Richards, Platt, and Weber, 1985, p. 15).
From this point of view, two different domains are established . The first deals with second or foreign
language teaching, and the second - with language-related problems in various areas in which language
plays a major role. (Pennycook, 2001).
I suggest you read the final section of the last unit in order to better understand the main points of
Critical Applied Linguistics .After that please do the following
Dear student, try to describe the need for the creation of the CALx.

163
8.7. Post Modern applied linguistics

IT is described in your textbook. Please, read this section.
8.8. A harder future: mediation

IT is the last topic discussed in the textbook. Please, read and try to understand the role of applied
linguistics.
Dear student, to check your knowledge I suggest you do the final self evaluation test.

Self- Evaluation 8
Answer TRUE or FALSE according to the statement:
1.() Second Language Acquisition discusses how languages are learned by children and
adults.
2.() Second Language Acquisition is related to psychology and Psycholinguistics.
3.() To know how adults and children learn languages is important Issue for developing
effective teaching practices and techniques.
4.() When a speaker makes similar mistake in both the native and target language, we
speak about positive transfer.
5.() Some of the factors that educators have to consider when teaching ESL/EFL are
motivation and attitude toward target language.
6.() Collocations represent the main focus of Corpus Linguistics.
7.() Collocations represent the only concern of Corpus Linguistics.
8.() When a learner assumes that the target language operates in the same way as a native
language, we speak about the phenomenon of transfer.
9.() Critical Applied Linguistics refers to the description of languages.
10.() Critical Applied Linguistics is concerned with the practical use of language.
( see the answers at the end of this guide)
Dear students, we have finally come to the end of the semester and this course Introduction to Applied
Linguistics. As you could see, the field of applied linguistics is very broad, and each of the components
of this discipline should be studied as a separate course. I have tried to create an overview of the main
parts of this field.
I also hope that the additional information I included in this didactic guide was useful and gave you
a clearer picture of the principal aspects of applied linguistics. As you understand, the purpose of this
course was to INTRODUCE you to the field of Applied Linguistics. I hope that this course fulfilled your
expectations and created in you desire to investigate more about the fields in which linguistics can
be applied. I also invite you to constantly improve and enrich your knowledge in order to become a
successful professional.
I would also appreciate it if you would let me know your opinion about this didactic guide and give me
suggestions about the course we have just concluded.
I wish you all the best in your subsequent studies!

165
Gua didctica: Introduction to Applied Linguistics ANSWER KEY
7. Answer key
FIRST TERM
Self- Evaluation 1
Pregunta Respuesta
1. F
2. T
3. F
4. T
5. T
6. F
7. F
8. F
9. T
10. T

ANSWER KEY Gua didctica: Introduction to Applied Linguistics
Self- Evaluation 2
Pregunta Respuesta
1. F
2. T
3. T
4. F
5. F
6. T
7. T
8. T
9. T
10. T

167
Self- Evaluation 3
Pregunta Respuesta
Activity 1.
1. T
2. T
3. T
4. T
5. F
6. F
Activity 2.
1. related languages
2. language death
3. foreign language
4. second language
5. pidgin language

Self- Evaluation 4
Pregunta Respuesta
Activity 1.
1. a
2. b
3. a
4. c
5. b
6. c
7. c
8. a

169
SECOND TERM
Self- Evaluation 5
Pregunta Respuesta
Activity 1.
1. a
2. b
3. a
4. c
Activity 2.
1. F
2. T
3. T
4. T
5. T

Self- Evaluation 6
Pregunta Respuesta
Activity 1.
1. a
2. b
3. c
4. b
Activity 2.
1. T
2. T
3. T
4. F
5. F
6. T

171
Self- Evaluation 7
Pregunta Respuesta
Activity 1.
1. b
2. c
3. a
4. c
Activity 2.
1. T
2. F
3. T
4. F
5. F
6. T
7. T

Self- Evaluation 8
Pregunta Respuesta
1. T
2. T
3. T
4. F
5. T
6. T
7. F
8. T
9. F
10. T
NN/jclg/2015-02-09/173
kvv/2016-10-25

173

Guia UTPL Applied Linguistics

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Guia UTPL Applied Linguistics

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

MODALIDAD ABIERTA Y A DISTANCIA

Departamento de Ciencias de la Educacin

Introduction to Applied Linguistics

Ciencias de la Educacin, mencin: Ingls V

La Universidad Catlica de Loja

UNIVERSIDAD TCNICA PARTICULAR DE LOJA

Diagramacin, diseo e impresin:

6.1. Generic Competences............................................................................................................. 15

UNIT 1. APPLIED LINGUISTICS............................................................................................................ 19

UNIT 2. PRESCRIBING and DESCRIBING: popular and academic views of

UNIT 4. ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING........................................................................................... 81

6.5. Generic Competences............................................................................................................. 103

UNIT 5. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION..................................................................................... 106

UNIT 6. CONTEXT AND CULTURE......................................................................................................... 120

UNIT 8. PAST, PRESENT, and FUTURE DIRECTIONS....................................................................... 162

La Universidad Catlica de Loja

8 MODALIDAD ABIERTA Y A DISTANCIA

4.1. Required bibliography

Cook, G. (2010). Applied Linguistics. Oxford University press, New York

An English- English dictionary.

4.2. Recommended bibliography

Brown, D. (2001).Teaching by Principles, Longman, 2nd edition

La Universidad Catlica de Loja

Crystal, D. (1985).What is Linguistics?, Arnold, 2nd edition

Kramsch, C. (2001). Language and Culture, Oxford University Press

Kachru , B. ( 1992). The Other Tongue, University of Illinois Press

Pope, R. (2008). The English Studies Book, Routledge, 2nd edition

Schmitt, N.(2010). Introduction to Applied Linguistics, Hodder Education, 2nd edition

Van Els (1984).Applied Linguistics and the Learning and Teaching of

Foreign Languages, Edward Arnold

10 MODALIDAD ABIERTA Y A DISTANCIA

( see also inside the RECOMMENDED ACTIVITIES for each unit)

La Universidad Catlica de Loja

5. General guidelines for studying

12 MODALIDAD ABIERTA Y A DISTANCIA

Use EVA to submit your distance assignments.

La Universidad Catlica de Loja

La Universidad Catlica de Loja

GENERIC COMPETENCE OF THE PROGRAM :

Reflexive and critical thinking

Written and Oral communication

6.2. Planning for the students work

Specific competences of Specific competences UNIT LEARNING ACTIVITY TIMETABLE

Applied linguistics. Interaction on EVA Start the completion of

MODALIDAD ABIERTA Y A DISTANCIA

demonstrate an excellent (each week).

La Universidad Catlica de Loja

6.3. Evaluation System of the Subject (first and second term)

Formas de evaluacin 2. Heteroevaluacin

Investigacin (cita fuentes de

PORCENTAJE 10% 20% 30% 70%

18 MODALIDAD ABIERTA Y A DISTANCIA

6.4. Specific guidelines for learning through competences

UNIT 1. APPLIED LINGUISTICS

I invite you to read the first unit of your textbook:

1.1. THE NEED FOR APPLIED LINGUISTICS

Source: Nina Nesterenko

La Universidad Catlica de Loja

1.2. EXAMPLES and PROCEDURES

1.3. THE SCOPE OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS

Language Acquisition ( L1 and L2)

20 MODALIDAD ABIERTA Y A DISTANCIA

ASR Automatic Speech Recognition

La Universidad Catlica de Loja