Vedanta

For other uses, see Vedanta (disambiguation). panisada), the doctrine of the end of the Vedas (Vedanta-
vada), the doctrine of Brahman (Brahma-vada), and
named after the doctrine that Brahman is the cause
Vedanta (/vdnt/; Hindustani pronunciation: [ed ant] , [12]
Vednta) or Uttara Mms is one of the six ortho- (Brahma-karana-vada).
dox schools of Hindu philosophy. The term veda means
knowledge and anta means end, and originally re-
ferred to the classical Upanishads, a collection of founda- 2 Three basic texts
tional texts in Hinduism.[1][2][note 1] Vedanta also refers to
various philosophical traditions based on the three basic All sub-schools of the vedanta propound their philosophy
texts of Hindu philosophy, namely the Principal Upan- by interpreting the Prasthanatrayi, literally, three sources,
ishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita.[1][3][4] the three canonical texts of Hindu philosophy, especially
[13]
Vedanta adopted ideas from other schools of Hinduism of the Vedanta schools. It consists of:
such as Yoga and Nyaya,[5][6] and, over time, became
the most prominent of the orthodox schools of Hin- 1. The Upanishads, known as Upadesha prasthana (in-
duism, inuencing the diverse traditions within it.[7][8] junctive texts), and the ruti prasthna (the starting
The term Vedanta may also be used to refer to In- point of revelation)
dian philosophy more generally. There are at least 2. The Brahma Sutras, known as Nyaya prasthana or
ten schools of Vedanta,[9] of which Advaita Vedanta, Yukti prasthana (logical text)
Vishishtadvaita, Achintya-Bheda-Abheda and Dvaita are
the best known.[10] 3. The Bhagavad Gita, known as Sadhana prasthana
(practical text), and the Smriti prasthna (the start-
ing point of remembered tradition)
1 Etymology
The Upanishads consist of twelve or thirteen major texts,
with a total of 108 texts. The Bhagavad Gt is part of
The name is a morphophonological form of Veda-anta the Mahabhrata. The Brahma Stras (also known as the
= Veda-end = the appendix to the Vedic hymns. It is Vednta Stras), systematise the doctrines taught in the
also said that Vednta means the purpose or goal [end] Upanishads and the Gt.
of the Vedas.[note 2] Vedanta can also be used as a noun
to describe one who has mastered all four of the original All major Vedantic teachers, like Shankara, Rmnuja,
Vedas. and Mdhvchrya, have composed often extensive com-
mentaries not only on the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras,
In earlier writings, Sanskrit 'Vednta' simply referred to but also on the Gita. While it is not typically thought of as
the Upanishads, the most important and philosophical of a purely Vedantic text, with its syncretism of Samkhya,
the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hin- Yoga, and Upanishadic thought, the Bhagavad Gita has
duism, the word Vednta came to mean the school of phi- played a strong role in Vedantic thought.[14]
losophy that interpreted the Upanishads.
Vednta is also called Uttara Mms, or the 'lat-
ter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with 3 History
Purva Mms, the 'former enquiry' or 'primary en-
quiry'. Prva Mimamsa, usually simply called Mimamsa, Advaita Vedanta existed prior to Shankara, but found its
deals with explanations of the Karma-kanda or rituals most inuential expounder in him.[15] Of the Vedanta-
part of the Vedic mantras (in the Samhita portion of school before the composition of the Brahma Sutras
the Vedas) and Brahmanas, while Vedanta explicates the (400450 BC[16] ) almost nothing is known.[16] Very lit-
Jnana-kanda or knowledge part of the rayakas (the tle also is known of the period between the Brahma
forest scriptures), and the Upanishads, composed afterSutras and Shankara (rst half of the 8th century
about 9th century BCE through the common era.[11] BC).[16] Only two writings of this period have survived:
The Vedanta school has been historically referred to by the Vkyapadya, written by Bharthari (second half
various names, states Richard King, with early names 5th century[17] ), and the Mndkya-krik written by
of the Vedanta school being Upanishadic ones (Au- Gaudapada (7th century BC).[16]

1
2 3 HISTORY

3.1 Earliest Vedanta The cryptic aphorisms of the Vedanta Sutras are open to
a variety of interpretations, resulting in the formation of
See also: Vedas, Upanishads, and Darsanas numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in
its own way and producing its own sub-commentaries.[30]
According to Balasubramanian, the Vedantic philosophy
is as old as the Vedas, since the basic ideas of the Vedanta
systems are derived from the Vedas.[18] During the Vedic
3.3 Between Brahma Sutras and Shankara
period (1500600 BC[18] ) the Rishis formulated their
According to Nakamura, there must have been an enor-
religio-philosophical and poetical visions, which are fur-
mous number of other writings turned out in this period,
ther explored in the Upanishads,[19] the jnna-knda of
but unfortunately all of them have been scattered or lost
the Vedas.[20] The Upanishads do not contain a rigorous
and have not come down to us today.[16] In his com-
philosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and for-
mentaries, Shankara mentions 99 dierent predecessors
mulating the supporting arguments.[21] This philosoph-
of his Sampradaya.[31] In the beginning of his commen-
ical inquiry was performed by the darsanas, the various
tary on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara salutes
philosophical schools.[22]
the teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya.[web 1] Pre-
Deutsch and Dalvi point out that in the Indian context, Shankara doctrines and sayings can be traced in the works
texts are only part of a tradition which is preserved in its of the later schools, which does give insight into the de-
purest form in the oral transmission as it has been going velopment of early Vedanta philosophy.[16]
on.[23] The Upanishads form the basic texts, of which
The names of various important early Vedanta thinkers
Vedanta gives an interpretation.[24]
have been listed in the Siddhitraya by Yamuncrya (c.
1050), the Vedrthasamgraha by Rmnuja (c. 1050
3.2 Bhedabheda and Bdaryanas 1157), and the Yatndramatadpik by rnivsa-dsa.[16]
Combined together,[16] at least fourteen thinkers are
Brahma Sutras known to have existed between the composition of the
Brahman Sutras and Shankaras lifetime.[16][note 6]
Main article: Brahma Sutras

The Brahma Sutras of Bdaryana, also called the 3.4 Gaudapada and Shankara
Vedanta Sutra,[20][note 3] are traditionally ascribed to
Bdaryana,[note 4] and 200 CE.[26] but are best under- Main article: Advaita Vedanta
stood as a group of sutras composed by multiple au-
thors over the course of hundreds of years.[27] They wereGaudapada wrote or compiled[32] the Mukya Krik,
most likely compiled in the present form around 400450 also known as the Gauapda Krik and as the gama
CE,[28][27] but the great part of the Sutra must have been
stra.[note 7] Gaudapda took over the Buddhist doc-
in existence much earlier than that.[28] trines that ultimate reality is pure consciousness (vijapti-
The earliest stratum of sutras in the Brahmasutras is mtra)[9] Gaudapada wove [both doctrines] into a phi-
concerned with interpretation of the Upanishads, es- losophy of the Mandukaya Upanisad, which was further
pecially the dierences between the Chandogya Up- developed by Shankara.[33]
anishad, the Brhadanyaka Upanisgad, and the Tait- Adi Shankara (788820), elaborated on Gaudapadas
tiriya Upanishad.[27] Later additions were concerned work, and is considered to be the founder of Advaita
with the refutation of rival philosophical schools, espe- Vedanta.[9] It was Shankara who succeeded in read-
cially Samkhya.[27] According to Nakamura and Das- ing Gaudapadas mayavada[34][note 8] into Badarayanas
gupta, the Brahmasutras reect a Bhedabheda point of Brahma Sutras, and give it a locus classicus",[34] against
view,[27] the most inuential school of Vedanta before the realistic strain of the Brahma Sutras.[34][note 9][note 10]
Shankara.[27][note 5] His interpretation, including works ascribed to him,
Bdaryana was not the rst person to systematise the has become the normative interpretation of Advaita
teachings of the Upanishads.[29] He refers to seven Vedanta.[36][34]
Vedantic teachers before him:[29] Although Shankara is often considered to be the founder
of the Advaita Vedanta school, according to Naka-
From the way in which Bdaryana cites mura, comparison of the known teachings of these early
the views of others it is obvious that the teach- Vedantins and Shankaras thought shows that most of the
ings of the Upanishads must have been ana- characteristics of Shankaras thought were advocated by
lyzed and interpreted by quite a few before him someone before ankara.[37] Shankara was the person
and that his systematization of them in 555 su- who synthesized the Advaita-vda which had previously
tras arranged in four chapters must have been existed before him.[37] In this synthesis, he was the re-
[29]
the last attempt, most probably the best. juvenator and defender of ancient learning.[38] He was
4.2 Common features 3

an unequalled commentator,[38] due to whose eorts and
contributions the Advaita Vedanta assumed a dominant
position within Indian philosophy.[38]
3.5 Bhakti
Main articles: Bhakti and Bhakti movement
Bhedabheda Vedanta schools played an important role
in the rise of bhakti, such as Suddhadvaita, founded by
Vallabha[39] (14791531 CE), Achintya Bheda Abheda,
founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (14861534)[40] and
Vishishtadvaita founded by Shri Ramanuja (10171137
CE).
3.6 Integration of various schools
According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and
the 16th century,
... certain thinkers began to treat as a
single whole the diverse philosophical teach-
ings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and
the schools known retrospectively as the six
systems (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu
philosophy.[41][note 11]
the jvtman is clouded by nescience (avidya) due to
Maya.
Sivananda gives the following explanation:
Madhva said: Man is the servant of God,
and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ra-
manuja said: Man is a ray or spark of God,
and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy.
Sankara said: Man is identical with Brahman
or the Eternal Soul, and established his Kevala
Advaita philosophy.[47]
All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of
Satkryavda,[web 6] which means that the eect is pre-
existent in the cause. But there are two dierent views
on the status of the eect, that is, the world. Most
schools of Vedanta,[35][web 6] as well as Samkhya,[web 6]
support Parinamavada, the idea that the world is a real
transformation (parinama) of Brahman.[35] According to
Nicholson, the Brahma Sutras also espouse the realist
Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the
view most common among early Vedantins.[35] In con-
trast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedan-
tists hold a dierent view, Vivartavada, which says that
the eect, the world, is merely an unreal (vivarta) trans-
formation of its cause, Brahman:

Both the Indian and the European thinkers who devel-

oped the term Hinduism in the 19th century were inu- [A]lthough Brahman seems to undergo a
enced by these philosophers[41] especially Vijnanabhiksu, transformation, in fact no real change takes
a Bhedabheda Vedantin.[46] Neo-Vedanta too was in- place. The myriad of beings are essentially un-
spired by these thinkers.[46] real, as the only real being is Brahman, that
ultimate reality which is unborn, unchanging,
and entirely without parts.[35]
4 Vedanta philosophy
4.2 Common features
4.1 Basic questions
Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic phi-
The schools of Vednta seek to answer questions about losophy, all these schools share some common features,
the relation between atman and Brahman, and the relation that can be called the vedantic core:[48]
between Brahman and the world.[1]
The schools of Vedanta are named after the relation they Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire uni-
see between atman and Brahman:[9] verse and is all pervading and eternal, as found in
the PrasthanatrayiThe Upanishads, the Brahma
According to Advaita Vedanta, there is no Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita.
dierence.[9]
Actions are subordinate to knowledge or devotion.
According to Dvaita the jvtman is totally dierent Actions are useful only for preparing the mind for
from Brahman. Even though he is similar to brah- knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved,
man, he is not identical. selsh actions and their rewards must be renounced.
According to Vishishtadvaita, the jvtman is a part
of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical. Bondage is subjection to Sasra, the cycle of death
and rebirth.
According to Shuddhadvaita, the jvtman and
Brahman are like sparks and re, Jagat is real and Liberation is deliverance from this cycle.
4 5 SCHOOLS OF VEDANTA

Traditional Vednta considers scriptural evidence, or (14861534) who founded the Achintya Bheda Abheda
shabda pramna, as the most authentic means of knowl- school,[57][58] and Vijnabhiku (16th century).[57]
edge, while perception, or pratyaksa, and logical infer-
ence, or anumana, are considered to be subordinate (but
valid).[49][50] 5.2 Dvaitdvaita
Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which Dvaitdvaita was propounded by Nimbrka (13th cen-
makes Vedanta irreconcileable with Mimamsa.[51] tury), based upon Bhedbheda, which was taught by
Bhskara. According to this school, the jvtman is at
once the same and yet dierent from Brahman. The jiva
5 Schools of Vedanta relation may be regarded as dvaita from one point of view
and advaita from another. In this school, God is visual-
The contents of the Upanishads are often couched in ized as Krishna.[59]
enigmatic language, which has left them open to various
interpretations. Over a period of time, various schools of
Vedanta, with dierent interpretations of the Upanishads 5.3 Shuddhdvaita
and the Brahma Sutras arose. There are three,[10] four,[55]
ve[39] or six[56][note 12] which are prominent:

Bhedabheda, as early as the 7th century CE,[57] or

even the 4th century[27]
Svabhavikabhedabheda or Dvaitdvaita,
founded by Nimbarka[39] in the 13th century
Suddhadvaita, founded by Vallabha[39] (1479
1531 CE)
Achintya Bheda Abheda, founded by
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (14861534)[40]

Advaita Vedanta, founded by Gaudapada and Shri

Adi Shankara around 700 CE

Vishishtadvaita, also a subschool of bhedabheda,

founded by Shri Ramanuja (10171137 CE)

Dvaita, founded by Shri Madhvacharya (11991278

CE)

Proponents of other Vedantic schools continue to write

and develop their ideas as well, although their works are
not widely known outside of smaller circles of followers
in India.

5.1 Bhedabheda Vallabhacharya

Bhedabheda (bheda-abheda), which means dier- Shuddhadvaita was propounded by Vallabhacharya

ence and non-dierence,[57] existed as early as the
7th century CE,[57] but Bdaryaas Brahma Stra
(c. 4th century CE) may also have been written
from a Bhedbheda Vedntic viewpoint.[57] Accord-
ing to the Bhedbheda Vednta schools the individ-
ual self (jvtman) is both dierent and not dier-
ent from Brahman.[57] Bhakti found a place in later
proponents of this school.[57] Major names of this
school are Bhskara (8th-9th century),[57] Rmnujas
teacher Ydavapraka,[57] Nimbrka (13th century) who
founded the Dvaitadvaita school,[57] Vallabha (1479
1531)[57] who founded Shuddhadvaita,[39] Caitanya
(14791531 CE). This system also identies Bhakti as
the only means of liberation, 'to go to Goloka' (lit., the
world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means
'star'), through "Pushtimarga" (the path of Gods grace).
The world is said to be the sport (ll) of Krishna, who
is Sat-Chit-Ananda or, eternal bliss mind.[59] On the
basis of quadruple Proof Corpus (pramna catuaya)
comprising Srutis and Smrutis, Brahmasutra, Gita
and Shrimadbhagvata, Vallabhacharya propounded
the philosophy of shuddhadvaita brahmvaad (pure
non-dualism), according to which Maya or the world
(jagat) is not unreal (jagat mithya) as in the Advaita
5.6 Vishishtadvaita 5

of Shankar, but the entire universe is real and is subtly

Brahman only. Brahman has created the world without
connection with or help from any external agency such
as Maya, which itself is his power. Brahman manifests
Himself through the world. Srutis say Brahman or
Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the
multitude of individual souls and the world (jagat).[60]
That is how Vallabhs shuddhadvaita is known as Un-
modied transformation or Avikta Parimavda,
while Shankars Advaita or Kevaladvaita is known as
Vivartavda. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the
whole and the individual as a part. The individual
soul (Jeeva or jeevatma) and God are in essence not
dierent, like sparks and re. The soul is both a doer
and enjoyer. It is atomic in size but it pervades the
whole body through its essence of intelligence (like scent
of sandalwood, even if it can't be seen). Vallabhacharya
says that the Jiva is not Supreme, nor it is Sat-chit-ananda
(Existence-knowledge-bliss Absolute) being clouded by
the force of nescience (avidya or Maya ) and is therefore
devoid of bliss (ananda).[61]

5.4 Achintya-Bheda-Abheda
Founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu[58] (14861534). Shankaracharya
Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of in-
conceivable one-ness and dierence,[62] in relation to
the power creation and creator, (Krishna), svayam bha- knowing the reality of this non-dierence (i.e. a-dvaita,
gavan.[63] and also between God and his energies[64] non-duality). Thus, the path to liberation is nally only
within the Gaudiya Vaishnava religious tradition. In through knowledge (jna).[59]
Sanskrit achintya means 'inconceivable',[62] bheda trans-
lates as 'dierence', and abheda translates as 'one-ness.
It can be best understood as integration of strict dual- 5.6 Vishishtadvaita
ist (Dvaita) view of Madhvacharya and qualied monism
Vishishtadvaita of Ramanujacharya while rejecting abso- Vishishtadvaita was propounded by Rmnuja (1017
lute monism Advaita of Adi Sankara. 1137 CE) and says that the jvtman is a part of Brahman,
and hence is similar, but not identical. The main dier-
ence from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the Brahman
5.5 Advaita Vednta is asserted to have attributes (Saguna brahman), including
the individual conscious souls and matter. Brahman, mat-
Advaita Vedanta (IAST Advaita Vednta; Sanskrit: ter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually in-
[d ait ed nt]) was propounded by separable entities. This school propounds Bhakti or devo-
Adi Shankara (early 8th century CE) and his grand-guru tion to God visualized as Vishnu to be the path to libera-
Gaudapada, who described Ajativada. It is a[65][66][67] tion. My is seen as the creative power of God.[59][note 13]
sub-school of the Vednta (literally, end or the goal of the
Vedas, Sanskrit) school of Hindu philosophy.[68] In the
school of Vednta, Brahman is the only reality, and the 5.7 Dvaita
world, as it appears, is illusory. As Brahman is the sole
reality, it cannot be said to possess any attributes whatso- Dvaita was propounded by Madhwchrya (11991278
ever. An illusory power of Brahman called My causes CE). It is also referred to as tatvavd - The Philosophy
the world to arise. Ignorance of this reality is the cause of Reality. It identies God with Brahman completely,
of all suering in the world and only upon true knowl- and in turn with Vishnu or his various incarnations like
edge of Brahman can liberation be attained. When a per- Krishna, Narasimha, Srinivsa etc. In that sense it is also
son tries to know Brahman through his mind, due to the known as sat-vaishnava philosophy to dierentiate from
inuence of My, Brahman appears as God (Ishvara), the Vishishtadvaita school known by sri-vaishnavism. It
separate from the world and from the individual. In re- regards Brahman, all individual souls (jvtmans) and
ality, there is no dierence between the individual soul matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This
jvtman (see Atman) and Brahman. Liberation lies in school also advocates Bhakti as the route to sattvic liber-
6 6 INFLUENCE
ation whereas hatred (Dvesha)-literally 'twoness) and in-
dierence towards the Lord will lead to eternal hell and
eternal bondage respectively. Liberation is the state of
attaining maximum joy or sorrow, which is awarded to
individual souls (at the end of their sdhana), based on
the souls inherent and natural disposition towards good
or evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurable
power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the ecient cause of
the universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is the
material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is
performed by the Lord energizing every soul from within,
awarding the results to the soul but Himself not aected
in the least by the results.[59]
5.8 Neo-Vedanta
Main articles: Neo-Vedanta, Hindu nationalism, and Advaita Vedanta has been called Neo-Vedanta. The
Hindu reform movements
Neo-Vedanta is a modern interpretation of Vedanta, with emphasised.[88][89][90][79]
a liberal attitude toward the Vedas.[70] It reconciles du-
alism and non-dualism,[71] and rejects the universal These notions also served well for the Hindu nationalists,
illusionism[72] of Shankara, despite its reference for clas- who further popularised this notion [91]
sical Advaita Vedanta:
Ramakrsna, Svami Vivekananda, and Au-
robindo (I also include M.K. Gandhi) have
been labeled neo-Vedantists, a philosophy
that rejects the Advaitins claim that the world
is illusory. Aurobindo, in his The Life Divine,
declares that he has moved from Sankaras
universal illusionism to his own universal
realism (2005: 432), dened as metaphysical
realism in the European philosophical sense of
the term.[72]
Mohandas Gandhi endorsed the Jain concept of
Anekantavada,[73] the notion that truth and reality are
perceived dierently from diverse points of view, and
that no single point of view is the complete truth.[74][75]
This concept embraces the perspectives of both Vednta
which, according to Jainism, recognizes substances but
not process, and Buddhism, which recognizes process
but not substance. Jainism, on the other hand, pays
equal attention to both substance (dravya) and process
(paryaya).[76]
Neo-Vedanta developed in the 19th century, in interac-
tion with and response to colonialism.[70] With the on-
set of the British Raj, the colonialisation of India by
the British, there also started a Hindu renaissance in the
19th century, which profoundly changed the understand-
ing of Hinduism in both India and the west.[77] Western
orientalist searched for the essence of the Indian re-
ligions, discerning this in the Vedas,[78] and meanwhile
creating the notion of Hinduism as a unied body of
religious praxis[79] and the popular picture of 'mystical
India'.[79][77]
This idea of a Vedic essence was taken over by the Hindu
reformers, together with the ideas of Universalism and
Perennialism, the idea that all religions share a common
mystic ground.[80] The Brahmo Samaj, who was sup-
ported for a while by the Unitarian Church,[81] played an
essential role in the introduction and spread of this new
understanding of Hinduism.[82] Vedanta came to be re-
garded as the essence of Hinduism, and Advaita Vedanta
came to be regarded as then paradigmatic example of
the mystical nature of the Hindu religion.[83]
A major proponent in the popularisation of this Univer-
salist and Perennialist interpretation of Advaita Vedanta
was Vivekananda,[84] who played a major role in the
revival of Hinduism,[85] and the spread of Advaita
Vedanta to the west via the Vedanta Society, the interna-
tional arm of Ramakrishna Order. His interpretation of
[86]
popular understanding of Hinduism has been dominated
by this neo-Vedanta,[79][note 14] in which mysticism,[79]
Aryan origins and the unity of Hinduism[87] have been
of Advaita Vedanta
as the pinnacle of Indian religions. It provided an op-
portunity for the construction of a nationalist ideology
that could unite Hindus in their struggle against colonial
oppression.[92]
6 Inuence
The Vedanta school has had a historic and central inu-
ence on Hinduism, states Nakamura:[7]
The prevalence of Vedanta thought is found
not only in philosophical writings but also in
various forms of (Hindu) literature, such as the
epics, lyric poetry, drama and so forth. What is
especially worthy of attention is that the Hindu
religious sects, the common faith of the Indian
populace, looked to Vedanta philosophy for the
theoretical foundations for their theology. The
inuence of Vedanta is prominent in the sa-
cred literatures of Hinduism, such as the var-
ious Puranas, Samhitas, Agamas and Tantras.
Many commentaries on the fundamental scrip-
ture of Vedanta, the Brahmasutra, were written
by the founders or leading scholars of the var-
ious sects of Hinduism, and they are transmit-
ted to this day as documents indispensable in
the respective sectarian traditions. The major-
ity of the traditional and conservative scholars
in India today, called Pandits, are students of
Vedanta, and an overwhelming number belong
to the lineage of Shankara ve-sixths of all
Pandits, according to some authorities.
Hajime Nakamura (2004), A History
7.1 Spinoza 7

of Early Vednta Philosophy, Volume 2[7] David Josephson, Welsh physicist, and Nobel Prize lau-
reate says:[106]

Frithjof Schuon summarizes the inuence of Vedanta The Vedanta and the Sankhya hold the key
on Hinduism as, The Vedanta contained in the Upan- to the laws of the mind and thought process
ishads, then formulated in the Brahma Sutra, and nally which are co-related to the Quantum Field, i.e.
commented and explained by Shankara, is an invalu- the operation and distribution of particles at
able key for discovering the deepest meaning of all the atomic and molecular levels.
religious doctrines and for realizing that the Sanatana
Dharma secretly penetrates all the forms of traditional
spirituality.[93][94] Gavin Flood states, the most inuen- 7.1 Spinoza
tial school of theology in India has been Vedanta, exert-
ing enormous inuence on all religious traditions and be- Max Mller, in his lectures, noted the striking similarities
coming the central ideology of the Hindu renaissance in between Vedanta and the system of Spinoza, saying
the nineteenth century. It has become the philosophical
paradigm of Hinduism par excellence.[8] [T]he Brahman, as conceived in the Upan-
Lucian Blaga has often used the concepts Marele Anonim ishads and dened by Sankara, is clearly the
(the Great Anonymous) and cenzura transcendent (the same as Spinozas 'Substantia'.[107]
transcendental censorship) in his philosophy. He was in-
uenced by akaras concepts of Brahman (God) and Helena Blavatsky, a founder of the Theosophical Society,
my (illusion).[95] In akarcrya, Brahman is un- also compared Spinozas religious thought to Vedanta,
derstood as nirguna Brahman (God without attributes), writing in an unnished essay
whilst vara is saguna Brahman (God with attributes).
Louis Renou underlines that Brahman is superior to - As to Spinozas Deitynatura naturans
vara, while Olivier Lacombe writes that Brahman is - conceived in his attributes simply and alone;
varas superlative.[96] Brahman is dierent than Greek and the same Deityas natura naturata or as
Zeus, as well as than Christian or Jewish God, than Mus- conceived in the endless series of modica-
lim Allah, because he is transpersonal.[97] My is a fun- tions or correlations, the direct outowing re-
damental concept in Vedanta. It has several meanings sults from the properties of these attributes, it
and it has often been translated as illusion. Accord- is the Vedantic Deity pure and simple.[108]
ing to L. Thomas ONeil, my signies measuring the
immeasurable.[98]
The 19th-century German Sanskritist Theodore Gold-
stcker was one of the early gures to notice the similari-
ties between the religious conceptions of the Vedanta and
7 Comparison to Western philoso- those of the Dutch Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza,
writing that Spinozas thought was
phies
... so exact a representation of the ideas
Similarities between Vedanta and Western philosophi-
of the Vedanta, that we might have suspected
cal traditions have been discussed by many authorities.
its founder to have borrowed the fundamen-
Due to the colonisation of Asia by the western world,
tal principles of his system from the Hindus,
since the late 18th century an exchange of ideas has
did his biography not satisfy us that he was
been taking place between the western world and Asia,
wholly unacquainted with their doctrines [...]
which also inuenced western religiosity.[99] In 1785 ap-
comparing the fundamental ideas of both we
peared the rst western translation of a Sanskrit-text.[100]
should have no diculty in proving that, had
It marked the growing interest in the Indian culture and
Spinoza been a Hindu, his system would in all
languages.[101] The rst translation of Upanishads ap-
probability mark a last phase of the Vedanta
peared in two parts in 1801 and 1802,[101] which inu-
philosophy.[109][110]
enced Arthur Schopenhauer, who called them the conso-
lation of my life.[102][note 15] Schopenhauer drew explicit
parallels between his philosophy, as set out in 'The World
as Will and Representation',[103] and that of the Vedanta 8 See also
philosophy ascribed to Vasya in the work of Sir William
Jones.[104] Early translations also appeared in other Euro- Monistic idealism
pean languages.[105]
List of teachers of Vedanta
In the 20th century, comparisons between Advaita, west-
ern philosophy, and science took a high ight. Brian Self-consciousness (Vedanta)
8 10
9 Notes
[1] Considered to be the nal layer of the Vedic canon
[2] Robert E. Hume, Professor Emeritus of History of
Religions at the Union Theological Seminary, wrote
in Random House's The American College Dictionary
(1966): It [Vednta] is concerned with the end of the
Vedas, both chronologically and teleologically.
[3] The Vednta-stra are known by a variety of names,
including (1) Brahma-stra, (2) rraka, (3) Vysa-
stra, (4) Bdaryaa-stra, (5) Uttara-mms and (6) [15] And called his poodle Atman.[102]
Vednta-darana.[25]
[4] Estimates of the date of Bdaryanas lifetime dier be-
tween 200 BCE
[5] Nicholson: Numerous Indologists, including Suren-
dranath Dasgupta, Paul hacker, Hajime Nakamura, and
Mysore Hiriyanna, have described Bhedabheda as the
most inuential school of Vedanta before Sankara.[27]
[6] Bharthari (c. 450500), Upavarsa (c. 450500), Bod-
hyana (c. 500), Tanka (Brahmnandin) (c. 500550),
Dravida (c. 550), Bhartprapaca (c. 550), abarasvmin
(c. 550), Bhartmitra (c. 550600), rivatsnka (c. 600),
Sundarapndya (c. 600), Brahmadatta (c. 600700),
Gaudapada (c. 640690), Govinda (c. 670720), Man-
danamira (c. 670750).[16]
[7] Nakamura notes that there are contradictions in doctrine
between the four chapters.[32]
[8] The term mayavada is still being used, in a critical way,
by the Hare Krshnas. See [web 2] [web 3] [web 4] [web 5]
[9] Nicholson: The Brahmasutras themselves espouse the re-
alist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been
the view most common among early Vedantins.[35]
[10] B.N.K. Sharma: "[H]ow dicult he himself found the
task of making the Sutras yield a Monism of his concep-
tion, is proved by the articiality and parenthetical irrel-
evance of his comments in many places, where he seeks
to go against the spirit and letter of the Sutras and their
natural drift of arguments and dialectic [...] he was ght-
ing with all his might and ingenuity against a long line of
realistic commentaries.[34]
[11] The tendency of a blurring of philosophical distinctions
has also been noted by Burley.[42] Lorenzen locates the
origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction be-
tween Muslims and Hindus,[43] and a process of mutual
self-denition with a contrasting Muslim other,[44] which
started well before 1800.[45]
[12] Sivananda also mentions Meykandar and the Shaiva Sid-
dhanta philosophy.[10]
[13] Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita was propounded by Sri
Srinivasa Deekshitulu (950 A.D.). It is primarily re-
lated to Vaikhanasa School of thought (based on Tait-
tiriya Aranyaka) based on Badarayana Sariraka Sutras.
It is strictly followed by the original priests of the cel-
ebrated ancient Tirumala Hill Shrine even to this day.
It proposes that Brahman can be in sakala and nishkala
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eration. In this school of thought the ultimate Brahman is
Lord Vishnu along with goddess Lakshmi. Lord Vishnu
must be worshipped along with Goddess Lakshmi. Tiru-
mala Kshetram is one of the best examples of the imple-
mentation of the 'Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaitam'.[69]
[14] Also called neo-Hinduism[79]
10 References
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[2] Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins,
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[3] NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State
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[5] Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga,
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[6] Francis X Clooney (2000), Ultimate Realities: A Volume
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[7] Hajime Nakamura (2004), A History of Early Vednta
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[10] Sivananda 1993, p. 217.
[11] Koller 2013, p. 100-106.
[12] King 1995, p. 268 with note 2.
[13] Vepa, Kosla. The Dhaarmik Traditions. Indic Studies
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[14] Pasricha, Ashu (2008). Encyclopaedia of Eminent
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Vedanta Treatise: The Eternities by Swami
Parthasarathy
The System of Vedanta by Paul Deussen. 1912.
Reprint 2007.
Forgotten Truth: The Primordial Tradition by
Huston Smith
Theology After Vedanta by Francis X. Clooney
12 12 FURTHER READING

A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy by Hajime

Nakamura
Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies and Vedanta
Sutras of Nryana Guru by Karl Potter and Siba-
jiban Bhattachrya

The Upanishads by Sri Aurobindo, Sri Aurobindo

Ashram, Pondicherry, 1972.

Choice Upanishads by Swami Parthasarathy

Vedanta: A Simple Introduction by Pravrajika Vra-
japrana
Swami Bhoomnanda Tirtha Narayanashrama
Tapovanam
 13

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thams, Thardik, Hiteshrndl, Scholaroh, Zodiacastro, Ashishtripat, Colbey84, Lakun.patra, Ms Sarah Welch, Filedelinkerbot, , BRS-
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13.2 Images
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-
sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Om_symbol.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author
provided. Rugby471 assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_
Sankaracharya.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original source not stated by uploader, however many sources available on web
including this. Original artist: Raja Ravi Varma
File:Shri_mahaprabhuji.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Shri_mahaprabhuji.jpg License: CC-BY-
SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work by the original uploader Original artist: User:Madhurtanwani
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur

13.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0