Chapter 10

Theories of Personality

10.1 Theories from the Western World

Psychologists from the western world since the beginning of the 20 th century have been

studying the human behavior. They have proposed various theories that diversely explain the human

nature which ultimately forms personality. These theories focus the attention on various traits with which

people can be categorized and compared. Most of the time they look for commonalities amongst people

for categorization. The theories of personality suffer from the limitations of their proposer in terms of the

society, culture, race and the country they belong to. In spite of these factors, the proposed theories go a

long way to explain the human personality. Some of the notably important theories of personality are

Psycho-Analytical Theory of Freud

Gordon Alports Trait Theory
Maslows Humanistic Theory
Psycho-social Theory of Erikson
Social-Cognitive Theory of Bandura

10.2 Psycho-Analytical Theory

It is also known as Sigmund Freuds Psycho-Analytic Theory of personality. According

to Freud, human behavior is the result of the interactions among three components of the mind: Id, Ego

and Superego.

Id: It means the identity which is self-centered preserving human condition and caters to most basic

needs of life namely hunger, thirst, sleep, comfort etc. It acts as per the Pleasure principle that demands

immediate gratification irrespective of the environment. However, such instant satisfaction of the needs is

not always realistic or socially acceptable. For example, Id may be that by seeing a stranger eating ice

cream, one would like to grab the ice cream from the stranger without caring that it is rude to take

something belonging to someone else. Another example would be the instinct to take away a beautiful
piece of artistry from a museum to satisfy own craving. It is said that children up to the age of about 5

years are ruled by Id. It operates entirely in unconscious state of mind.

Ego: In contrast to the instinctual id, the ego is actively concerned with the reality principle. It intends

to fulfill the demands of the id in accordance with the realities of the world. The ego is the rational and

pragmatic part of ones personality. It is less primitive than id and operates in partly conscious and partly

unconscious state of mind. For example, the ego would make the person realize that there is armed

security in the museum and there is no way to take away the piece of artistry from the museum. Thus,

ego reflects the reality. According to Freud, the ego gets formed with the help of nurturing up to the age

of about 12 years.

Super ego: The third component of personality is concerned with social rules and moral principles. It

develops the sense of right and wrong. It reflects the values and judgment. For example, the super-ego

will make a realization that the consequence of taking away the piece of artistry from museum would not

only be interpreted as a criminal offence, but will be morally improper. The super ego, like ego operates

in unconscious as well as conscious state of mind.

The Figure 10.1 shows the Freuds structural model of the personality which is divided

into the id, ego, and super ego. In this figure they are shown in the form of an ice berg .It is seen that

much of the human personality to a great extent is governed by the unconscious mind. Whereas id,

remains always in the unconscious and conscious state, the ego and super ego exists both in unconscious

as well as conscious state of mind.

 Conscious

Ego

Superego

Id

Unconscious

Freuds Personality Model

Figure 10.1

10.3 Gordon Allports Trait Theory:

As generally known, the term trait means characteristic of a person that produces a kind

of behavior. People possess many different traits by which they are recognized in terms of their

personality. In 1936, psychologist Gordon Alport observed that one English language dictionary

contained more than 4000 words describing different personality traits. He thought of categorizing these

traits and it resulted into the development of his trait theory. It states that everyone has personality traits

that are consistent with the persons individuality and behavior. He concluded that every human

being possesses hundreds of traits which can be grouped into three categories.

Cardinal Trait: These are the traits that dominate an individual life. People with such traits become so

much known that their personality becomes synonymous with these traits. For example Mother Teresa

is often identified with the trait altruism- helping others without regard to self. Her entire life was

completely driven by this cardinal trait. Other personalities who were dominated by the cardinal traits

include Albert Einstein for his genius, Mahatma Gandhi for his truthfulness and Osama Bin Laden for his
evilness. In history there are many examples of people who are identified for good or bad cardinal traits.

These traits have the following characteristics.

Serve as a persons dominant trait

Dominates an individuals complete personality.
Thought to be quite uncommon
Controls and shapes a persons behavior
Shapes a persons sense of self, emotional make up and attitude.
Ruling passions or obsessions are exhibited
Define ones entire life.

Examples of cardinal traits are honesty, greed, justice, love, altruism, sadism, violence, power etc.

Central traits: These are the traits that make up an individuals personality. Normally 5 to 10 traits

constitute the general characteristics usually found in every person. Such traits are sensitivity,

friendliness, honesty, generosity, love, compassion etc and are knows as central traits. These traits are

present in varying degrees in all human beings. They are responsible for distinguishing and comparing

one person from other. The central traits have following characteristics:

Define ones personality

Basic traits that shape the most of an individuals behavior.
Not so much dominating as cardinal trait.
They are the core traits.
Inherent in most of the people.
Found in some degree in every person.
Used for providing the complete picture of persons nature.

Secondary Traits: Such traits are of secondary importance and at times difficult to detect in a person.

Usually others may not be able to notice these traits unless they come in close contact with the person.

Secondary traits become effective under certain circumstances, otherwise they remain dormant. For

example a secondary trait may be the stage fear before a public speaking event. Other examples could be

musical taste, colour choices, food preferences etc. Following are some of the characteristics of secondary

traits.

They are not necessarily applicable to everyone.

 Only seen under certain circumstances.
They are privately nurtured.
They are particular types of likes or dislikes
They are related to preferences or attitudes.
They come out when coaxed.

Some examples of secondary traits are becoming impatient while waiting in a line , becoming nervous

in front of employer, becoming agitated during a discussion.

10.4 Maslows theory:

Dr. Abrahams Maslow, one of the great psychologists gave a theory known as Humanistic

Theory of Personality. It holds that people achieve their full potential by moving from basic needs to self-

actualization. He outlined various human needs and ranked them in the order of importance from most

basic to the most advanced in the following manner so that after one gets fulfilled, the other starts.

Physiological
Security
Social
Esteem
Self-actualization

These needs are generally portrayed as hierarchical model in the form of a pyramid with

the largest and most basic physiological needs such as need for food, water etc at the base and the

smallest and most advanced self actualization at the apex. The Figure 10.2 shows the hierarchical

needs. The creativity, morality, acceptability, and problem solving are the part of self actualization

process of personality development, as seen in the figure.

Problem solving, creativity,

morality, acceptability etc
Self
Actualization

Self-esteem, confidence,
status, respect,
appreciation etc
 Esteem

Friendship, relationship,
Social love, belongingness etc

Security of self,
family, employment,
Security prosperity etc

Air, Food, water,

sleep, sex,
Physiological homeostasis etc

Maslow Hierarchical Model of Needs

Figure 10.2

Maslow believed that the development of personality can lead up to self-actualization.

The phrase Self-actualization refers to fulfillment of ones talents and potentialities. He extended the

field of humanistic psychology to include the pattern of change of human needs through an individuals

life span, and the way these needs influence the development of personality. While realizing ones full

potential, the creative expressions, pursuit of knowledge, service to society are some of the tenets of

personality.

Maslows theory of personality development revolves around the psychology of

personality by focusing on subjective experiences and free will towards an individuals innate drive

towards self-actualization- a state of highest level of fulfillment according to his capability. Maslow

studied the personalities of people whom he considered to be creative leaders including Albert Einstein,

Eleanor Roosevelt, Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Linclon and others. He found that such people had the

similar characteristics such as being open, aware, loving, spontaneous, compassionate and problem

solvers which made them great personalities. He believed that successful fulfillment of each layer of

needs was important in the development of personality.

10.5 Psycho-social Theory:

There are various theories of personality development given by psychologists. Among

these, the psychosocial theory created by Erikson is one of the most widely accepted and known

personality theories. It is based on the premise that the development of personality continues over the

entire life span, from birth to death in eight stages known as psychosocial stages. Each of these stages

have been described in the form of conflict between two states of existence by making use of the word

versus between them.

Stage I Trust Versus Mistrust

It is the earliest psychosocial stage that occurs during the first 18 months of infancy.

During this stage an infant is completely dependent upon mother and other caregivers. During this period

the infant learns whether or not to trust the world. When a baby cries, do his caregivers attend to his

needs? When he is frightened, does someone comes and comforts him. If these needs are met, the baby

learns that he can trust the people that are caring for him. If, these needs are not consistently met, he will

begin to mistrust the people around him. If the infant successfully develops trust he will feel safe and

secure in the world. The unavailability or inconsistency in attending to the needs of the infant will

develop a feeling of mistrust which will result into fear and the belief that the world is inconsistent and

unpredictable.

Stage-2- Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt

It is the second stage of psychosocial development. It occurs between the age of 1 to 3

years approximately.

During this stage, a toddler develops a sense of personal control. He starts performing

basic actions of body on his own and makes choices. The toddlers at this stage becomes somewhat

independent and want autonomy to do things such as choosing cloths to wear, toys to play and food to eat.

The toddler getting support from parents and caregivers in such activities successfully complete this stage
and develop a sense of self-control and autonomy. On the other hand, if he does not get the support, the

feeling of shamefulness and doubt gets generated. Erikson says that achieving a balance between

autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that toddlers can act with intention,

within reason and limits.

Stage 3 Initiative versus Guilt

This stage occurs between ages of 3 to 6 years. This is the period of pre-school years.

During this stage a child begins to assert his power and control by taking initiatives, by planning

activities, doing things and facing challenges. The role of parents and caregivers becomes important

towards the personality development of the child. If the child is encouraged and helped, he develops a

sense of purpose with initiative failure to encourage and support the child results into development of

feeling of guilt in his personality.

Stage -4 - Industry versus Inferiority

It occurs between the age of 6 to 12 years when a child is undergoing primary and early

secondary education in school. During this stage, the child starts performing activities including reading,

writing, drawing, problem solving, social meetings etc. As a result he strives to acquire new skills.

The encouragement and commendation by teachers and parents during this stage develops a feeling of

confidence. And the child grows with industrious nature. If on the other hand the child receives little or no

encouragement from teachers, parents and peers he develops a feeling of inferiority.

Stage 5- Identity versus Confusion

 This is the stage of adolescence between age of 12 to 18 years, when a teenager explores

his identity and independence. Erikson says that this stage is particularly crucial for shaping from

childhood to adulthood. The teenager may begin to feel confused and insecure due to unavailability of the

co-operation from parents, teachers and peers. It is during this stage that a sense of direction in life gets

developed. Those who receive proper guidance and counseling emerge with a strong sense of self and a

feeling of separate identity. Others remain confused about themselves and their future.

Stage- 6- Intimacy versus Isolation:

This stage exists between ages of 19 to about 40 years. Erikson says that this stage

depends to a large extent on the 5 th stage. With fully developed sense of self identity, one is able to

establish intimacy and relationships. It is observed that a person with week sense of identity is likely to

suffer with isolation, loneliness and depression.

Stage 7- Generativity versus Stagnation

This stage occurs between the ages of about 40 to 65 years. During this period of

adulthood, a person strives to create the things which will outlast him. Doing things for future generation

is the essence of this stage. Leaving the foot prints in the world becomes a strong urge. This is usually

displayed through caring for others, creating objects and accomplishing the objectives by which one may

be remembered. A person who fails to engage in this task and unable to achieve the results becomes

unproductive. Such person stagnates and feel disconnected with society.

Stage 8- Integrity versus Despair

It is the last and final stage of life. During this stage a person reflects back on the life

time spent and comes out with either a sense of fulfillment or a sense of regret towards the life lived. If

the person has achieved success in building relationships, helped society, created things to remember, he

will feel a sense of integrity and be proud of himself. But a person who has been unsuccessful during the
various stages will realize that his life has been wasted and develop a feeling of bitterness leading to

despair.

10.6 Social Cognitive Theory:

It is used in education, business and communication. Psychologists Edurin Holt and

Harold Brown in the year 1931 proposed this theory. It was further developed by Albert Bandura in 1986.

It is based on the premise that when people observe a model performing a particular behavior and

consequence of that behavior, they remember and try to emulate the same in their own behavior. The

theory integrates a large number of discrete ideas, concepts and processes into an overall fame work for

understanding human functioning. The following five concepts constitute the social cognitive theory.

(1) Observational learning It means that people learn through observation. Live demonstration of

behavior by a model, teacher or classmate enables an individual to learn. The observational

learning of behavior depends upon process of motivation, production, attention and retention.

Motivational processes are the key for understanding. Production processes become necessary

when learners begin their effort to perform what they have observed. Attention processes are

critical because the learners must attend to the model/teacher. Retention process becomes

necessary for transforming what is observed into a symbolic form that can be stored for later use.
(2) Outcome Expectations: Outcome expectations reflect individuals beliefs about what

consequences are most likely to ensure if particular behaviours are performed. For example a

person may believe that if he delivers a good speech, the audience will cheer. Such beliefs get

formed through ones own past experience and observation of others. Outcome expectations are

important because they shape the decision one makes about what action to take and which

behavior to suppress.
(3) Perceived Self-efficacy Efficacy means ability to produce a desired amount of the effect, self-

efficacy reflects an individuals beliefs whether he can achieve a given level of success in

performing a task or not. People with higher self-efficacy are more confident compared to others
 and possess greater choice, persistence and effective strategy. Self-efficacy is viewed as a product

of individuals own past performances, observations and verbal persuasion of others. It has

proven useful for understanding students motivation and achievement in academic contexts.
(4) Goal Setting Goals represent cognitive representations of anticipated, desired or preferred

outcomes. They are closely related to outcome expectations and perceived self-efficacy. It means

that people not only learn, they use forethought to envision future, indentify desired outcomes

and generate plan of action. Models/teachers provide goals in the form of specific behavioural

outcomes. Goal setting becomes an important prerequisite for self-regulation.

(5) Self-regulation - Management and control of ones own learning behavior depends upon the goal

setting. In this respect self-observation and self-judgment becomes the way through which one

monitors the progress made towards achievement of goals. Self-regulation exemplifies the

assumption about influence of personal factors on behavior and environment. It is also dependent

upon all the above four process. Self-regulated learning is able to manage the behavior, beliefs

and attitudes in an individual.

The theory emphasizes on how social influences, personal factors and behavior interact with each other.

The interaction takes place during various interventions which occur under each of the factor namely

personal, environmental and behavior. These interventions are listed below:

Personal factor (Cognitive)

Goals
Outcome expectations
Sense of efficacy
Self-regulation
Environmental(Social)
Role models
Instructions
Reinforcement
Feedback
Behavioural
Motivation
Attention
Learning
Retention
Figure 10.3 shows the interaction and relationship between the personal, environmental and behavioural
factors. Each of these interact with the other in a reciprocal manner. For example, personal factor interact
with environmental factor and is influenced by the cognitive skills and society.

Personal

Influenced by thoughts
And behaviour Influenced by cognitive skills
And society

Behaviour Environmental

Influenced by behavior and society

Relationship between Personal, Environmental and Behavioural Factors

Figure 10.3