Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Key words: Nonstructural Components, Bracing, Seismic Restraint, Architectural Components, Mechanical And
Electrical Component Bracing, Bracing Of Pipes, Ducts, Conduits, Nonstructural Performance Objectives
Abstract: For the majority of buildings, the nonstructural components represent a high percentage of the total capital
investment. Failure of these components in an earthquake can disrupt the function of a building as surely as
structural damage, and can pose a significant safety risk to building occupants as well. Past earthquakes have
dramatically illustrated the vulnerabilities of the nonstructural components. Apart from the falling hazard
posed by the light fixtures, non-structural failures can create debris that can block egress from the building,
and hamper rescue efforts. In this Chapter, we deal chiefly with those components and systems that are
installed in the structure during construction or remodel, for which design details are provided on the
construction documents. We will touch briefly on the contents and equipment items that the owner or
occupants may place in the building. The failure of these items may pose a significant risk to the occupants
of the structure. However, these items are diverse, and the designer should address their anchorage and
bracing on a case-by-case basis. Nonstructural elements can generally be divided into architectural,
mechanical, and electrical systems and components. Architectural components include items such as exterior
curtain walls and cladding, non-load bearing partitions, ceiling systems, and ornaments such as marquees
and signs. Mechanical components and systems include boilers, fans, air conditioning equipment, elevators
and escalators, tanks and pumps, as well as distributed systems such as HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and
Air Conditioning) ductwork and piping systems. Electrical components include transformers, panels,
switchgear, conduit, and cable tray systems. Components may be mounted at grade (on the ground floor or
basement of a building) or installed on the upper levels or roof of the structure. Our focus is on
nonstructural components as opposed to nonbuilding structures. Nonstructural components consist of
equipment and systems that are supported vertically and laterally by a structural framework independent of
the component itself -- a piece of equipment supported by a building frame, for example. In addition, we will
consider the anchorage and bracing of moderately sized components at or below grade, such as chillers,
pumps, and fans.
681
682 Chapter 13
13. Design of Nonstructural Systems and Components 683
Figure 13-1. Damaged suspended ceiling and light fixtures, Olive View Hospital, San Fernando Valley Earthquake of 1971
(Steinbrugge Collection, Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California, Berkeley.)
684 Chapter 13
towers, industrial storage rack systems, pressure incorporating lessons learned in these
vessels, and tanks. There are wide variations in earthquakes. For example, the 1964 Alaska
the construction and dynamic properties of Earthquake demonstrated the vulnerabilities of
nonbuilding structures. Components such as precast concrete cladding systems. There were
pressure vessels, boilers, and chillers may be widespread failures of ceiling systems and
rigid structures, massively constructed with mechanical equipment in the 1971 San
little inherent ductility. Seismic response of Fernando Earthquake, and failures in piping
these components is often characterized by systems in the 1994 Northridge Earthquake.
sliding or overturning at the level of connection After each of these events, building codes have
to the ground. When damage occurs to these been modified in an effort to address these
components, it is often concentrated in the vulnerabilities.
connections or anchor bolts. At the opposite Structures that must continue in
end of the spectrum are structures such as uninterrupted operation during and after an
cooling towers, which are often flexible and earthquake will require nonstructural
highly redundant, with behavior quite similar to component designs that exceed the levels in
that for buildings. most building codes. In general, building codes
The development of seismic design treat equipment and systems as black boxes,
provisions for nonstructural components has in that while the seismic design for the item is
lagged behind that of primary structural system. limited to anchorage and bracing, the integrity
Until the advent of seismic codes, there was no of the component itself is not expressly
clear distinction between structural and considered. For example, seismic design of an
nonstructural components. Buildings had no electrical transformer typically consists of
dedicated lateral force resisting system, relying design of the anchor bolts connecting the unit to
on plaster or brick walls and partitions for the structure, and perhaps a check of the
lateral strength. Earthquakes in the early part of mounting brackets on the transformer
the 20th century demonstrated the vulnerability enclosure. However, checks of the integrity of
of architectural features such as unreinforced the internal components of the unit are much
brick parapets and exterior walls. Few less common, and are not required by building
observations were made regarding the seismic codes, even though the internal components
performance of mechanical and electrical may be acceleration sensitive and vulnerable to
systems, which existed in rudimentary forms. damage at acceleration levels significantly
In the 1933 Long Beach Earthquake, failure lower than the design anchorage force. For
of fire sprinkler piping led to some of the piping systems, bracing designed to prevent a
earliest seismic provisions for piping systems. collapse of the piping system may not be
Lateral bracing provisions were added to the sufficient to prevent leaks or occasional breaks.
1961 Uniform Building Code, dealing chiefly The next generation of building codes will
with the design and attachment of architectural apply performance-based design to the
components. However, it was not until the 1964 anchorage and bracing of nonstructural
Alaska and 1971 San Fernando Earthquakes components. In performance based-design, the
that the vulnerabilities of nonstructural design of a components or system is controlled
components and systems in modern buildings by the level of seismic performance desired by
were exposed. Earthquake reconnaissance the owner of the structure, or mandated by the
reports from these and subsequent earthquakes governing building official.
identified many conditions and practices that Section 13.2 discusses performance
caused extensive property damage and put objectives for different nonstructural
building occupants at risk during strong ground components and systems. Section 13.3
shaking. Building code provisions have examines different aspects of the seismic
undergone continual development, behavior of nonstructural components. Section
686 Chapter 13
Extensive damage;
Parapets and Extensive damage; some
some fall in Minor damage. Minor damage.
Ornamentation fall in nonoccupied areas.
nonoccupied areas.
Canopies &
Extensive distortion. Moderate distortion. Minor damage. Minor damage.
Marquees
Table 13-2. Nonstrucutral Performance Levels and Damage, Mechincal, Electrical, and Plumbing Systems/Components(13-2)
Nonstructural Performance Levels
Elevators out of
System/ Elevators operable;
Elevators out of service; service;
Component can be started when Elevators operate.
counterweights off rails. counterweights do no
power avilable.
dislodge.
Units shirt on
Units are secure and
Most units do not operate; supports, rupturing
HVAC most operate if power
many slide or overturn; attached ducting, Negligible damage.
Equipment and other required
some suspended units fall. piping and conduit, but
utilities are available.
do not fall.
Minor damage at
Ducts break loose of joints, with some
Minor damage at
equipment and louvers; leakage. Some
Ducts joints, but ducts Negligible damage.
some supports fail; some supports damaged, but
remain serviceable.
ducts fall. systems remain
suspended
Minor damage at
joints, with some
Some lines rupture. Some
leakage. Some Minor leaks develop
Piping supports fail. Some piping Negligible damage.
supports damaged, but at a few joints.
falls.
systems remain
suspended.
Figure 13-5. Nonstructural partition acting as a shear wall, 1964 Alaskan Earthquake. (Steinbrugge Collection, Earthquake
Engineering Research Center, University of California, Berkeley.)
692 Chapter 13
structure should be analyzed together, including to the levels expected in the design earthquake.
proper representation of the flexibility of the The objective of these approaches is to produce
component and it's supports. an anchorage or bracing scheme for the
Mechanical components with rotating or components that can withstand the accelerations
reciprocating components are often isolated generated by the earthquake, without allowing
from the structure with vibration isolation the component to shift or topple. In addition,
mounts. The isolation mounts may use either the component must be able to tolerate the
rubber-in-shear, springs, or air cushions to actual deformations of the primary structure
prevent transmission of vibrations to the without becoming dislodged, or adversely
structure. Vibration isolation mounts can affecting the primary structure.
dramatically alter the dynamic properties of In this section we will examine the
components, by increasing their flexibility. provisions of four design standards, the 1994
Seismic inertial forces on isolated components and 1997 editions of the Uniform Building
are amplified. Improperly designed vibration Code (UBC), the Tri-Services Manual, and the
isolation installations can fail under the 1997 National Earthquake Hazards Reduction
increased dynamic and impact loads. Isolation Program (NEHRP) Recommended Provisions
mounts must be specifically designed to resist for Seismic Regulations for New Buildings and
these effects. Housekeeping pads used to Other Structures, FEMA 302. These provisions
support equipment should be cast provide the designer with guidance on typical
monolithically with the structural slab, or be nonstructural seismic issues, and may be used
adequately reinforced and doweled to the as resources on more complex or unusual
structural slab. projects.
The ability to survive the earthquake Building codes may exempt components
physically intact does not guarantee the from anchorage and bracing requirements,
performance objective for the component or depending on the level of seismic risk at the
system has been met. As noted in Tables 13-1 site, the occupancy of the structure, and the
and 13-2, a component or system may need to importance of the components. In regions of
be functional following an earthquake in order low seismicity, all components are typically
to meet higher performance objectives. This exempt from seismic bracing requirements. In
requires seismic design of the operating parts of regions of moderate seismicity, bracing
mechanical and electrical components, either requirements are often limited to critical
through dynamic testing or through analysis. systems or hazardous components, such as
Systems relying on lifelines may require on-site cantilever parapets. In areas of high seismicity,
back-up sources of water, emergency electrical furniture and components that are floor
power, and waste water storage to meet the mounted and weigh less than 400 pounds are
Operational objective. generally exempt from anchorage and bracing
requirements. Items that or are suspended from
13.4 DESIGN STANDARDS the wall or ceiling and weigh less then 20
pounds are also typically exempt. However,
The development of analytical techniques exempt unanchored components may pose a
for nonstructural components has mirrored that risk, and consideration should be given to
for the primary structure of buildings. Most of restraining items that could shift or topple, both
these techniques use equivalent lateral force for safety reasons and to limit property loss.
methods, where the component is designed for All components requiring anchorage should
a lateral seismic force that is expressed as a be designed for a minimum seismic force.
fraction of the component weight. Deformation Seismic forces are dependent on the following
sensitive components are designed to factors: component weight; flexibility or
accommodate the design story drifts, amplified stiffness of the component and/or supports;
13. Design of Nonstructural Systems and Components 693
input acceleration at the point of attachment to Cp are amplified by a factor of 2 for flexible
the structure; an importance factor based on components, and may be reduced by 2/3 for
functionality requirements or the hazard posed components mounted at or below grade.
by the item; and the ductility, redundancy and The response of components located on the
energy absorption capability of the component upper levels is complicated by the dynamic
and its attachments to the structure. Positive response the structure in the ground shaking.
restraints must be provided, and friction forces Seismic input motion to the nonstructural
that are induced by gravity should be ignored, component is filtered and amplified by the
because vertical ground motions may reduce the structure. This can produce dramatic
effects of gravity. The effects of prying action amplifications of lateral force demands on the
and connection eccentricities on anchor loads component, especially if the fundamental period
should be accounted for in the design. of vibration of the component approaches a
predominant mode of vibration of the
13.4.1 1994 UBC/Tri-Services Manual supporting structure. In the Tri-Services
Static Analysis Manual, an effort is made to more precisely
consider the amplification of the seismic
Both the 1994 UBC and the Tri-Services response experienced by flexible equipment on
Manual are based on procedures presented in the upper levels of structures.
the 1990 edition of the Structural Engineers In the Tri-Services Manual, the force
Association of California Seismology equation is modified to:
Committee Recommendations. In the 1994
Fp = ZI p Ap C pWp (13-2)
UBC, the design lateral force for components is
given by the basic formula: where
Ap = magnification factor, dependent upon
Fp = ZI p C pWp (13-1)
the ratio of the fundamental period of the
component, Ta , and the period of the building
where:
T.
Fp = lateral force applied to the center of The component period may be determined
mass of the component by
Z = seismic coefficient that varies
depending on the seismic zone in which the Wp
structure is located, and varies from 0.075 and Ta = 0.32 (13-3)
k
0.4
I p = component importance factor, which where
k = Stiffness of the equipment and/or the
depends on the occupancy of the structure and
component supports, measured as kips per inch
varies from 1.0 to 1.5
deflection of the center of gravity of the
C p = horizontal force factor, typically component, and
equal to 0.75 for most components, 2.0 for Wp = weight of the component, in kips.
cantilever parapets and appendages,
The values of Ap vary from 1.0 to 5.0,
Wp = weight of the component.
depending on the relationship of the dynamic
Components are classified as flexible or characteristics of the component and the
rigid, depending upon their dynamic supporting structure. If the dynamic properties
characteristics. Rigid components are those of either the equipment or the structure are
with a fundamental period of vibration less than unknown, then a default value of Ap = 5.0 is
0.06 seconds. Flexible components are those used. For rigid components (Ta 0.06 seconds),
with higher fundamental periods. The values for Ap = 1.0. When the period of non-rigid or
694 Chapter 13
flexibly mounted equipment is not known, but 13.4.2 1997 UBC Analysis
the fundamental period of the building is
known, estimated values of Ap may be taken The 1997 UBC provisions introduced
from Table 13-5, taken from Freeman, (1998). significant changes in the design procedures for
nonstructural components. These changes were
Table 13-5. Estimated Amplification Factors, Ap Non- driven by analysis of instrument records
rigid and Flexibly Supported Equipment (Reference 13-3) obtained from buildings that have experienced
Builing Period
< 0.5 0.75 1.0 2.0 > 3.0 earthquake shaking. An examination of these
T (seconds)
Ap 5.0 4.75 4 3.3 2.7
records indicated that buildings experience a
trapezoidal distribution of floor accelerations,
Where the dynamic properties of the varying linearly from the ground acceleration at
structure and the equipment are known, then the the base to 3 or 4 times the ground acceleration
value of Ap may be computed by first at the roof. Figures 13-7 and 13-8, taken from
determining the fundamental period of the FEMA 303, plot the amplification of peak
component, Ta using Equation 13-3. Then the acceleration versus height in the building based
ratio of Ta /T is determined, and the on data obtained from 405 building strong
amplification factor Ap found from the motion instrument records. Figure 13-7 shows
appropriate curves from Figure 13-6, taken the variation of the ratio of peak structural
from the Tri-Services Manual. acceleration A to peak ground acceleration Ag
Figure 13-6 shows the relationship between versus height in the building for all records.
Ap and the ratio of the component to structure Figure 13-8 shows the variation of the ratio of
period. For a given component, the computation peak structural acceleration A to peak ground
of the Ap factor can be somewhat involved, acceleration Ag versus height in the building for
since higher modes of vibration of the structure records where Ag exceeded 0.10g. The
must be considered. For structures with accelerations in both figures are mean values
fundamental periods less than 2 seconds, plus one standard deviation. The amplification
Freeman recommends that Ap factors for the of shaking as a function of height in the
first, second, and third modes of vibration be building is clearly shown. Other concepts
computed. For structures with periods of greater introduced in the 1997 UBC include
than 2 seconds, the fourth and fifth modes consideration of "near fault" and soils effects,
should also be considered. The largest value of use of Strength Design level loads, and
Ap governs. The product of IpApCp need not introduction of an in-structure amplification
exceed 3.75. factor, ap, which accounts for the force
amplification effects experienced by flexible
components.
T = 0 .5 0 sec . T = 0 .7 5 sec T = 1 .0 se c
5 .0 5 .0
4 .7 5
4 .0 4 .0 4 .0
3 .3
Ap
3 .0 3 .0
2 .7
Ap
2 .0 2 .0 T = 2 .0 se c
1 .0 1 .0 T = > 3 .0 se c
0 0
0 0 .8 1 .0 1 .2 2 .0 1 .2 2 .0
T a/ T T a/ T
(b ) W h e n th e fu n d am e n tal p e rio d o f th e b u ild in g is g re ater th a n 0 .5
se c o n d s (T > 0 .5 ). (N o te: If Ta / T < 1 .2 . A p is e q u al to v a lu e
o b tain e d fro m Tab le 1 3 .5
Figure 13-6. Amplification factor, Ap for nonrigid and flexibly supported equipment(13-5)
13. Design of Nonstructural Systems and Components 695
have deformability greater than 3.5 when Component anchorage to concrete and
subjected to four fully reversed cycles at the masonry are subject to additional requirements.
limit deformation, and are assigned an Rp = 3.5. Anchors embedded in concrete or masonry
Limited deformability components, defined as must be proportioned to carry the least of the
components that have neither high nor low following:
deformability, are assigned a Rp = 2.5. The The design strength of the connected part, or
design force Fp for vibration isolated Two times the force in the connected part
components must be doubled. due to the prescribed forces, or
698 Chapter 13
. )
(1.0)(0.44)(10 40 ( 0.4 )(10 . )
. )(117 40
Fp = 1 + (3) Wp Fp = 1 + ( 2 ) W p
15
. 40 125
. 40
10.
= 1.17(20.0 kips) = 23.4 kips
The shear per anchor bolt, is = 1.12(20.0 kips) = 22.5 kips
V = Fp/4 = (23.4 kips)/4 = 5.9 kips per The shear per anchor bolt is
anchor bolt. V = Fp/4 = (22.5 kips)/4 = 5.6 kips per
The overturning moment is anchor bolt.
Mot = (23.4 kips)(4.0 ft) = 93.6 kip-ft The overturning moment is
and the resisting moment is Mot = (22.5 kips)(4.0 ft) = 90.0 kip-ft
Mr = (0.9)(20.0 kips)(1.25 ft) = 22.5 kip-ft. and the tension per bolt from overturning is
the design uplift demands on the anchor bolts UBC Seismic Zone 3, a region of moderately
increase even more dramatically, over 18 times high seismicity, and is not in the proximity of
the 1994 UBC provisions using the 1997 UBC. an active fault.. Per the 1997 NEHRP, the 0.2
A portion of these increases can be second spectral response acceleration is Ss =
attributed to changes in the characterization of 100% g. The site has been identified as Soil
ground shaking in regions of high seismic risk. Profile Type SD
In addition, the 1997 UBC and NEHRP
provisions include factors to account for 1. Using the 1994 UBC provisions,
amplification of ground motion in the upper determine the shear and tension demands on the
portions of structures. Finally, the 1997 vibration isolation mounts.
provisions attempt to refine and rationalize the
reduction factors (Rp). Individually, each of Z = 0.3 (Seismic Zone 3)
these changes can be justified, but collectively, Ip = 1.5 (essential occupancy structure)
the produce very conservative results, that are Cp = 0.75
difficult to justify in the light of experience in Wp = 15.0 kips
recent earthquakes.
The period of the equipment can be
Table 13-8. Summary, Example 1 Results estimated using equation (13-3):
Method Bolt Shear Bolt Tension Wp
1994 UBC 1.5 kips 0.54 kips Ta = 0.32
Tri-Services Manual 1.5 kips 0.54 kips k
1997 UBC 4.2 kips 10.1 kips
15.0 kips
1997 NEHRP 4.0 kips 10.1 kips
Ta = 0.32
(3.0 kips / inch)(4 mounts)
Wp Ta = 0.36 seconds
The period of the component is greater than
0.06 seconds, so the equipment is considered
Fp
flexible and the value of Cp must be multiplied
by a factor of 2. The design lateral force for the
3 .5 component using Equation 13-1 is
Fp = ZI p C pWp
= 0.3(1.5)(2 x 0.75)(15.0 kips)
= 10.2 kips
4 .0 The shear per vibration isolation mount is
V = Fp/4 = (10.2 kips)/4 = 2.6 kips per
mount.
Figure 13-10. Emergency Generator Example The overturning moment is
Mot = (10.2 kips)(3.5 ft) = 35.7 kip-ft
Example 13-2 and the resisting moment is
An electrical generator is installed on the Mr = (0.85)(15.0 kips)(2.0 ft) = 25.5 kip-ft.
third floor of a 5-story emergency command Taking the sum of the moments about a corner
center. The dimensions of the unit are shown in of the base, the uplift force Ft in the vibration
Figure 13-10. The generator is mounted on four isolation mount equals
vibration isolation mounts (one at each corner 35.7 25.5
of the unit), with a lateral stiffness of 3 Ft =
kips/inch each. The building floor-to-floor (4.0)(2 mounts/side)
height is 12 feet, and the fundamental period of = 1.3 kips per mount
the building is 0.5 seconds. The building is in
702 Chapter 13
SDS = (2/3)(1.1)(1.00 g) = 0.73 g the higher design forces may be justified, since
The design lateral force for the component there have been a number of failures of
from Equation 13-6 is vibration isolated equipment in recent
earthquakes. As with Example 13-1, a portion
0.4a p S DS Wp z of the increase in design force using the 1997
Fp = 1 + 2
Rp h UBC and the 1997 NEHRP can be attributed to
Ip changes in the design ground shaking
intensities. The amplification of design forces
in the upper levels of the structure is in keeping
( 0.4)( 2.5)( 0.73) 36 with strong motion data obtained from recent
Fp = 1 + ( 2 ) W p
2.5 60 earthquakes. Figure 13-8 shows that a linear
15. amplification of ground acceleration by a factor
of three from the ground to roof levels (as used
= 0.96(15.0 kips) = 14.4 kips in the 1997 NEHRP) bounds instrument records
Since the component is mounted on well, while the amplification factor of 4 used in
vibration isolators, the design force is doubled, the 1997 UBC is conservative. The 1994 UBC
so and Tri-Services approaches ignore this
Fp = (2)(14.4 kips) = 28.8 kips phenomenon.
The shear per isolation mount is
V = Fp/4 = (28.8 kips)/4 = 7.2 kips per Table 13-9. Summary, Example 2 Results
isolation mount. Method Bolt Shear Bolt Tension
The overturning moment is 1994 UBC 2.6 kips 1.3 kips
Mot = (28.8 kips)(3.5 ft) = 100.8 kip-ft Tri-Services Manual 4.2 kips 4.2 kips
1997 UBC 5.8 kips 7.7 kips
and the tension per mount from overturning is
1997 NEHRP 5.1 kips 6.6 kips
100.8
Ft = = 12.8 kips 13.5 DESIGN
(4.0 feet)(2 mounts/side)
The dead load tributary to each isolation mount CONSIDERATIONS FOR
is ARCHITECTURAL
FD = 15.0 kips/4 mounts = 3.8 kips
COMPONENTS
The gravity load is reduced by 0.2SDSD, and the
net tension per isolation mount is
13.5.1 General
T = 12.6 - [3.8-(0.2)(0.73)(3.8)] = 9.4 kips
per mount.
Architectural nonstructural components
To convert these shear and tension forces to
include items such as exterior curtain walls and
Allowable Stress Design levels, we divide by a
cladding; non-load bearing partitions; ceiling
factor of 1.4, to obtain
systems; and ornaments such as marquees and
V = 7.2 kips/1.4 = 5.1 kips
signs. In addition, they can include a wide array
Ft = 9.4 kips/1.4 = 6.6 kips
of shelving, cabinets, workstations, and
equipment that are installed by the building
The results obtained from the four methods
occupant.
for this example are summarized in Table 13-9.
For life safety, the objective of the design
Again, this example shows the four methods
should be to limit the severity of damage to the
can produce results that differ significantly. The
architectural components so that they do not
1994 UBC is by far the simplest method, and
topple, or detach themselves from the structure
yields the lowest design forces. The other three
and fall. For higher performance objectives, it
methods add significant complexity, and
may be necessary to control damage to the
produce higher design forces. In this example,
704 Chapter 13
components so that functionality is not displacements increase and the finish is further
impaired. For example, a curtain wall system distorted, the material spalls, and can separate
that does not fall from the building or block from the supporting lath. Plaster directly
egress may be considered to have met a life applied over structural elements that form part
safety performance objective. For immediate of the lateral force-resisting system is especially
occupancy, it may be necessary to limit damage vulnerable. In a large earthquake, the structural
of the system so that it continues to be weather- elements are expected to experience inelastic
tight. behavior, and the distortions of the elements
Much of the information in the following associated with this behavior will usually cause
sections has been adopted from the excellent significant damage to the plaster finish.
discussion of nonstructural components found Generally, repairs to the plaster finishes are
in FEMA 273 and FEMA 274. inexpensive, and the damage does not represent
Some architectural components are a significant hazard. However, failure of a large
inherently vulnerable to earthquake damage. plaster or gypboard surface, such as a ceiling,
For example, cracking will occur in stucco and can pose both a falling hazard and block the
plaster at relatively low levels of ground path of egress. Ceiling systems should be
shaking. Limiting building drift, or providing designed to accommodate the expected
component anchorage to protect these materials distortions of the supporting structure without
from damage, is generally not cost-effective. collapse. Where significant diaphragm
Much damage can be minimized through distortions are expected, consideration should
careful detailing of the components. The be given to isolating the furring for plaster
objective is to minimize the amount of ceilings from the diaphragm.
distortion experienced by the element due story Shear cracking of surface finishes near
drift, and for acceleration-sensitive items, doors and windows is a common form of
provide adequate anchorage to prevent shifting earthquake damage, and is probably
or toppling. With proper attention to detailing, unavoidable. Although this type of damage is
damage in moderate ground shaking can be most common in plaster surfaces, other wall
limited to a level that is easily and finishing materials are vulnerable. Post-
inexpensively repaired. earthquake repairs are relatively inexpensive,
Damage to building contents outside the provided matching materials are available. For
scope of the designer, such as furniture, tile finishes, finding a suitable matching tile for
countertop items (for example, computers), repairs can be difficult.
cabinets, and shelving can be limited by Adhered veneer refers to thin surface
providing adequate anchorage for these items. materials, such as tile, thin set brick, or stone,
The contents of cabinets and shelving can be which rely on adhesive attachment to a backing
restrained. However, most items that are or substrate for support. This includes tile,
portable are difficult to anchor effectively for masonry, stone, terra cotta and similar materials
seismic forces. People using these items will not over 1 inch in thickness, as well as ceramic
often prefer not to employ the seismic latches, tile and exterior plaster (stucco). These
tethers, or other restraint devices provided, materials are supported by adhesive (not
since they generally make the use of the item mechanical) attachment to a supporting
less convenient. substrate, which may be masonry, concrete,
cement plaster, or a structural framework.
13.5.2 Architectural Finishes Adhered veneers are deformation sensitive, and
their seismic performance depends on the
Plaster and stucco are common finish performance of the supporting substrate.
materials that are very brittle. At relatively low Adhered veneer materials are often inherently
displacements, plaster begins to crack. As brittle. Deformation of the substrate leads to
13. Design of Nonstructural Systems and Components 705
cracking, which can result in the veneer 13.5.3 Exterior Ornaments and
separating from the substrate. The key to good Appendages
seismic performance is to detail the substrate so
Exterior ornaments and appendages are
as to isolate it from the effects of story drift.
nonstructural components that project above or
The materials are most vulnerable at
away from the building. They include
discontinuities, such as corners and openings.
marquees, canopies, signs, sculptures, and
The threat to life safety posed by adhered
ornaments, as well as concrete and masonry
veneers depends on the height of the veneer, the
parapets. These components are acceleration
size and weight of the fragments likely to
sensitive, and if not properly braced or
become dislodged, and the nature of the
anchored can become disengaged from the
occupancy. It is important to distinguish
structure and topple. Building codes require
between falling of individual units such as tiles,
consideration of vertical accelerations for
which typically would not be considered a life-
cantilever components. Features such as
safety issue, and large areas of the veneer
balconies are typically an extension of the floor
separating from the substrate and falling.
structure, and should be designed as part of the
Anchored veneer consists of masonry units
structure. Parapets and cornices, unless well
that are attached to the supporting structure by
braced, are flexible components and design
mechanical means. This type of veneer is both
forces for these components should be
acceleration and deformation sensitive. The
amplified accordingly.
masonry units can be dislodged by
Heavy roof tiles pose a significant falling
accelerations which distorts or fail the
hazard, unless the tiles are securely attached to
mechanical connectors. Deformations of the
the roof diaphragm. One method of method of
supporting structure may displace or dislodge
securing mission tiles is shown in Figure 13-11.
the units by racking. Damage to anchored
The tie wires used to secure the tiles should be
veneers can be controlled by limiting the drift
corrosion resistant.
ratios of the supporting structure, isolating units
from story drift through slip connections or 13.5.4 Partitions
joints, and by anchoring the veneers for an Partitions are vertical non-load bearing
adequate force level that includes consideration elements that are used to divide spaces. They
of the vertical component of ground shaking. may span vertically floor to floor or
Special attention should be paid at locations horizontally between cross walls. In some
likely to experience large deformations, cases, partitions span to a hard ceiling (plaster
especially at corners and around openings. or gypboard), or may extend to the ceiling, and
Masonry veneer facades on steel frame stop, with lateral bracing extending to the floor
buildings should be avoided unless the veneer is or roof structure above. Partitions may
securely tied to a separate wall or framework classified as heavy or light. Heavy partitions are
that is independent of the primary (gravity and generally constructed of masonry materials
lateral load carrying) steel frame. Otherwise, including glass block masonry. They are self-
adequate provisions for the large expected supporting for gravity, isolated from the
lateral deformation of the steel frame must be structural framework, and weigh in excess of 10
made. Wire or straight rod ties should not be pounds per square foot (note that if these
used to anchor face brick to a wall, especially partitions are not isolated from the structural
when a layer of insulation or an air gap framework, they may behave as part of the
separates the two elements. Large masonry buildings lateral force resisting system). Light
facades may be designed as part of the partitions consist of wood or metal studs
structural system. covered with gypboard, lath and plaster, or
wood. Light partitions typically weigh less than
10 pounds per square foot.
706 Chapter 13
At building corners, and when adjacent units pose a lower hazard. Laminated glass generally
utilize different methods for accommodating remains intact, even if it cracks. Tempered or
story drift, adjacent cladding units may not laminated glass should be used in exits or
move in a uniform manner. Joints between where large glazed areas front public walks.
cladding units may close causing adjacent
panels to come into contact, imposing high 13.5.6 Ceiling systems
loads on the panels and their anchors.
Glass curtain wall systems are typically Ceiling systems are horizontal and sloping
assemblies of structural subframes attached to assemblies attached to or suspended from the
the main structure. They may be prefabricated structure. At exterior locations, ceiling systems
or assembled on site, and include stick framed may be referred to as soffits. While there are
curtain walls assembled on site, prefabricated many different architectural treatments for
unitized curtain wall systems, storefronts, and ceilings, structurally, they can be classified into
skylights. Glazing systems are predominantly two main categories of systems, those that are
deformation sensitive, but can be damaged by attached directly to the building structure
high accelerations. Glazing in dry (surface applied materials), and those that are
installations (where the glass is held in place by suspended from the structure by wires or other
putty, a rubber/vinyl bead, or wood or metal means.
stops) can shatter due to a combination of Surface applied materials consist of wood,
racking of the frame due to story drift coupled acoustical tile, gypboard, plaster, or metal
with out of plane forces. Failures of glazing panels applied directly to wood or steel joists,
systems in past earthquakes have been concrete slabs, or metal deck. The surface
attributed to number of causes. Deficiencies in materials may be attached with mechanical
the design of the supporting frame and the fasteners or adhesive. This class of ceiling
cutting and placement of the glass can result in systems also includes gypboard ceilings
poor performance. A lack of sufficient support attached to wood or steel furring supported by a
around the edges of the glass pane (edge bite), supplemental framework, braced back to the
due to an oversized opening in the frame, or an primary structure. Surface applied materials
undersized glass pane, may allow the glass to typically perform well in earthquakes, provided
fall out. A lack of edge blocking can also allow the structural elements supporting this system
the glass panes to shift and fall from the frame. perform reasonably well.
If the glass panes are cut large, there may be Suspended ceilings include T-bar systems
insufficient clearance between pane and frame with integrated lighting and mechanical
to permit racking. Frames that are attached to components, and suspended lath and plaster or
the structure that are not detailed to gypboard systems. There are a variety of
accommodate story drift will flex and twist. suspended T-bar systems available. Most
When frame racks due to story drift, the pane common are exposed spline systems (where the
comes into contact with the frame and the glass, supporting T-bar frame is visible), concealed
which cannot distort in-plane, will shatter. If the spline systems (hidden supporting frame), and
gasket around a glass pane loosens and falls luminous systems (lighting diffused through
from the opening, it may allow the glass to fall opaque panels). Suspended ceiling systems are
out, or move and shatter in the frame. acceleration and deformation sensitive. Seismic
The type of glass used also affects safety. performance of suspended ceiling systems is
Ordinary annealed glass produces sharp-edged controlled by the behavior of the support
shards when broken. Safety (or tempered) glass system, and historically concealed spline
is required when glass extends to within 18 systems have performed better than exposed
inches of the ground or floor. Tempered glass spline systems.
fractures into small round-edged pieces, which
13. Design of Nonstructural Systems and Components 711
Suspended T-bar systems consist of a designed to carry the added weight of the
lightweight grid, which supports ceiling panels, fixtures during an earthquake. Positive,
light fixtures, and HVAC diffusers. These mechanical connections should be provided to
systems are highly vulnerable to damage unless keep the object attached to the grid. In addition,
the grid is securely braced with splay wires or heavy items supported by the ceiling system
other bracing devices and vertical compression should be provided with safety wires, to prevent
struts (Figure 13-15). In an earthquake, the the items from dropping should they become
ceiling is subject to forces from light fixtures detached from the supporting grid.
and ceiling ventilation diffusers. Sprinkler Standards for seismic bracing of ceiling
heads projecting through the ceiling may systems have been developed(13-11). In general, a
damage the panels and supports. Suspended seismic bracing strategy for suspended ceiling
ceiling systems in buildings with long spans system should provide bracing against lateral
and flexible structural systems are at greater and vertical movements. The disposition of
risk. bracing should account for concentrations of
Distortion of the grid can result in a loss of mass, such as light fixtures and diffusers. The
panels and may cause light fixtures and ceiling system should be rigidly attached to two
diffusers to drop. However, light ceiling panels adjacent walls, and permitted to float along
that weigh less than 2 pounds per square foot do the walls directly opposite those where the
not pose a life safety risk, and are generally system is attached. This permits the walls to
more of a nuisance than a hazard. Heavy items distort and rack in plan without buckling the
such as light fixtures and HVAC diffusers grid or pulling it apart. Along the floating
should have an independent supporting system, edges, a shelf angle provides vertical support to
unless the ceiling suspension system is the ceiling. The angle must be wide enough to
Figure 13-15. Seismic bracing for suspended T-bar ceiling systems (13-10)
712 Chapter 13
allow for differential movement between fixtures and diffusers should be securely
opposing walls. Care must be taken to ensure fastened to the ceiling supports. The use of
that the grid is not inadvertently connected to toggle bolts in the plaster or gypboard for
the walls at the floating edge. At the attachment of these items should be avoided.
perimeter of the ceiling, the main and cross
runners of the ceiling grid should be supported 13.5.7 Exitways, Stair, and Elevator
by hangers. Enclosures
The connection between the main runners
and cross runners should positive, using locking Exitways, stair, and elevator enclosures
clips or screws, to prevent the ceiling grid from include treads, risers, landings, and surrounding
coming apart during an earthquake. Friction- shafts that make up the enclosures. These
type connections should be avoided. enclosures can be either acceleration or
Suspended lath and plaster and gypboard deformation sensitive. If integral with the
systems can perform well, being inherently structure, stairs and enclosures must be
rigid in the plane of the ceiling. However, if the considered in the overall design and analysis,
ceiling system is heavy and large, careful including their contribution to overall structural
consideration of the design and detailing is stiffness and response due to bracing action.
needed, because the ceiling can pose significant Failure of the enclosure can render the stairs or
risk to life if it drops. Reference 13-12 outlines elevator unusable.
the seismic design requirements for rigid Following an earthquake, building
suspended ceiling systems. Complex occupants will attempt to leave the building
installations will require special engineering. through the exitways. Care should be used, to
The hanger wires supporting the ceiling ensure that design features of the exitways do
must be securely attached to the structure not impeded safe egress. The doors should be
above, and the lath properly wired to the furring designed to accommodate seismic drift, so they
channels. Proper installation of these wires is will not jam open or closed in an earthquake.
crucial to satisfactory performance. Hanger The use of veneer or ceiling treatments that
wires may unwind, break, or fail at the could become dislodged and fall should be
connection to the structure in a strong avoided. The covers over seismic joints should
earthquake. Isolation joints must be provided at be designed to accommodate the expected story
building seismic separations. Without these drifts without significant damage. Light fixtures
joints, relative movements between the should be adequately braced for seismic loads.
structures will damage the ceiling, and in some Stone veneers should be properly anchored to
cases, collapse of the ceiling. the supporting frames, and the frames should be
Rigid ceiling systems should be braced designed to accommodate story drift without
against vertical and lateral movement at regular racking.
intervals. Where gypsum board is used, seismic
performance can be enhanced by the use of 13.5.8 Building Contents
steel nailing strips. If the ceiling is irregular
(with changes in elevation, reentrant corners, Building contents can pose a significant risk
etc.), the supporting channels should be during a strong earthquake. The following
mechanically connected with bolts, screws, or section provides general information on
welds. Corners should be rigidly braced. The improving the seismic performance of building
arrangement of lateral bracing should consider contents. However, since the contents are
discontinuities in the ceiling created by rows of generally furnished and installed by the owner,
light fixtures or HVAC diffusers. It may be anchorage of these items is typically outside the
desirable to add bracing members at these scope of the design professional.
discontinuities, to tie the ceiling together. Light
13. Design of Nonstructural Systems and Components 713
Storage racks, such as those found in differentiate between Life Safety and
warehouse stores, can pose a significant hazard. Immediate Occupancy performance objectives.
Storage racks installations should be Functionality of the component following an
engineered. Storage racks designed and earthquake is not generally a life safety issue.
installed in accordance with the standard of the For the Life Safety objective, it is usually
Rack Manufacturers Institute(13-15) have been sufficient if the component does not shift or
proportioned to withstand seismic forces. topple during an earthquake. For Immediate
Special care should be taken to protect the legs Occupancy, the component or system may be
of the racks, which are vulnerable to damage required to function following the earthquake.
from forklifts. Adequate clearance between the For the higher performance objectives, the
rack and structural elements, such as walls and component manufacturer must show through
columns, should be provided to prevent analysis or by shake-table test that the
interaction between the rack and the building component remains functional following the
structure. prescribed level of ground shaking.
Storage cabinets, bookshelves, filing Much of the information in the following
cabinets, and display cases come in a myriad of sections has been adopted from the discussion
shapes and sizes. In general, items that are tall of mechanical and electrical components found
and slender should be anchored to the wall to in FEMA 273 and FEMA 274.
prevent tipping. Tall furniture, and items that Mechanical and electrical equipment is
have glass shelves should not be placed in the generally acceleration sensitive. Failure modes
path of egress. Items that may shift or topple include sliding, overturning, or tilting of items
should not be placed where they could block mounted on the floor or roof. Items suspended
exit doors. Providing latches on cabinet doors, from or attached to walls or ceilings may suffer
and shelf lips or face bars on open shelving, can loss of support and fall. Distribution systems,
prevent loss of contents during ground shaking. such as piping, ducts or wiring connected to the
unit can fail. Most equipment items are fairly
13.6 MECHANICAL/ robust, since they must survive the rigors of
ELECTRICAL transportation and installation at the job site.
However, the internal components of
COMPONENTS
equipment may be blocked or restrained to
prevent damage during transit. Upon removal of
these restraints, the internal components of the
13.6.1 General
item may be much more vulnerable to shaking
damage.
Mechanical and electrical components
Mechanical equipment and systems are
consist of equipment such as pumps, boilers,
either rigidly anchored to the primary structure,
chillers, fans, transformers, and electrical
or installed on flexible mounts (to control
switchgear, as well as distribution systems such
vibration or permit thermal movements). The
as piping, ducts, conduits, and cable trays. Most
lateral capacity of rigidly mounted equipment is
electrical and mechanical equipment are pre-
often governed by the capacity of the anchor
manufactured, off the shelf items. The
bolt or fastener. Failures can also occur at the
characteristics of each component are
connection between the component and pipes,
developed based upon functional needs. These
ducts, or conduits that connect to the
characteristics such as the presence of internal
component.
spring isolators or ceramic components,
Vibrating mechanical equipment (typically
determine damage potential.
equipment with rotating components, such as
When discussing seismic performance of
chillers, pumps or emergency generators) is
mechanical components, it is important to
often installed on resilient mounting systems,
714 Chapter 13
particularly when the equipment is on the upper earthquakes. In this section, our focus is on
floors of a structure. The most common anchorage issues, and the design of structural
vibration isolation mounts rely on springs or components of the equipment, such as base
elastomeric devices to limit the transmission of plates, anchor bolts, legs, braces, etc. Most
vibration and sound to the rest of the structure. equipment is not a life safety threat unless it can
Unless specifically designed to resist seismic overturn or fall, or if failure of the component
forces, isolated components are vulnerable to results in the interruption of a critical function
damage at low levels of ground shaking. or the release of hazardous materials.
The lateral capacity of rigidly mounted
13.6.2 Rigidly Mounted Components components can be governed by the capacity of
the anchor bolts, the capacity of the unit frame
The primary aim of seismic design for or body, or by the capacity of a yielding
rigidly mounted components is that they remain element, such as a base plate or mounting tab.
in place. The effects of shaking on internal parts Installations with capacity governed by the
are generally not considered. If functionality of anchor bolt capacity are the least desirable, but
the component is critical, then a special are often unavoidable. An example of a tank
evaluation is required. This may include installation governed by anchor bolt capacity is
seismic qualification of the internal components illustrated in Figures 13-2 and 13-16. This
of the equipment through shake table testing, rooftop saddle mounted tank displaced in the
detailed analysis, or experience data from past Northridge Earthquake. The tank itself was
due to the vibration isolators, and friction due to 13.6.4 Piping Systems
gravity forces should be neglected.
When suspended components are mounted Piping systems are predominantly
with vibration isolation devices, care must be acceleration sensitive, but runs between floors
taken to ensure that the bracing elements do not or buildings are deformation sensitive. Joint
short out the vibration isolators. For example, failures caused by inadequate support or
the benefits of vibration isolation may be lost if bracing, with accompanying loss of contents
the unit is laterally braced with steel angles to under pressure, are the most common failures.
the structure. The hangers and braces must be Most pressure piping systems (defined as
designed for the amplified forces, and if hanger piping systems carrying fluids which, in their
rods are used, the may need to be stiffened to vapor stage, exhibit a gage pressure greater than
prevent buckling under the compressive loads 15 psi) are inherently ductile and have
generated by the vertical component of the sufficient inherent flexibility to accommodate
brace force. If the body of the component does seismic motions. Attachments and braces for
not have sufficient strength and rigidity, a seismic loading are needed, particularly for
supplemental structural frame around the item large diameter pipes. Bracing in most
may be necessary. installations is performed to prescriptive
Flexible couplings should be provided standards, such as the SMACNA and NFPA-13
where pipes, ducts, or conduits meet vibration- guidelines(13-13,13-14).
isolated systems. Figure 13-4 illustrates the Flexible couplings to accommodate building
results of vibration-isolated component rigidly movements should be provided at structural
attached to a braced pipe. separations, as well as at the base of the
structure where pipes pass from the ground into
the structure. Figure 13-17 illustrates such an
Sheet metal ducts can tolerate large Elevator equipment includes the mechanical
distortions and generate low inertial loads, but equipment such as motor generators and
have little inherent strength. Ducts rarely sheaves, electrical controllers, as well as the car
collapse, but the joints are particularly and counterweight frames and guide rails.
vulnerable. Joint failures result in a loss of air Elevator machinery behaves in the same
pressure. In line equipment such as axial flow manner as other heavy floor-mounted
fans should be braced independent of the duct equipment. Mechanical and electrical
system. components should be anchored to resist
Air distribution systems are predominantly inertial forces.
acceleration sensitive, but runs between floors Experience in past earthquakes has shown
or buildings are deformation sensitive. Large that the counterweight rails in elevators are
ducts (over six square feet in area or 24 inches vulnerable to damage. During the shaking, the
in diameter) should be braced to the structure. rails can bend, allowing the counterweights to
Figure 13-19 illustrates a method of providing displace into the elevator shaft. Unless a careful
this bracing. Flexible duct connections should post-earthquake survey of the shaft is made, it
be installed with enough slack material to allow may not be apparent that this has occurred. The
for the expected differential movement between danger is that the displaced counterweights may
fans and the ductwork. Duct openings through strike the car if the elevator is operated. Recent
walls or floors must be large enough to editions of the building codes have required that
accommodate the anticipated movement of the the heavier counterweight guide rails be used,
ducts. Ceiling diffusers and registers should be to limit distortions in an earthquake. Elevators
secured to ductwork with sheet metal screws, to should be equipped with a seismic switch, that
prevent them from falling should they become senses significant ground shaking and shuts the
dislodged. Diffusers connected to flexible ducts elevator down, or forces it to operate in a go
should be provided with safety wires to the slow mode. The seismic switch should only be
floor or roof above, and should be securely reset after an inspection by a qualified
fastened to the ductwork. technician.
screwed or bolted into the supporting wall studs generator is mounted on vibration isolators, the
or into a steel backing plate that spans between line from the main fuel tank to the generator
the studs. Toggle bolts in plaster or gypboard should be flexible enough to accommodate the
should be avoided. expected lateral displacements of the isolated
Motor control centers and switchgear should components. Emergency generators that rely
be anchored to the floor, and for tall units, upon the municipal water supply for engine
braced or anchored at the top. If structural cooling should be avoided, since utility lifelines
bracing at the top is omitted at tall units, generally fail following a strong earthquake.
conduit running into the upper portions of the Batteries should be restrained in adequately
unit may be damaged while acting as bracing. anchored racks or boxes.
Where relative movement between units could Transformers come in a variety of sizes, and
occur, flexible braided connections should be can be floor mounted, or suspended from the
used in lieu of copper bus. walls or ceiling. If wall or ceiling mounted, the
Emergency generators are generally transformers should be adequately attached to
installed on vibration isolation mounts. In order the supporting frame, and the frame
to function after an earthquake, all components proportioned to resist seismic forces. In some
of the system should be anchored for seismic cases, floor mounted transformers are stacked,
forces. These components include the prime to conserve space. If the units are stacked, the
mover and generator, starting equipment upper unit should be bolted to the lower unit,
including batteries, day tank, main fuel tank, and the adequacy of the lower unit frame or
radiators, exhaust silencers/mufflers, as well as enclosure should be verified for the anchorage
the motor control and switchgear. If the forces at the connection between the two units.
Figure 13-20. Seismic safety wires for HVAC diffusers, light fixtures
720 Chapter 13