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Ethics
Systematic study of Human actions from the point of view of their rightfulness or
wrongfulness as means for the attainment of ultimate happiness (of society)
(Greek word ethos character)
Moral principles that govern a persons behavior or the conducting of an activity, applied to
organization, society, profession, individual.
Morality
Principles concerning distinction between right and wrong or good and bad behavior
(Moralis means manner, custom, proper behavior in Greek)
Ethics- Rules and regulations, code of conduct, norms - Societal perspective
Morality Deeper level individual level
Values - Things that are important or valued by someone
Doctor Public Service, Soldier Patriotism, Gandhiji non-violence
Individual values or organizational values
1. Intrinsic values Truth, Beauty, Goodness, Temperance, Courage etc
End in itself
2. Extrinsic values Wealth, Physical fitness, Intelligence
Sometimes intrinsic or extrinsic values are interchangeable from individual perspective
like Positive Negative, Permanent Transient.
Beliefs
Internal feeling that something is true, even though that belief may be shallow, unproven
and irrational. Eg . All Chinese are selfish, All doctors have bad hand-writing,
1) Core beliefs-Thought process 2) Dispositional beliefs-Influenced by society
Essence of Ethics
Ethics tries to provide answer to these,
1) How to live a good life? 2) Our rights and responsibilities
2) Right and wrong 4) Moral decisions what is good and bad?
Ethics Morality
1. Standards, rules, norms by external 1. Principles or habits with respect to
sources (society, profession, community) right or wrong conduct
2. External 2. Internal
3. Social obligation 3. Individual belief
4. Within cultural norms 4. Transcends cultural norms
Determinants of Ethics
Some people feel that values keep changing with time and situation, while others strongly
believe that there are certain universal and eternal human values. Give your perception in this
regard with due justification.
(Generosity, Truth, Compassion, Love)
Consequences of Ethics -
Individual Level
1) Satisfaction of basic human needs family, Friendly behavior, marriage
2) Creating credibility- Eg. E. Shreedharan (efficient and honest), Dubey
Provides identity to the individual
3) Integration society
4) Helps in bringing social order, Social harmony
Administration
1) Decision making
2) Reflective judgment- Acceptable by all
3) Grey areas (Rules, code of conduct)
4) Response to dynamic administration and fast changing world
5) Efficient and responsive administration in Diverse situation (Poor, Rich, Able, Disabled,
Privileged, underprivileged, Honest, Corrupt)
International Level
1) Ethical diplomacy - No hidden agenda (Iraq, Libya, Iran, Syria, African countries)
2) Ethics of War Collateral damage, Intervention, Human rights
3) Financial assistance corrupt regime, Genocide, Religious intolerance
4) Panchasheel of Nehru non aligned movement
Organizational level
1) Convergence of individual interest with organizational interest
2) Controlling corruption
3) Nepotism
4) Black money
5) Tax evasion
6) Work culture
Social level
1) Eradication of corruption
2) Caste, Religious and communal, Regional, Local, Community identities
3) Compassion
4) Reduction of violence against women, theft, cheating, robbery and other crimes.
Environment
1) Conservation
2) Resource recycling (use of plastic, spitting, urination in open, throwing wastes)
3) Pollution control (Public transport)
4) Afforestation
5) Animal rights (protecting animals)
1) Dilemmas Saving only one life, Saving presidents life /children, Wife mother
Criteria for choosing any one of above category
2) Ethics also relates to interaction with non-Human components
Bio-Ethics
Environmental Ethics
Animal Ethics
- Origin of ethics is justice
- Maintained by sense of responsibility, not accountability
- Transcend the narrow law, rule book, code of conduct and regulations
Dimensions of Ethics
2) Normative Ethics : Concerned with criteria of what is morally right and wrong
Normative ethics is a branch of ethics, concerned with criteria of what is morally right and
wrong. It includes the formulation of moral rules that have direct implication for what human
actions, institutions and ways of life should be like.
Prescriptive Ethics - Prescribe to act in particular way.
Example Kantion categorical imperative , Nishkama karma of Bhagavad-Gita,
Gandhian ethics
a) Virtue Ethics It focuses on character of the agent instead of formal rules (ethical rules) or
consequences of action. It stresses the importance of developing good habits of character
like Wisdom, Courage, Temperance and Justice
Oldest of Normative Ethics (Greek philosophers Aristotle, Plato, Socrates)
Stresses the importance of developing good habits of character virtue ethics is persons oriented
than action of duty oriented.
A right act is the action a virtuous person would do in same circumstances.
Virtue ethics is concerned with whole of persons life, rather than particular episodes or actions
b) Consequentialism (Teleology)
It is class of Normative ethics holding that consequences of ones conduct are the ultimate basis for
any judgment about the rightness or wrongness of that conduct.
a) Utilitarianism
b) Ethical egoism Desirable consequences for the individual performing action
c) Ethical altruism end results are favorable to everyone except the agent
d) Hedonism Maximum the pleasure and minimize the pain.
c) Deontological ethics (Duty-based) concerned with what people do not with the consequences
of their actions.
It gives importance to rightness or wrongness of actions themselves as opposes to rightness or
wrongness of the consequences of those actions
It is based on principles that,
Do the right thing, Do it because its right thing to do, Dont do wrong things,
Avoid them because they are wrong
- Gandhian Ethics (Nonviolence, Truth, Faith in Purity)
- Kantian Ethics
- Nishkama Karma
3) Applied Ethics :
a) Bio Ethics
b) Business Ethics CSR
c) Military Ethics collateral damage
d) Political Ethics
e) Environmental Ethics
f) Publication Ethics
Aristotle
1) Aristotle distinguishes moral virtues from the intellectual virtues.
Aristotle gave emphasis to teleogy in philosophy and politics. (Teleogy is a method to study and
direct the actions based on the final purpose or end result of any being or action).
2) We can develop virtue by practicing it, as a skill.
Knowledge, bravery, perseverance by themselves do not make morally good character or man. Their
ethical significance depends on motives and values to which they are related.
Hence doctrine of golden mean is central in Aristotles concept of virtues.
3) He considers justice as supreme virtue.
Happiness :
Utilitarianism (J.S. Mills) :
1) Happiness is state of mind.
2) Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness.
Aristotle :
1) Happiness is about living well or doing well.
2) True happiness means living as rational being.
Consequentialism :
This moral theory holds that the consequences of a particular action form the basis for any valid moral
judgement about that action. Thus, from a consequentialist stand point, a morally right action is one that
produces good outcome, or consequence.
Moral worth of an action is determined by its outcome, and that the ends justify the means.
Utility - The good to be maximized. Happiness or pleasure.
Utilitarianism :
Consequences of the action produce favourable outcomes to everyone.
1) Utilitarianism says that Supreme ideal of life is pleasure not the individual pleasure but universal
happiness. Maximum happiness for maximum number.
2) It is form of Ethical Hedonism. Hedonism Pleasure is the highest good.
Jeremy Benthem :
Gross or Quantitative utilitarianism.
1) All pleasures are similar and they do not have qualitative differences.
2) If quantity of pleasure is same there is no qualitative difference between two pleasures.
3) Each man desires for his own happiness and therefore general happiness is good for all.
4) Moral standard
* Ethical egoism Greatest happiness of one individual.
* Ethical altruism - Greatest happiness of all except himself / herself.
* Utilitarianism - Happiness of maximum number of people.
5) Benthem argues that by nature man is selfish and egoistic, and he can be altruistic only when, by
being altruistic he satisfies his own desires also.
(One classic criticism of utilitarianism is that it is ethics of swine.)
Immanuel Kant
1) Kants concept of moral duty is wider, it is an outcome of an individuals rational thought.
He formulated a moral theory grounded in idea of duty. It is a deontological theory.
Kant was absolutist, he believed that peoples actions should be guided by moral laws, and these
moral laws should be universal.
2) According to Kant, our focus should be on what we ought to do. This ought to is called
dutifulness. What we wish to do is of no significance.
So, Kant says people should follow such rational universal principles without thinking about
their emotions or sentiments which usually misguide them.
3) From this reasoning, Kant derives universally valid moral rule of action known as the categorical
imperative. Kants aim was to establish a set of absolute moral rules, developed through
application of reason.
In other words moral rules should follow the principle of reciprocity.
4) Categorical imperative thus refers to an absolute, unconditional requirement that asserts its authority
in all circumstances, both required and justified as an end in itself.
Categorical imperative says that the truly moral or ethical acts are not based on self-interest or
greatest utility, but on a sense of duty.
5) Kant also stated that always treat humanity, never simply as means, but always at the same time as
an end.
6) Kant traces the origin of moral law to mans rationality or reason. He rejects education, civic
constitution, inner perfection and gods will as sources of moral law.
Kants emphasis on abstract laws leads him into extreme positions.
Kants ethics rest on abstract laws or pure principle without regard to results which can follow from
rigid adherence to principles.
John Rawls :
1) Book Theory of justice. It is variant of old social contract theory.
2) Two fundamental principles of justice necessary for just and morally acceptable society.
a) Each person with equal right with a similar system of liberty for all.
b) Social and economic inequalities arrangement.
1) Benefit to least advantaged.
2) Positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.
Principle (b) is similar to what is called positive discrimination.
Morality of self-interest :
Hobbes (Psychological egoism)
He maintains that all people act only in ways that improve their own self-interest.
1) Every voluntary action is a desire for ones own welfare.
2) Psychological egoism asserts that all human action is motivated by selfish-desires. It signifies that
concern for anothers happiness is a means to ones own happiness. Thus, it rules out the existence
of noble and generous actions.
Pity We pity others because we imagine ourselves in their place. We help others to ensure that
others will help us in our bad times.
3) Hobbes proposes a strong government with powerful law enforcement and effective system of
punishment. The threat of being caught and punished should function as deterrence to crime.
Karma Yoga :
Deals with importance of performing ones duties in his life.
1) Action is superior to inaction. Man gets bound by his action except if it is a sacrifice. The concept of
sacrifice is more at the level of mind. One should grow beyond likes and dislikes while performing
actions. One should keep performing actions, but with a selfless attitude.
Right speech
Right actions (Conduct) Morality
Right livelihood
Right effort
Right mindfulness (memory) Concentration
Right concentration
* Precepts (Rule of personal conduct / Principles)
1) Not killing or causing harm to other living beings.
2) No stealing or not taking that is not given.
No exploiting or manipulating or taking advantage of people.
3) Avoiding sexual misconduct.
4) Abstaining from drink and drugs that cloud the mind.
Being in state of mindfulness or awareness. Mindfulness is central value to be established in
ones life to live harmoniously and ethically.
Gandhian Ethics
1) The entire gamut of his philosophical thought is based on two moral cardinal values, namely Truth
and Non-violence.
2) Gandhian concepts such as, social equality, universal love, non-possession, purity of means, value
oriented education, satyagraha, classless society, removal of untouchability, global peace are having
great relevance and significance in modern times.
3) Gandhiji defined religion as a belief in the ordered and moral government of the universe.
Gandhiji took every aspect of human life only from moral stand point. He even suspended non-
cooperation movement in 1921 as he believed that people are not morally qualified to conduct the
movement.
He declared that there is no religion higher than truth and righteousness. He further opined that if we
lose the moral basis, we cease to be religious.
4) His humanism believes in doing good to others as the way of highest moral life.
He expressed his feelings clearly in Harijan.
For me, morals, ethics and religions are convertible terms. A moral life without reference to
religion is like a house built upon sand. And religion, divorced from morality is like sounding brass
good only for making noise & breaking heads."
5) Gandhiji advocated some cardinal virtues of life which are essential to lead a moral and pious life.
Indian ethics speaks of five virtues :
1) Ahimsa (non violence) 2) Asteya (Non stealing) 3) Satya (Truthfulness)
4) Aparigraha (non-possession) 5) Brahmacharya (Celibacy)
Gandhiji added 6) Abhaya (fearlessness)
Universal religion :
The study of great religious scriptures helped Gandhiji for attaining religious and moral life.
Refer to a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular object with some
degree of favour or disfavor. Object Includes people, things events, issues.
Attitudes are the feelings and beliefs that determine the behavior of persons.
2) Affective
1) Refers to feelings or emotions (fear, sympathy, pleasure, hate linked to an object.
2) Affect is a common component in attitude change, persuasion, social influence and even
decision making
3) Behavioral component
1) Refers to tendency or a predisposition to act in a certain manner. Predisposition may be
caused by affect or cognitive components , Affect may override cognitive components in certain
cases. These three components are interlinked
Attitude Structure
CABs have dynamic implications for information processing, retrieved and judgment
1) Attitude strength
-Ve
X Ambivalence
Neutral + Ve
e.g- Chocolate, Death penalty
central attitude often related to important values
2) Attitude ambivalence
1) Meaning that they simultaneously process both positive and negative attitudes toward the
object in question
2) Our evaluation are often mixed, consisting of both positive and negative reactions
- Arranged marriages, Preference to boys, Corruption- tax evasion
Ambivalence attitude Cognitive dissonance
3) Attitude accessibility
1) Ease with which attitudes can be retrieved from memory
2) How readily available is an attitude about an object, issue or situation
3) More accessible more predictive of behavior.
How messages are processed. more stable across time
- Traffic police asking for bribe
Functions
1) Utilitarian : Rewards- Positive attitude, Punishment Negative attitude
2) Knowledge Function : Stereotyping, Help organize new info
3) Ego defensive : 1) Social reform movement, 2) Denial, repression, projection rationalization,
3)Shoemaker company God, 4) Difficult to overcome
4) Value expressive : To express ones central values, Gandhijis clothes, Products
Behaviour Prediction
Theory of reasoned action
1) Accessibility
1) Social influence have effect on behavior
2) Attitude- behavior relationship may not be strong always
3) Cognitive capacity is low sleepy
4) Implicit attitude is there
More accessibility more predictable behavior
2) Strength Strength of attitude determines behaviour
1) Labour reforms Labour class though small (labour unions) have strong attitude,
Narmada Bachao, Banning meat in Mumbai Jain
3) Extemal influence
1) Social factors influence behavior
Freedom struggle (Satyagrah, Violent methods) , Protests
4) Behaviour specific attitude
1) Rather than thing/ Object specific many times attitude is behavior specific.
Swimming pool object, swimming activity more specific attitude
Social Influence
1) Attitude change is important in administration
2) Change in behavior on real/perceived pressure from others
- Open defecation - Girl education - Abolition of Sati
- Widow remarriage - Job IT company, Clerk, Old cab
- Hospital Government , Private
Why important in India? Change in Attitude
- Vatpornima following Culture, social Influence
3) Persuasion
4) Cognitive dissonance Pakistan-India is aggressive country
5) Self perception- Reforms, Juvenile home Send to service in old age homes, Behavior
Change attitude change
6) Conformity, compliance, obedience
7) Authority sometimes overrides your conscience
8) Peer pressure overrides your obedience also
9) Conscience Obedience Peer pressure
Environmental factors decides your behavior
10) Hitler, Mass movement, Mass hysteria
Attitude Change
1) Attitude Formation
1) Classical conditional 2) Operant conditioning 3) Observation learning
2) Attitude Change
1) Dissonance theory , 2) Learning theory, 3) ELM,
Importance a) IEC in public awareness, b) Mass campaigns, c) Advertisement
Social Influence
Six principles of social influence
1) Reciprocity People give back
2) Consistency Consistent with their previous actions, opinions and assertions
3) Social proof - By looking at what similar others have done
4) Liking Physical attractiveness, similarity, praise
5) Authority Parental authority
6) Scarcity Less accessibility items and opportunities become more desirable,
Censored subject more viewership
Social norms are group held beliefs about how members should behave in given context.
Persuasion
Attempt to change a persons attitude
Who- source, What message, Whom- audience
1) Important criteria that can determine effectiveness of persuasion are credibility and
likeability
2) Best method for persuasion differs from situation to situation
Central Vs Peripheral persuasion
- Rational - Putting emotions
- Direct - indirect measures
Resisting persuasion
1) Attitude inoculation- People who have been exposed to counter arguments have more
persuasion resistance (e.g. Tobacco, Dowry)
2) Forewarned
1) Forewarned of persuasion attempts
2) Experiences psychology reactance that motivates them to resist such attempt
3) When people do the exact opposite of what they are being persuaded to do called
negative attitude change or boomrang effect
Prior to confrontation Prospect held a weak attitude toward the subject
3) Stockpile- Person with physical, cognitive and social resources are more likely to resist
persuasion. Healthy, well read person may be able to resist it better
4) Defences against influence Tricks
Capacity for recognizing our own feeling and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for
managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships.
Emotional Intelligence refers to emotional management skill which provides competence to
balance emotions and reason, so as to maximize long term effectiveness and happiness
Thinking part (Head) Feeling part (Heart)
EQ
Why necessary?
EQ can lead to healthy relationship and to have the ability to respond to challenges of ones life
and career in positive manner.
EQ Composition
Emotional Intelligence is made up of four core skills
What I See What I do
Personal Competence - Self Awareness Self Management
Social Competence - Social Awareness Relationship Management
Self awareness
The ability to recognize how youre feeling and why you are feeling that way and the impact
your behavior has on others
Assertiveness
The ability to clearly express your thought and feelings, stand your ground and defend a position
Independence
The ability to be self-directed and self controlled in your thinking and actions and to be free of
emotional dependency. Independent people are self-reliant in planning and making important
decisions
Self Regard
The ability to appreciate your perceived positive aspect and possibilities as well as to accept
your negative aspect and limitations and still feel good about yourself.
Self Actualization
The ability to realize your potential. This component of EI is manifested by becoming
involved in pursuit that lead to a meaningful rich and full life
(How many hrs/weeks do you spend at work? With family? With friend? Alone)
- Quality time, Hobbies and Interest, most for hobby?
Empathy
The ability to understand what others might be feeling and thinking
It is the ability to view the world through another persons eyes.
Social Responsibility
The ability to demonstrate that you are a cooperative, contributing and constructive member of
your social group (Three things for people in need try to do one thing in this week).
Interpersonal Relation
The ability to forge and maintain relationships that are mutually beneficial and marked by give
and take and a sense of emotional closeness.
Stress Tolerance
The ability to withstand adverse events and stressful situation without falling apart by actively
and positively coping with stress.
It is associated with the capacity to be relaxed and composed and to calmly face difficulties
without getting carried away by strong emotions.
Happiness
The ability to feel satisfied with your life, to enjoy yourself and others and to have fun.
Happiness combines self-satisfaction, general contentment and the ability to enjoy life.
Happiness is associated with a general feeling of cheerfulness and enthusiasm. It is byproduct
and/or barometric indicator of your overall degree of EI and emotional functioning.
Optimism
The ability to look at the brighter side of life and to maintain a positive attitude even in the
face of adversity. Optimism assumes a measure of hope in ones approach to life.
Empathy
1) Understanding and entering into anothers feelings.
2) It refers to ability to imagine oneself in anothers place and understand the others feelings, desires,
ideas and actions.
3) Ability to empathize is directly dependent on your ability to feel your own feelings and
identify them (In order to emphathize with others, we need to become aware of what we are actually
feeling)
Empathy Recognized as a universal virtue.
Sympathy Empathy
1) You are sorry for them. 1) Placing yourself in that persons place.
2) You dont specifically understand what 2) Have a good sense of what they feel and
they are feeling. understand their feelings to a degree.
Compassion
1) The humane quality of understanding the suffering of others and wanting to do something about it.)
Compassion involves a sense of empathy. It does not end with pity.
2) It gives rise to active desire to alleviate anothers suffering.
It is considered in almost all major religious traditions as among the greatest of virtues.
Equity and Equality
1) Equality is usually taken to mean that everyone should be treated the same (due to fundamental
equality of all persons), whereas an Equity approach holds that groups and individuals should be
treated according to their particular circumstances and requirements. Therefore, according to Equity
principle, groups can be treated differently in the application of policy or the law, so as to compensate
for these obstacles and to produce just or fair outcomes.
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1) Civil services acts as most important tool for governance of our country.
2) Public Servants play a vital role in sustaining Indias democratic institutions and fostering economic
prosperity and social well being.
Human Rights
These can be defined as, inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled
simply because she or he is human being.
Features of Human Rights -
1) Universal (Everywhere applicable)
2) Egalitarian (same for everyone)
3) May exist as natural rights or legal rights.
4) Inalienable
5) Equal for everyone and non-discriminatory.
They act as cornerstone of public policy around the world.
Accountability :
It means official are responsible and answerable for their actions & decisions and there is liability to
give satisfactory account of exercise. In case of failure there can follow some kind of punishment.
1) Strength of accountability and transparency is expressed by its efficiencies and effectiveness.
2) Accountability is important in evaluating ongoing effectiveness of public officials.
3) Accountability ensures that officials are performing to their full potential, being responsive, provide
quality services and increases confidence in government.
4) Accountability is important in good governance.
5) Control must not in the least be inhibitive of managerial initiative and risk taking Qualities which
are vital for growth and development.
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