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SHIP PRODI.ICTION
SECOND EDITION
BY
R I C H A R D L E E S T O R C H ,C O L I N P . H A M M O N ,
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CORNELL MARITIME PRESS
CENTREVILLE, MARYLAND
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Copyright O 1988, 1995by Cornell Maritime press, Inc.
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C O N T EN T S
PREFACE xix
I. INTRODUCTION
The Shipbuilding Process,3
Shipbuilding Terms and Defrnitions,6
Ship Definitions, 6
Ship Types,6
Shipyard Facilities, 6
Organization, 7
Trades,11
ClassificationSocietiesand RegulatoryAgencies,1A
Status of the Shipbuilding Industry, 14
The World Shipbuilding Market, 15
The U.S. Shipbuilding Industry, 18
The U.S. Shipbuilding Market, 21
ResourceMarkets,2S
Industry Organization and Performance,25
TechnologyDevelopmentsand Productivity, 28
References,29
2l$o
i
Vi CONTENTS
Group Technology,45
Group Technology,an Overview,46
Group TechnologyDefined,47
Classificationand Coding,49
Group Technologyand the Shipbuilding Model, 51
Work Breakdown Structures, 53
Systems-OrientedWork Breakdown Structure, 54
Product-OrientedWork Breakdown Structure (PWBS).54
References,59
Welding Processes,126
Soldering and Brazing, 134
Distortion Removal, 135
Outfit Processes,136
Machinery, 137
Piping, 138
Heating, Ventilation, Air-Conditioning (HVAC), 140
Electrical, 141
Accommodations,142
Deck Fittings,142
CombatSystems,142
Material-Handling Processes,143
Material-Handling Equipment, 143
Material-Handling System Design, 148
Rigging, 148
Staging/Scaffolding, 149
SurfacePreparation and Coating, 150
SurfacePreparation, 150
Shop Priming, 156
Coating Systems,156
Flame-SprayedCoating, 157
Quality Assurance,158
Steel ProcessQuality Assurance,158
Outfit ProcessQuality Assurance,159
Test and Trials, 159
VesselDelivery Certificates, 160
References,160
i
I
Viii coNTENTS
I
X CONTENTS
Facilities, 367
Planning Approach,368
ManagementApproach, 384
Repair and Overhaul, 386
UnscheduledVoyageRepairs, 386
Planned Maintenance,391
Overhaul, 394
Conversionand Modernization, 396
Deactivation,403
Scrapping,404
RecentInnovations in Ship Repair, 404
Maintenance ManagementApproaches,405
Delivery of Services,406
TechnologicalTrends, 406
References,408
GLOSSARY 409
INDEX 421
Plates
All plates follow page 84.
Fig. 3-27. Outfit units. (a) An engineroom the building dock. Fig. 3-52.Erection of
tank top unit. (b) Pumps, valves,pipe the block shown in figures 3-49 through
pieces,and foundationsincorporatedas a 3-51.
unit. (c) Pneumatic tubing and supports
form a small unit. Fig. 3-28 (a & b). iv. Fig. 3-53.On-blockoutfitting of one-half
Typical machinery outfit units (the same of a superstructuredeck. Fig. 3-54.
problem area). Fig. 3-29. Machinery On-block outfitting of another super-
outfit unit assembledon a common structure deck block. Zone, problem
foundation (courtesyAvondale Shipyard). area, and stageare the same as in figure
3 - 5 3 . F i g . 3 - 5 5 . G r a n d - b l o c kj o i n i n g o f
I I . Fig. 3-35. Engine room tank top components the aft half of the superstructure.
fitted on-block. Fig. 3-36. Outfitted Fig. 3-56. Erection, keel laying plus
engine room blocks erectedover pre- 1 1 w o r k d a y s .F i g . 3 - 5 7 . E r e c t i o n ,k e e l
viously landed outfit units (courtesy laying plus 13 workdays.
Avondale Shipyard).Fig. 3-37. Down-
hand outfitting on-block,in an upside- V. Fig. 3-58.Erection, keel laying plus 15 work-
down block. Fig. 3-38. On-blockout- days.Fig. 3-59.Erection, keel laying plus
fitting and painting, on the ceiling and 19 workdays.Fig. 3-60.Erection, keel
on the deck. Fig. 3-39. Two complex laying plus 22 workdays. Fig. 3-61.
blocks, outfitted together, upside down, Erection, keel laying plus 22 workdays.
to easeerection.Fig. 3-40. On-board Fig. 3-62.Erection, keel laying plus 24
outfitting performed prior to landing workdays. Fig. 3-63.Erection, keel laying
the main engine. plus 24 workdays.
III. Fig. 3-47. On-blockoutfitting of a forecastle VI. Fig. 3-64.Erection,keel laying plus 27 work-
deck upside down. Fig. 3-48. On-block days. Fig. 3-65.Erection,keel laying plus
outfitting ofa forecastledeck right side 28 workdays.Fig. 3-66.Erection, keel
up. Fig. 3-49.On-blockoutfrtting of a Iaying plus 29 workdays.Fig. 3-67.
side shell and engine room flat upside Erection,keel laying plus 29 workdays.
down. Fig. 3-50. On-blockoutfitting of a Fig. 3-68.Operation and test (vessel
side shell and engine room flat right side Iaunched 43 workdays after keel laying,
up. Fig. 3-51.On-blockoutfitting of the deliveredsevenmonths after starting
block shown in figures 3-49 and 3-50 fabrication).
being completedright side up next to
XI
Xii PLATES,FIGURES,AND TABLES
Figures
1-1. Basic ship dimensionsand definitions, 7 3-7. Hull block constr-uctionmethod
1-2. Ship types, 8 (HBCM) manufacturing levels,69
1-3. Inboard profiles of major ship types, 9 3-8. HBCM classifrcationby product
l-4. Representativeshipyard layout, 12 aspects,71
1-5. World shipbuilding market cycles,16 3-9. Parts fabrication problem area and
1-6. LocationsofU.S shipyards,20 stageclassifications,72
3-10. Part assemblylevel classification,T2
2-I. Productionplan for traditional ship 3-11. Sub-blockassemblylevelexamples,73
construction,33 3-12. Block assemblyproblem area and stage
2-2. Sample ship production progresscurve, classifrcations,75
34 3-13. Semi-blockand block assembly,showing
2-3. Shift in the average cost curve when the bottom center block ofa cargohold, 76
required output changes,39 3-14. Block assemblyand grand-blockjoining,
2-4. Shifts in the average cost curve with showing the top of a wing tank,77
changesin labor quality, 40 3-15. Semi-blockand block assembly,showing
2-5. Bottlenecksincreasecostsand reducethe a bottom wing tank side shell with
optimalrate ofproduction,40 hopper and the transversehopper in a
2-6. Production plans beforeand after cargo hold, 77
total output adjustment, 42 3-16. Block assemblyand grand-blockjoining,
2-7. Manpowerprofilesin an environmentof showing a corrugated transverse bulk-
changingrequirements,45 head and a deck center betweencargo
2-8. Comparisonof conventionaland group holds, 78
processbatch flow, 47 3-17. Block assemblyand grand-blockjoining,
2-9. Company functions affected by group showing a cant block, 78
technology,50 3-18. Block assembly,showing an upper deck
2-70. The Boeing Company group technology and an engine room flat,79
classification system, based on the E.G. 3-19. Semiblock and block assembly,showing
Brisch concept,52 a bulbous bow, 79
2-11. Example of U.S. Navy hierarchical 3-20. Semi-blockand block assembly,showing
subdivisions,55 a forecastleand the upper deck in a
2-12. Product work breakdown structure fore body, 80
components,56 3-21. Grand-blockjoining, showing a forecastle
2-13. Elements of the three-dimensional and the upper deck in a fore body, 80
PWBS matrix, 57 3-22. Block assemblyand grand-blockjoining,
2-14. Impacts of time, units of resources, showingthe bottom of an engine room, 81
and quality of work circumstanceon 3-23. Block assembly,showingthe side shell
productivity value, 58 of an engine room, 81
2-15. Optimum PV requires balanced 3-24. Zone outfitting method (ZOFM) manu-
influencesof T, N, and Q, 58 facturing levels,83
2-76. Iterative developmentof work 3-25. ZOFM classificationby product aspects,
packages,S8 85
3-26. Problem area subdivisionsfor design and
3-1. Industrial projectmanagementcycle,62 material requirements for component
3-2. System and zoneorientations in the procurement,86
management cycle,62 3-27. SeePlate I.
3-3. Design process,64 3-28. SeePlate I.
3-4. Design outfit specialtygroups,64 3-29. SeePlate I.
3-5. Processlanes for simultaneoushull 3-30. Engine room outfit unit, 87
constructionand outfrtting, 65 3-31. Ahatch coverand coamingunit, 87
3-6. Integrated schedulesfor hull construction, 3-32. Very complex piping units, for the deck
outfrtting, and painting,66 ofa product tanker,87
PLATES.FIGURES.AND TABLES Xiii
Tables
1-1. The world's leading shipbuilding nations, 17 4-7. Factors presentin the marine environment
1-2. U.S. shipyard new constructionand repair that causecorrosion,151
facilities, 19 4-8. Relative location of metals in the electro-
1-3. Hourly compensationfor shipyard workers motive series,151
worldwide(U.S.$), 21
5-1. Samplepercentageofcoveredarea by
4-1. Requirements for ordinary-strength hull production stage for a product-oriented
structural steel, 113 shipyard, 175
4-2. Requirements for higher-strength hull 5-2. Recommendedcutting methods for steel
structural steel, 114 parts,177
4-3. Properties of high-strength hull structural
steelsdevelopedfor Navy ship 6-1. Comparisonof intensity of engineering
construction,115 effort for a large commercialvessel
4-4. Applicability ofcutting processesto constructionproject,200
materials, 118
4-5. Characteristicsof fusion welding processes, 7-1. Example of data required to develop a
127 network.256
4-6. Weaponssystemscomponentsof combatant
ships, 143
P R EF A C E
In 1981 the leaders of the National Ship- (Shipyard Layout) and new material has been
building Research Program (NSRP) recog- inserted that more accurately reflects the
nized the need for greater focus on ship- conditions of current ship production facili-
building education;the result was the estab- ties. Chapters VI (Ship Design and Engi-
lishment of an educationpanel (SP-g)within neering), VII (Planning, Scheduling,and Pro-
the Society of Naval Architects and Marine duction Control),andVIII (AccuracyControl)
Engineers Ship Production Committee-the have all beenupdated to reflect the impact of
implementation arm of the NSRP. The frrst the computeron all of theseimportant areas.
project authorized by the panel was a text- Finally, Chapter IX (Ship Conversion,Over-
book on advanced conceptsof ship produc- haul, and Repair) has been totally rewritten;
tion. The first edition of the book was this chapter now reflectsthe experiencesofa
published in 1988. In 1993 the decisionwas major consulting firm that has extensively
made to revise the book, and to update its supported shipyards in the improvement of
contentsto be consistentwith the technology their conversionand repair operations.
changesthat have occurredin the years since Importantly, the illustrations and tables
the first edition was released.This book is have been completely reorganized and im-
the revised, secondedition. provedthroughout the secondedition. It is this
Signifrcant changeshave been made in feature that will be the most quickly recog-
the second,revised edition from the text found nized in a comparisonof the two editions.
in the original version. Chapter I, which con- The authors of the first edition were Pro-
tains the history of shipbuilding and statis- fessor Richard Lee Storch, University of
tics relating to production and market share, Washington; Dr. Colin P. Hammon, consult-
has beenupdated to have more current infor- ant; and ProfessorHoward M. Bunch, Uni-
mation. Chapter II has been expanded to versity of Michigan. A fourth author, Richard
more directly incorporateinto the text mate- C. Moore,University of Michigan, was added
rial relating to shipbuilding economictheory. to support the preparation ofthe secondedi-
In Chapter fV there has been new material tion, especiallyin the revision of Chapter IX.
added that relates especially to fabrication Appreciationcontinuesto be expressedto
processes.Throughout this sectionthere has thosewho were heavily involvedin the prepa-
been an updating of all processinformation ration of the frrst edition, and whoseeffort is
to more accurately reflect the state of tech- still recognizablein the secondedition: Mr.
nology that currently exists. Antiquated in- Robert Baseler, Mr. William Blaiklock, Mr.
formation has been removedfrom Chapter V C.P. Buckley, Mr. Robert Slaughter,Dr. Wil-
XIX
XX PREFACE "D e-
"P rocess Ana\y srs vi a Accrrr acy Contro\ "'
Mr- \{aymond
\iarn Zeig\er, Mr' 'IoYrrr \)cart' zorre brrtfrtting," and"'Line lteatrn{'
I'au\ Vickers, and Nlr' George *i*-iot
i.tt""V,-fanr.
Additional contributors who sup- *-"t" o""d extensive\ in the first edition' and'
O'I(eefe.
portedpreparationofthe secondedition were trave been carried, over into ttre second" Ttle
logic developed in those works permeates the
Mr. Douglas Peel; Mr. Robert E' Luby, Jr';
text in both editions.
and Mr. William J. Swahl; all were involved
photo- A final expression of gratitude is ex-
in the revision of Chapter IX' New
gtaD\s see\\rr \\e sets\'\ e\r\\qt!\3r e \ee\ \en{ed. to \[s. Parne\a Cotren. research asso-
(\lh ' lesse crate .\Jr\i\ersitl of Michigan Transportatr'on
supp\\ed.\; \t ga\\s S\\p\rr\\{\r'g
Btasher), Avond.ale Shipyards (Mr' Steven Research Institute. Her patience and for-
Maguire), and Newport News Shipbuilding b eann g in de a\in g with the au\,tror s \i as \'Tu\)
(Mr. Robert P' Leber). remarkable.
A special expression of indebtedness is Preparation of the revised textbook was
reaffirmed to Mr. L.D. Chirillo. His manu- a project managed and cost-shared by Uni-
"Outfrt Planning," "Product versity of Michigan for the National Ship-
scripts,including
"Integrated building Research Program.
Work Breakdown Structure"'
Hull Construction, Outfitting, and Painting,"
SHIP PRODUCTION
CHAPTER ]
INTRODUCTION
Pr ocess
1 . T h e S hipbuilding
Shipbuilding is an industry that produces States; or the U.S. Navy may need a ship
products (ships, offshorestructures, floating capable of delivering supplies to support a
plants, etc.) for customers (private owners, battle group anywhere in the world on short
companies,governments,etc.).In most cases, notice. Alternatively, a shipping line owner
the product is built to order and customized may forecast an increasein container trade
to the specificrequirementsof the purchaser. between the United States and the People's
This applies even in caseswhere a similar Republic of China of an unspecified nature
seriesof ships is being built. The entire pro- and amount. The defrnition of the use or mis-
cessis likely to vary somewhat,dependingon sion of a new ship may be narrow or broad,
the customer involved, but it generally in- but the end product should reflect the owner's
volvesa number of specificstages.Thesemay needsand intended use.
be summarized as: Oncean owner has identifredthe needfor
a new ship and defined operational require-
. developmentof owner'srequirements
ments, the next stage involves preliminary
. preliminary/concept design
defrnition of the basic characteristicsof the
. contract design
vessel. This preliminary or concept design
. bidding/contracting
stage can be done internally by the owner's
. detail design and planning
staff, by a design agent hired by the owner,
. construction
or by the staffs of one or more shipyards.
The first stage in the shipbuilding proc- Common practice in the United States (but
essis the formulation of the product require- not overseas)has been to use a design agent
mentsby the customer.For example,a ship- for preliminary design. A notable exception
ping line may forecastthe need for a means is the U.S. Navy, which has a large internal
of transporting 250,000automobilesper year preliminary design section. Owners with
betweenJapan and California; a state trans- considerableexperiencewith particular ship
portation agencymay need to ferry 150,000 types may, in order to satisfy specificopera-
passengersper day acrossan inland water- tional requirements,approacha shipyard di-
way over 10 routes averaging 30 trips per rectly. The aim is to develop a design that
route; an oil company may need to trans- will meet the requirements while taking ad-
port 10 million tons of crude oil per year vantage ofthe building experienceand capa-
from the Caribbean to the northeast United bility of a parbicular shipyard to minimize con-
I
i
SHIPPRODUCTION
struction time and cost. The end product of complex and very detailed planning is re-
this stage is a general definition ofthe ship, quired. Detail design and planning must an-
including dimensions, hull form, general ar- swer the questions of "what, where, how,
rangement, powering, machinery arrange- when, and by whom." Determiningwhat parts,
ment, mission systems defrnition (such as assemblies,and systems are to be built and
cargo capacity and handling equipment, com- what componentsare to be purchasedis pri-
bat systems, or habitability), capacities of marily detail design. Where and.how are fa-
variable weights (such as fuel oil, water, crew, cility-use questions that include determina-
and stores) and preliminary defrnition of ma- tion of the location within the shipyard and
jor systems(such as structural, piping, elec- constructiontools and techniquesto be used.
trical, machinery, and ventilation [FIVAC]). Considerationsof subcontractingand in-house
Based on the general description of the manufacture versus purchasing are also an-
ship to be built, as determined by the end sweredhere. Thesequestionsare resolvedas
product ofthe preliminary design stage,more part of planning. When determines the se-
detailed information is required to permit quencingof all operations,including purchas-
bids and/or contracts to be prepared. This ing and manufacturing, as well as need times
information, called the contract design,must for information (design, planning, approvals,
be of suffrcient detail to permit the prepara- etc.). This is the schedulingfunction. Finally,
tion of cost and time-to-build estimates by by whom relatesto the utilization of the ship-
shipyards interested in the shipbuilding pro- yard work force. Clearly, there is consider-
ject. As in the preliminary design stage,this able interdependence among the answers to
work can be performed by the owner's staff, these questions.The successofany shipyard
by design agents, or by shipyard personnel. or shipbuilding project is directly related to
Preparation of contract design packages by the answers to the questions or to the detail
the owner's staff is uncommon. design and planning process.
Following completion of the contract de- The frnal stage of the shipbuilding proc-
sign stage, a specifrcshipyard is chosen to ess is the actual construction of the vessel.
build the vessel. Unless an owner has in- Ship constructioncan be consideredto occur
volved a shipyard in the preliminary and./or in four manufacturing levels. The first is
contract design stage and thus is negotiating parts manufacturing, using raw materials
a contract based on a mutually agreeable (such as steel plate and sections,pipe, sheet
design,competitivebidding basedon the con- metal, and cable) to manufacture individual
tract design and specificationsis common parts. The purchasing and handling of com-
practice. Due to the high cost of a new ship, ponentscan be consideredto be a part ofthis
contractsare generally very long and complex. lowest manufacturing level. The next manu-
The most significant factors are cost, delivery facturing level involves the joining of parts
date, and performancerequirements. and./orcomponentsto form subassembliesor
After the bidding processis completeand units. Thesesmall collectionsofjoined parts
a contract has been signed, the frfth stage of are then combined in the third manufactur-
the shipbuilding process,detail design and ing level to form hull blocks. Hull blocks are
planning and scheduling, proceeds. Ship- commonly the largest sectionsof ships built
building involves the purchasing of tons of away from the final building site. Erection,
raw materials and many thousands of compo- the final manufacturing level, involves the
nents, the manufacturing of thousands of landing and joining of blocks at the building
parts from the raw materials, and the assem- site (such as launching ways, graving dock,
bly of these parts and components.Therefore, or dry dock).The actual construction phase of
I
INTRODUCTION
shipbuilding is primarily involved with as- both had profound impacts on shipbuilding.
sembly, whether of parts, subassemblies,or As late as the 1960sand 1970s,shipbuilders
blocks,to form a completedvessel.An impor- continued to try to employ mass production
tant part ofthe construction phase is verifr- or assemblyline approaches.Sincethen, a dif-
cation that the ship complies with the con- ferent approach to shipbuilding has emerged
tractual requirements. Consequently, the and has proven to be better suited to the
vessel is subjected to a series of tests and economicand technical condition of the in-
trials prior to delivery to the owner. dustry. This approachis basedon the appli-
Shipbuilding can therefore be viewed as cation of group technolory to shipbuilding.
a processthat begins when an owner per- (Group technologyis defrned in Chapter II,
ceivesa need for a vesselto perform someset Section3.2.)
of functions, that proceedsthrough a number The goal ofthis textbook is to describethe
of stages of paperwork (design, contracting, principles and practicesof shipbuilding em-
planning, etc.),and that culminatesin a mas- ploying group technology. As in any industry
sive collection and joining of parts and com- that has existed for many years, the system
ponents to manufacture the desired vessel. used is a mix of old and new techniques. The
Productive shipbuilding is highly dependent system described in this book is drawn from
on careful consideration, control, and per- many sources, combining pieces of current
formance in each of these stages. practice from many places. Undoubtedly, no
The shipbuilding industry is centuries old, shipyard anywhere in the world operatespre-
paralleling the history of man. Shipbuilding cisely as is suggestedherein. What is pre-
techniques have changed in response to sented includes many parts that in combi-
changesin vesseldesign,materials, markets, nation producea systemaimed at optimizing
and construction methods. The organization productivity in shipbuilding under current
of shipbuilding companieshas also changed to economicand technologicalconditions. It is
match this progression. presented in a way that will provide the
Throughout its early history, shipbuild- reader an opportunity to gain some knowl-
ing, like most early industries, was craft ori- edge of all aspects of the industry as it is
ented. As such, it was almost exclusively currently evolving.
dependenton the skills of the craftsmen do- The book is organizedto present a gen-
ing the work. Little planning was performed eral overview and basic principles, followed
prior to beginning the construction. As own- by in-depth descriptionsofindividual pieces
ers became more specific in defining the of the system. The remainder of Chapter I
desired characteristics of a new ship, ship- presentsa seriesof basicdefinitions. A much
builders were required to do more planning. more comprehensiveglossaryof terms is pre-
Nevertheless, prior to the use of iron and sentednear the end of the book. Additionally
steel for ships, little more than a scalemodel a briefreview ofthe status ofthe shipbuilding
or a simple drawing of a proposedship was industry is presented.Chapter II deals with
used to guide construction. two major topics: first, an overview of the
As industrial processesbecame more economictheory of shipbuilding and, second,
complexand efficient, shipbuilderskept pace the general principles of group technology.
with changing technology. Shipbuilding be- Chapter III is a detailed discussion of the
gan to be subdividedinto specialties,such as application ofgroup technologyto shipbuild-
hull construction, machinery, outfitting, and ing, calledproduct-orientedwork breakdown
painting. More recently, the developmentof structure. Chapter IV is a descriptionofthe
mass production techniques and welding metal manufacturing and construction pro-
I
SHIPPRODUCTION
2. Shipbuilding
Termsand Definitions
Shipbuilding is the constructionofships, and tankers, (3) bulk carriers, (4) passenger
a shipyard is the placewhere ships are built. ships, (5) frshing vessels,(6) industrial ves-
Shipbuilding is a construction industry sels,(7) combatantvessels,and (8) others(see
which uses a wide variety of manufactured Figure 1-2).No simple classificationof ships
componentsin addition to basic construction by types is likely to be all-inclusive,but this
materials. The processthereforehas many of general breakdown is sufficient to indicate
the characteristicsof both construction and general trends. Figure 1-3 showstypical in-
manufacturing. Shipbuilding requires many board profiles of ships within each of these
workers having various skills (or trades;, classes.[1]
working within an established organiza-
tional structure at a specificlocationin which 2.3. ShipyardFacilities
necessaryfacilities are available.The goal of A shipyard generally contains several spe-
a privately owned shipbuilding companyis to cific facilities laid out to facilitate the flow of
earn a profit by building ships. material and assemblies.There is no typical
shipyard layout, partly becausemany ship-
2.1.ShipDefinitions yards were initially constructedin the nine-
A ship, although a complex combination of teenth or early twentieth century. These
things, can be most easily classified by its yards have grown according to the availabil-
basic dimensions, its weight (displacement) ity of land and waterfront as well as in re-
and./orload-carrying capacity (deadweight), sponse to production requirements. Figure
and its intended service. Figure 1-1 defrnes 1-4is a representativelayout. Typical impor-
a number of basic ship dimensionsas well as tant features are listed below:
typical shipboardregions.Somespecificdefr-
r a location on land for erecting a ship,
nitions are dependent on the vesseltype or
along with an associatedmeans for
selvice, but in general, most definitions are
getting the ship to the water, such as
applicablefor all ship types.
a graving dock,launching ways, or a
floating dry dock
2.2.ShipTypes
r piers for storing ships afloat to permit
Ships can be subdivided into a number of work to continue following launching
classesbasedon their intended service. The . shops for performing various kinds of
primary classesare (1) dry cargo ships, (2) work, such as
INTRODUCTION
SUPERSTRUCTURE
FORECASTLE
RUDDER MAIN DECK
. PROPELLER
P
LENGTHBETWE
LENGTHOVERALL
Fig. 1-1.Basicshipdimensions
anddefinitions.
-steel marking, cutting, and forming Associated with each of these general types
shop of facilities are specific pieces of equipment
-steel assemblyshop that are related to the work carried out in
-surface preparation and coating that location. This subject will be discussed
shop in detail in Chapters IV and V.
-pipe shop
-sheet metal shop 2.4. Organization
-machine shop Shipyard workers are organized within de-
-electrical shop partments or sections that are responsible for
. storage,marshaling, and outdoor (blue some aspect of the operation of the company.
sky) work areas Although each company is likely to have some
. offrcesand personnelsupport buildings variation in its organization, the usual sub-
(cafeteria,sick bay, etc.). division is into six functions. These are (1)
SHIPPRODUCTION
LUMBER PILOT
CARRIERS CRAFI
Fig. 1-2.Shiptypes.
C O N T A I N E RS H I P
H O L DN O . 4 HOLDNO.2
s
ROLL.ON / ROLL- OFF
q.-
- ,l
s- MACHY
TANKNO.5 T A N KN O . 4 T A N KN O . 3 TANK NO. 2 TANKNO.1 D . T .
t
s^Y.lt
\rJL SPACE
NO.
F
TANKER
BALLAST
BULKCARRIER
HARBOR
FERRY
FISHING
VESSEL
DIESELOIL SIORAGETANK
MACHYSPACE
coMBATANT(SURFACE)
BLOWER/ HEATER
AIR-CONDITIONING
DIESELROOM
ELECTRICAL
EQUIPMENT
ROOM
-r -*f F 1-
t I
**rf
SPACE
EOUIPMENT
ELECTRICAL
HYDROFOIL
PARKING LOT
BOUNDARY
o
{r
o o
tr Y (r ENGINEERING/ MOLD LOFT
Y
ADMINISTRATION
F
a O F F I C EB U I L D I N G
F (r o
F
a U a
U z
U U
L I METAL I
J
I
L - I SHOP I
F
a UNIT
ASSEMBL
6",/ **
FLAT BLOCK
ASSEMBLY BAY
K9 :*
O U T F I /TT E S T& T R I A LP I E B
Fig. 1-4.Representative
shipyardlayout.
and hand tools (may also refer to all of metallic plating for protective purposes
the steelworking trades) or decorativepurposes,and to build up
. carpbnter:fabricates and assembles worn surfaces
woodenstmctures, gratings, keel blocks, r insulator: installs insulation in desig-
and shorings,and is often responsible nated areas and on piping aboard ship
for launching (may also perform joinery o joiner: installs finished panels,floor
work) grouting, and tiling in shipboard living
. chipper/gnnder:grinds and chips weld quarters
splatter, high spots,burrs, weld slag, . laborer: performs a variety of shipyard
and rust from metal surfacesof ships tasks, such as carrying, digging,jani-
to improve their appearanceor prepare torial duties, etc.
them for painting r loftsman: lays out lines of a ship to full
o electrician (inside):installs and main- scaleon the mold loft floor and con-
tains wiring, fixtures, and equipment structs templates and molds to be used
for shipyard facilities as patterns and guides for layout and
o electrican (outside):installs and repairs fabrication ofvarious structural parts of
wiring, fixbures, and equipment for all ships (computer-assistedlofting, which
electrical services aboard ship has replacedfull-scalelayout, may be
r electronicsmechanic:works on various doneby loftsmen or by engineers)
types of electronicequipment to put it o machinist (inside):sets up and operates
in repaired operating condition machine tools as well as fits or assembles
r electroplater:sets up, operates,and parts to make or repair metal parbs,tools,
maintains metal plating baths to deposit or machines
-_-__--_-
INTRODUCTION 13
o machinist (outside): installs ship machin- o shipfitter: Iays out and fits up metal
ery such as propulsion machinery, structural parts (such as plates, bulk-
auxiliary motors, pumps, ventilating heads,and frames) and maintains them
equipment, and steering gear in position for welding
r molder: heats and pours molten metal . shipwright: constructs or repairs wooden
into hollow forms to produce all manner ships or ship sections,sets and adjusts
of metal parts (may also be called supports upon which a ship is built or
foundryman) docked,and aligns blocks that are to
. ordnanceequipment mechanic:repairs be joined to form a ship (may be com-
machinery and mechanical equipment bined with carpenter)
such as cranes,pumps, motors, and e tacker/burner: cuts steel plate by
conveyorsystemsassociatedwith burning, washeswelds, and applies
weaponssystems temporary welds to position metals
o painter: mixes and applies paint or for final welding (may also be called
other coating materials for protective boilermaker)
and decorativepurposesby means o welder: makes or repairs structures or
of spray gun, brush, roller, or immer- parts, using gas or electric welding
sion (may also perform surface prepa- equipment, soldering equipment, gas
ration) or electric cutting equipment, etc.
o patternmaker: plans, lays out, and per- (may also be called boilermaker)
forms machine operations and bench-
work to construct, alter, and repair Work practi@s,work responsibilities, and trade
three-dimensional wood patterns and divisions vary between shipyards. However,
core boxes for use in making molds for all actual construction work within a shipyard
foundry castings falls into the domain of trades such as those
o pipefrtter: fabricates,lays out, installs, Iisted above.
and maintains ship's piping systems
such as stam heating, water, hydraulic, 2.6. ClassificationSocietiesand Regulatory
air pressure,and lubrication systems, Agencies
using hand tools and shop machines The principal maritime nations have estab-
(may also perform pipe welding) lished classificationsocietiesin order to im-
o pipe welder: installs, repairs, and main- prove vessel safety. Although the original
tains shipboard piping systemsby means purpose was to ascertain the relative risk of
of applicablewelding processes insuring specificvessels,classifrcationsocie-
o rigger/crane operator: installs and ties now function more as safety regulatory
repairs riggrng and weight-handling bodies,and are often closelycoordinatedwith
gear, attaches hoists and handling gear a government regulatory agency. Classifrca-
to rigging, and operatescranes and other tion societies generally publish rules for the
mobile material-handling equipment design,construction,and maintenanceofves-
to lift, move, and position machinery, sels.The U.S. societyis the American Bureau
equipment, structural parts, and other of Shipping (ABS). Classifrcationsocietiesof
heavy loads aboard ship (may also be other major shipping nations are:
called operating engineer)
. sheet metal mechanic:fabricates, . England-Lloyd's Register of Shipping
assembles,installs, and repairs sheet . France-Bureau Veritas
metal . Germany-Germanischer Lloyd
14 SHIPPRODUCTION
3. Statusof theShipbuilding
Industry
I
Perhapsin no other industry (with the excep- through the Navy and Maritime Admini-
tion of shipping, to which shipbuilding is stration (MarAd), the federal government ]
closelytied) are there as many diversepoliti- has provided a market through direct pur- l
cal factors that affect industrial organization chase and differential subsidies. The govern-
and economicperformance. The U.S. ship- ment also provides a market indirectly
building industry is now essentially a closed through tax incentives, financing, and cabo-
system,dependenton a single buyer, the fed- tage and cargo preference legislation. (Cabo-
eral government,for its existence.Operating tage is the reservation of all domestic and
t
INTRODUCTION 15
coastaltrade to operatorsof U.S. built ships.) shipbuilding industry as essential for de-
Political rather than economicconsiderations fensepurposes.
therefore provide the dominant stimuli that
shape the structure and performance of the 3.1.The WorldShipbuilding
Market
industry. Cycle swing is an important characteristicof
Industries such as construction are natu- the product market and one that has a pre-
rally isolated from direct world competition dominant effect on industry structure. This
by the cost of transport, the nature of the is partly inducedby national policy. The vol-
product, and the production process.Some ume of U.S. Navy new constructionand over-
other manufacturers are naturally isolated hauls is determined by the political process,
from foreign competition by persistent buy- basedon perceivednational defenserequire-
ing habits and a high degreeofproduct dif- ments. The market for merchant ships is
ferentiation, as U.S. auto makers were prior similarly affectedby national policy.
to the 1970s.In such a climate, an industry The market for U.S. ships operating in
may remain competitive even when produc- the U.S. intracoastal trade is affectedby U.S.
tion costsare high. economicconditionsgenerally.However,these
The market for ships is a worldwide mar- effectsare superimposedon the world market
ket. Ship operatorsand builders freely cross demand for ships. The U.S. economytends
national borders to obtain a price or techno- to be generally synchronouswith the world
logical advantage. In the absenceof external economy,and requirements for construction
factors,the shipbuilding industries of nations likewise follow the world economy and the
with a comparative advantage,based on re- world market for shipping.
sourcemarkets, cheaplabor, or superiortech- The international market for merchant
nology, would be expected to prosper. The ships has historically beencyclical,with nine
economiesofnations thatlack suchan advan- major cycles between 1890 and 1992 (see
tage would be expectedto allocate resources Figure 1-5).With the closingof the SuezCanal
to other activities. This simple economicmodel in 1959 and the oil embargo in 1973, the
does not frt the realities of world shipbuild- range ofthe peaksand troughs reacheda new
ing. This is true primarily becausemost trad- extreme. A cycle is also apparent in naval
ing nations perceivethe shipbuilding indus- ship construction,involving delivery and de-
trial base to be a vital national resource<-rn commissioningdecisions.The first half of the
other than strictly economic grounds. The 1970swere boom years for the world's ship-
national policy of most trading nations re- builders.Between1970and 1975,the world
flects a primary requirement to maintain some fleet deadweight tonnage increased by 70
degreeofcontrol over the resourcesneededto percent (gtosstonnage of 58 percent). Much
move their products to foreign markets. They of this tonnagecomprisedsupertankersbuilt
have therefore instituted policiesaimed at to carry crude oil from the Middle East to
assuring the existence of a nationally con- Europe and Japan. In 1973,the world order
trolled fleet. In addition, someof these nations book was equivalent in deadweight tonnage
have supported their shipbuilding indus- to 50 percent of the world fleet.[3] Even U.S.
tries in order to provide the means of re- shipbuilders,who have had a negligibleshare
placing the national fleet should it be threat- of the world market since 1959,receivedor-
ened militarily or economically.Other nations ders for 47 merchant ships in 1972,up from
have supported a shipbuilding industry as a 13 in 1970.
"hub" industry for economic
development. After the Arab oil embargo in 1973, the
Many coastal nations also view a national entire world shipbuilding market contracted
------l
16 SHIPPRODUCTION
M GRT
(TO A LOG SCALE) LAUNCHES
1975
35.0
14.0
1893 1903 1913 1923 1933 1943 1953 1963 1973 1983 1993
Fig. 1-5.Worldshipbuildingmarketcycles.
dramatically. The worldwide order book de- The Association of Western European
clined from a peak of 242.3 million dead- Shipbuilders estimatedl4] that presently in-
weight tons (dwt) in Ig74 to 32.0 million in stalled yard capacityfor shipbuilding, world-
the first quarter of 1979, and some tankers wide, is about 18 million compensatedgross
were laid up as they were completed.Many tons. This translates into about 27 million
of the marginal shipbuilders who were able dwt of new tonnage per year. New building
to penetrate the market during the boom requirementsfor the seven-yearperiod 1993-
years went bankrupt or were nationalized. 2000 have beenprojectedto be in the order of
In particular, highly automated shipyardsin 330 million dwt, or about 47 million dwt per
Europe were either nationalized or restruc- year, average.[5]The obvious conclusion is
tured. Even Japan suffered nrany bankrupt- that during the remainder of the twentieth
cies and a reduction in shipbuilding capacity century, there will be pressure to expand
of 35 percent. world shipbuilding capacity.
Although some recovery occurred in As seenin Table 1-1 the bulk of the ship-
the world shipbuilding market, its condition building activities in recentyears occurredin
throughout the 1980scan be describedas de- only a few countries. Twelve nations control
pressed.At the end ofthe decade,the indus- over 90 percent of the market; the Far East
try was beginning to show signs of recovery, yards have the lion's share, with Japan and
with modest increasesoccurring in the early South Korea in the lead. The compositionof
1990s. the leading nations has remained essentially
INTRODUCTION 17
nations
Table1-1. The world'sleadingshipbuilding
(Rankingby percentage
sharein tonnageon order)
Totaltonnageon order(Year-endrecords)
into place a major government-supporbed in- The U.S. active shipbuilding base is de-
itiative to reestablishitself in the world com- fined as privately owned shipyards that are
mercial market. engagedin actively seekingconstructioncon-
tracts for naval and commercial ships over
3.2 The U.S.Shipbuilding
Industry 1,000tons. As of December81, 1998,there
As a major trading nation and world power, were 39 shipyards (public and private) in the
the United States has had a policy of main- United Statescapableofbuilding or drydock-
taining a shipbuilding industrial base capa- ing a ship greaterthan 220 meters,and which
ble of expansionin time of war. This policy had an active employment of more than 200
and the meansof meeting national objectives persons.The list is shown in Table 1-2. As
have kept the industry alive, but not neces- seen,there are 14 new constructionyards, 17
sarily healthy. Although U.S. shipbuilders repair yards with dry dock facilities, and
have been preeminent in the production of eight navy yards. Figure 1-6 displays the
combatants,they have not been competitive location ofthe yards.
in the world merchant ship market sincethe Beyondthe 39 shipyardsshownin Figure
SecondWorld War. Government-inducedde- 1-6 there are about 560 additional establish-
mand for merchant and navy ships has been ments in the U.S. Census'sStandard Indus-
highly cyclical,both from the viewpoint of the trial Classification (SIC 3731 lshipbuilding
industry and individual shipbuilders. This and RepairingJ).According to the Depart-
has resulted in risk-aversiontechniquessuch ment of Labor, aggregateemploymentin the
as labor intensiveness.The labor force can private shipbuilding and repair sectorin 1992
be reducedrapidly, whereas capital, oncein was 123,000persons.[6]Additionally,the pub-
place, represents a nearly constant cost re- lic shipyards also employed about b0,000-
gardless of the degree of utilization. Labor 60,000,making the total U.S. shipyard em-
intensivenessis therefore efficient from the ployment figure slightly over 170,000-the
standpoint ofthe individual producer,but not largest number of shipyard workers in any
necessarilyefficient in terms of total national nation outside China, and possiblyRussia.
utilization of resources. Approximately 80 percent of the total
The shipbuilding industry is part of a labor forceof the primary active shipbuilding
political-economicsystem and responds to baseconsistsof productionworkers. Employ-
other elements within that system. Of par- ment levels have varied considerably over
ticular importanceto the objectiveof this text time for all but a few of these yards. Typi-
is the relation oftechnology to the other ele- cally, about 80-90 percent ofthe total active
ments of the system.Past national policy has shipbuilding baseproductionworkers are en-
been directed at isolating the industry from gaged in naly new construction, overhaul,
the world market. This policy has, in many repair, or conversion.
cases,resulted in a broad-basedbut low-tech- In U.S. shipyards, between Bb and 60
nologyand high-costindustry. In an effort to percent of the direct costs associatedwith
change this, several U.S. shipbuilders have building a ship are attributable to labor. In
embarked on a courseof increasing produc- foreign yards the labor percentageis signifi-
tivity through improvements in management, cantly less: 20-35 percent.[Z]The major dif-
using basically state-of-the-arttechnology.The ferenceis related to the types of ships being
successof this endeavor hinges in part on an built: the U.S. yards build naval ships pri-
understanding of the interactions among mar- marily, and foreign yards concentrateon com-
ket, political, and technologyfactors. mercial ships. Also, someof the differenceis
INTRODUCTION 19
Table1-2. U.S.shipyardnewconstruction
andrepairfacilities
(Overalllength>220mand more than 200 employees,October1993)
REPAIRYARDS
NEW WITHDRYDOCK U.S.NAVY
YARDNAME LOCATION CONSTRUCTION FACILITIES YARDS
AK-WAInc Tacoma,WA X
AlabamaShipyard Mobile,AL
AtlanticDrydockCorp FL
Jacksonville, X
AllanticMarine Mobile,AL X
Avondalelndustries NewOrleans,LA
Bath lron WorksCoro Bath,ME
BathlronWorksCorp Portland,ME X
BenderShipbuilding & Repair Mobile,AL X
Bethlehem SteelCorp SparrowsPoint,MD
BethshipSabineYard PortArthur,TX X
Charleston NavalShipyard Charleston,SC X
Colonna'sShipyard Norfolk,VA X
DetyensShipyard Mt. Pleasant,SC X
GeneralDynamics Groton,CT X
HalterMarine MossPoint,MS X
IngallsShipbuilding Pascagoula, MS X
Intermarine,USA Savannah,GA X
LongBeachNavalShipyard LongBeach,CA X
MarelslandNavalShipyard Marelsland,CA X
MaritimeContractors Bellingham,WA X
McDermott, Inc. MorganCity,LA X
MelroMachineCorp Norfolk,VA X
Nat'lSteel& Shipbuilding
Co. San Diego,CA
NewparkShipbuilding & Bepair Houston, TX X
NewportNewsShipbuilding NewportNews,VA
NorfolkNavalShipyard Portsmouth, VA X
NORSHIPCO Norfolk,VA X
NorthFloridaShipyards Jacksonville,
FL X
PearlHarborNavalShipyard PearlHarbor,Hl X
PetersonBuilders SturgeonBay,Wl
Philadelphia NavalShipyard Philadelphia,PA X
PortlandShipRepairYard Portland,OR
Portsmouth NavalShipyard Kittery,ME X
PugetSoundNavalShipyard Bremerton, WA X
San Francisco Drydock San Francisco,CA
SouthwestMarine San Diego,CA
TampaShipyards Tampa,FL X
ToddPacificShipyards Seattle,WA X
TrinityMarineGroup Beaumont,TX X
TOTALCOUNT 14 17 8
"Report
Adaptedfrom on Surveyof U.S. Shipbuildingand RepairFacilities,1993j' MaritimeAdministration
related to productive effrciency.And cost of In the 1940s, U.S. shipyards had the
materials has an impact, as doesthe national highest labor rates in the world. Fifty years
wage rate. later, however, the U.S. yards have signifi-
20 SHIPPRODUCTION
12,22,26,27
21 5
*.ro P
cantly cheaper wage scalesthan almost all of only about 17 repair yards can accommodate
the European yards, and are about the same vesselswith a length in excessof 220 meters;
level as those of Japan. Table 1-3 shows the about 55 more repair yards are capable of
hourly shipyard wage scales for the major dry-dockingvesselsof in excessof 100meters
shipbuilding nations for the period 1975-90, in length. Many smaller repair yards, called
and showsthe relative shift in U.S. position. topside yards, have no dry-docking facilities
A part ofthe industry (about 200 yards) at all. Theseyards perform above-water ship
concentrateson ship repair. As mentioned, and barge repair, and generally employ less
INTRODUCTION 21
for shipyardworkersworldwide(U.S.$)
Table 1-3. Hourlycompensation
effect of the Navy construction program was In 1981 the Reagan administration termi-
an important factor in keeping part of the nated thesesubsidies,and the commercialship
industry alive since the mid 1970s.The U.S. building market quickly disappeared.
Navy shipbuilding progr:am is the largest in The remainder of the domesticmarket is
the western world. The Navy construction made up mostly of directly or indirectly sub-
program, bolstered during the 1980sby the sidized ships. U.S. cabotagelaws, called col-
goal of attaining a 600-shipNavy, provideda lectively the Jones Act after their principal
signifrcant boost to some U.S. shipbuilders. architect, reserveall U.S. inland and coastal
With the end of the Cold War, however,the trade to vesselsthat have been built in tne
Navy has sharply curtailed its fleet size re- United States without CDS funds. For pur-
quirement, and in early 1994 the fleet size posesof the law, Guam, Puerto Rico,and the
was set in the range of 350 ships. The result U.S. Virgin Islands are also consideredto be
has been significant reductionsin Navy pro- coastal, or cabotage,trade. Since the cessa-
curement. tion of the differential subsidy in 1981,all of
In the early 1990sthe Congressprovided U.S. ships built for U.S. flag carriers, and not
$2.1 billion to the Department of Defenseto subsidized,have been JonesAct ships. Since
begin a fast sealift ship acquisition program. 1981 less than ten ships have been built in
A major component of the program is the U.S. yards-an averageof less than one ship
acquisition (through either new construction per year.
or conversion)of additional sealift capacity Reactingto the impact of the ExxonVal-
equal to 20 large, medium-speed(24 knots.) dez grounding offthe coast ofAlaska, the U.S.
roll-on/roll-off ships. Initial awards occurred Congresspassedthe Oil Pollution Act of 1990
in 1993, with contracts being given to New- which requires ships and bargescarrying pe-
port News Shipbuilding, Avondale, and troleum productsbe double-hulled.That leg-
NASSCO. It is expectedthat constmction/ islation has stimulated the new construction
modification of the ships will continue market, especially for double-hulled ocean-
through most of the decade. going barges and double-hulled barges for in-
In addition to the Navy constructionpro- land waterways.It is expectedthat there will
gr&D, the Navy is the source of approxi- ultimately be an impact on new ship con-
mately 50 percent of the dollar value of over- struction, too.
haul, repair, and conversion work done by In 1992 the Clinton administration es-
commercial shipyards. This represents ap- tablished a working group to developa pro-
proximately 30 percent of the total Navy re- posal for a new maritime policy in an attempt
pair, overhaul, and conversionbudget. The to reverse the decline of the U.S. merchant
remaining 70 percent of this work is done in marine, and to stimulate the redirection of
the eight Navy shipyards. The 30/70 split is the shipyards from military construction to
based on an agreement between the Navy commercialconstruction. The result was the
and Congress and has remained relatively passageofthe DefenseConversion,Reinvest-
constant over time. ment, and Transition Act of 1992.The act had
Between 1950 and 1980,over 40 percent specificelementsdirected at revitalization of
of U.S.-built merchant ships receivedsubsi- the shipbuilding industry, including (1) sup-
dies, called Construction Differential Subsi- port for construction of ships that have
dies (CDS). This program provided a differen- market penetration potential, (2) the estab-
tial subsidy based on the difference between lishment of National Maritime Technology
foreign and domesticshipbuilding costs(not Centers to support technologytransfer, and
to exceed50 percent of the domesticcost). (3) cost-sharingof projectsthat will augment
INTRODUCTION 23
sciously turn to skill dilution in order to cantly higher turnover than other, similar
reach numerical requirements.Skill dilution industries (not considering the Navy ship-
may take the form of increasing the ratio of yards). This includes industries such as pri-
trainees to journeymen, redefining what con- mary metal, fabricated metal products, trans-
stitutes a journeS,rnan,or somecombinationof portation equipment,and aircraft. Addition-
the two. ally, wages in shipbuilding and repair are
If qualified mechanicsare not available generally lower than for other competingin-
when demand increases,inputs to training dustries, averaging about 15 percent less
programs must generally be increased.This when comparedto the aircraft, transporbation
is a reasonableshort-run solution to a tempo- equipment, and heavy constructionindustries.
rary shortage.However, the training of a jour- Past studieshave determinedthat wagesare
neyrnan may take anywhere from three to six higher in public than in private yards.
years.Becauseofthe cyclesofthe market and The shipyard labor market appearsto be
the length of market cycles, the period of primarily influencedby the cyclesof the prod-
increaseddemand may be shorter than the uct market. This is evidencedby high turn-
time required for training. In apparent re- over, both "quits" and layoffs, and a general
sponseto this phenomenon,only a few ship- lack of formal apprentice training programs
yards maintain ongoing apprentice training relative to other skill-intensive industries.
programs. Notable exceptionsinclude yards Workers experiencehigh layoff rates, which
that participate in regional training pro- tend to result in high quit rates as well.
grams and yards that have an isolated labor Many workers who expectto be laid off take
supply and lower-than-averageturnover. They the initiative and migrate to other shipyards
are generally able to meet their own needsfor or other industries.[10]In general,wagesare
skill training through formal apprentice pro- low relative to other skill-intensive indus-
grams. Many yards rely primarily on the tries, and this is reflected in high industry
construction trades for basic skill training, turnover. This situation is not necessarily
and provide only minimum shipyard-specific true in many local markets. For example,
training to new hires. formal training programs and higher wages
A labor shortagecan occurbecauseof an prevail in Navy shipyards. However, only a
inability to retain workers as well as an in- few private yards invest heavily in training,
ability to hire qualifred personnel in the frrst primarily becauseof high trainee attrition
place. Turnover, which measures retention and major fluctuations in workload.
(the sum of accessionsand separations per
100 employees),is historically higher for pri- 3.4.2. Material.Depending on type, between
vate shipyards than for Navy yards or other 40 and 70 percentofthe total cost ofa ship is
industries, such as construction, which use material and subcontracted services. The
similar skills. material market parallels the labor market,
In general, turnover is lower for indus- in that it is heavily influencedby the charac-
tries using more highly skilled workers. teristics of the product market. However, in
Highly skilled labor is more costly to train the short run, price and availability of mate-
and replace. Therefore, employers will en- rial are more responsive to the effects of the
deavor to retain these workers. However,in economicactivity in other industries. This is
the caseof shipbuilding and repair, which is due,in part, to the relatively small shipbuild-
generally skill-intensive, this does not hold ing market in the United States,comparedto
true. Shipbuilding and repair exhibits signifr- the overall industrial base. Manufacturing
INTRODUCTION 25
lead times, another measure of the perfor- tion of the feast-or-faminenature of the mar-
mance of the supplier base,have also gener- ket for the lower-tier suppliers.
ally exhibited the expectedresponseto eco- The cost of government regulations, in-
nomic conditions.Thus, lead times will also cluding pollution abatement,becamepartic-
be influenced more by general economiccon- ularly significant during the 1970s.In most
ditions than by the status of the shipbuilding casesthesecostsapply acrossthe board to all
industry. industries. Theoreticallythey should not ad-
The shipbuilding supplier base, along versely affect any one industry. However,
with other predominantly defense-oriented complianceassurancesare included in gov-
industries, has declinedsincethe 1950s.The ernment contractrequirements.This may re-
U.S. industry is, in several instances, de- sult in suppliers of material to industries for
pendent on a single supplier. Examples rn- which the government is the primary cus-
clude suppliers ofanchors, anchor chain, and tomer bearing a disproportionate share of
activated rudders. In the case of quiet ball the costs.
bearings used in submarines and many sur- Military specificationVstandardsare a pe-
face ships, the single source is a Japanese rennial problem for suppliers of Navy ship-
manufacturer. Reasons generally cited for building and repair programs. Manufacturers
the declinein the supplier base are: state that military specifrcations,in general,
do not keep pace with the technologicalpro-
. cyclesand small size of the market gress made by the industry.[llJ Specific
o costsassociatedwith government problems are:
regulations
r problems associatedwith military r interpretation of requirements
specifrcations/standards r outdated specifications
. equally acceptablecommercialcompo-
The last two apply specificallyto suppliers of nents not qualifred under military
military equipment but, becauseof the im- specifrcations
portance of the government market, affect . unreasonable software/documentation
the entire industry. requirements
The effect of the size and cycles of the . high cost of quali$'ing a product not com-
market receivedconsiderableCongressional mensurate with the expectedreturn
attention throughout the 1970s.
However, very little has changed as a 3.5. IndustryOrganization
and Performance
result of extensivetestimony and somedocu- From an industry point of view, U.S. ship-
mentation by the Navy. Many subcontractors building and repair can be characterized as
and component suppliers simply frnd it un- a relatively small industry operating in a
economicalto upgradeor evenretain capacity highly cyclicalmarket controlled by the U.S.
for a market that is both small and sporadic. government.Technologically,the industry is
Additionally, the small subcontractorssee a somewhat backward compared to the aero-
much more cyclical market than is apparent spaceindustry, which is similar in terms of
from observing the aggregate.When business market structure. The economicvalue of the
is slack, shipbuilders tend to make compo- commercial side of the industry is minimal,
nents in their own facilities-components and with few exceptions,ships can be pur-
that would be subcontracted in times of chasedabroad more cheaply.Even the Navy
greater demand. The result is an accentua- has examined the feasibility of purchasing
26 SHIPPRODUCTION
ships outside the United States. The strate- than immediate profits played an important
gic value of the industry is well recognized, part in corporate decisionsto acquire ship-
however, and maintenance of a peacetime yards.[13JThroughout the period of conglom-
shipbuilding industrial base is a practical erate takeover,the Navy made progresspay-
necessity. The industrial organization and ments weekly,while most ofthe shipbuilders'
investment policies of the industry have bills were paid monthly. Such "free loans"
evolved in responseto signals from the gov- would be an important sourceof frnancing for
ernment, and the structure of the industry is the parent company.Due to the labor-inten-
essentially a product of national maritime sive nature of shipbuilding and the fact that
policy, or the lack ofsuch a policy. little capital investment was required for
The industry is anything but homogene- the shipyards when they were purchasedby
ous in terms of ownership,companysize,and conglomerates,the opportunity existed for a
primary markets. However,somerough gen- high ratio ofprofrt to invested capital. This,
eralizations can be made with respect to coupledwith relatively low purchaseprices,
profrtability and capital budgeting policies. made entry into the shipbuilding industry
Beginning in 1959, the major shipyards attractive to conglomerates.
changed from mostly independent firms to In retrospect,the capital budgeting poli-
divisions of large corporations.With the ex- ciesofthe major shipyard companiesindicate
ception of Todd, this transition was accom- a fairly consistentpattern of miscalculation.
plished through conglomeratemerger or acqui- However, in terms of the signals emanating
sition by aerospaceor other large companies. from the federal government and the world
The reasonsfor conglomeratemerger are economyimmediately prior to and after 1970,
complex. In general, however, this form of these policies appear very logical. Prior to
acquisition is used because it provides a 1970,investment in shipyards was very con-
means of increasing the price/earningsratio servative. This reflected an industry for
ofthe parent company,and offersscaleecono- which the market prospectswere minimal.
mies in the capital market without running Most investment was aimed at maintenance
afoul of the antitrust laws. Either vertical of the ability to remain in the business of
integration or merger with a company that building ships rather than expansion. Fore-
manufactures the same basic product line is seeabledemand and potential for becoming
often infeasible for large corporations be- competitivein the world market certainly did
causeof the antitrust laws. not warrant an expansionarypolicy. Control
Whatever the particular corporate rea- over the domestic market was virtually nil,
sons for acquiring shipyards, it is not clear and government policy did not indicate any
that such acquisitionswere successful,based major changesin demand.
on usual economicstandards. The business Commencingin the mid to late 1960s,the
environment has been characterizedas "one Navy and the Maritime Administration sig-
of high risk and low returns."[12] Profitability naled major changesin government policy.
has in general been low. It has been shown The Naly embarkedon an efforbto implement
that profrtability was two-tiered: medium- Total Package Procurement (TPP), whereby
sized yards that retained their traditional the prime contractor is responsiblefor all of
old line shipbuilding identity were profrtable, the componentsof a weaponssystem rather
while those that were primarily aerospace than just the platform. Seriesproduction of
oriented sustained consistent losses.It has a class of ships was intrinsic to the concept,
also been suggestedthat cash flow rather as opposedto allocating a handful of ships to
INTRODUCTION 27
eachofseveral yards. The Navy hopedto shift Shipbuilding is two tiered: it is a defense
management responsibility for the total industry, but there is also an important com-
weapons system to the contractor, and to mercial side to the market. Defense indus-
gain effrciency through series production. tries are characterizedby a lack ofcontrol over
From the viewpoint of the shipbuilder, TPP markets and a consequentadversarial relation-
required more sophisticated management, ship between producers and customer. Even
the necessity of integrating several diverse much of the commercial side ofthe shipbuild-
technologies and product lines, and large fi- ing market is controlled by the government.
nancial resources. These were considered to Profitability and capital investment are there-
be primary strengths of aerospaceand con- fore highly responsive to government policy.
glomerate firms, which were consequently The decline of military construction will
attracted to the industry. require a fundamental change in the indus-
Concunent with introduction of Total Pac- try's organizational structure, evenmore dra-
kage Procurement,the Congressenacteda Mar- matic than that which occurred with the term-
itime Administration program calling for the ination ofthe subsidysupportprogram in 1981.
constructionof 300 commercialvesselsin the It appears that by the turn ofthe century the
period 1970-1980.This program was predi- U.S. shipbuilding industry will have reduced
cated on a projected expanded world market, its employment by at least 40 percent from
particularly for very large crude carriers and what it was in 1990.
high technolory ships, such as liquefied natu- The survival of any specific shipyard will
ral gas carriers. The MarAd 70 program, as be perhaps attributable to two primary fac-
it was called, also hinged on productivity tors. The first will be the ability of the yard
gains through standardization and series pro- to maintain its military market. This factor
duction. will undoubtedly impact Newport News, Elec-
In apparent response to the Navy and tric Boat, Bath Iron Works, and Ingalls.
MarAd incentives, the industry invested an Newport News, whose parent corporationis
averageof $200 million (4.5 percent of sales) the largest of the shipbuilding conglomer-
annually between 1970 and 1978.[14]This ates, also enjoys a position of some market
was a period during which industry profrts power, compared to most of the industry.
were nearly nonexistent. It is estimated that Newport News is one of the three nuclear
in the period 1969-1976,the industry bor- yards and is the only builder of aircraft car-
rowed externally, or from the parent compa- riers. Electric Boat is dedicatedto building
nies, approximately$800million, while earn- nuclear submarines,and wiII probablymain-
ing profrts of less than $50 million. To put tain that assignment. Bath Iron Works is the
this in perspective,this means that the in- lead yard on the Burke-classdestroyer.And
dustry took on a long-term debt equal to 2.5 Ingalls is the lead yard on the Aegis cruisers.
times its net worth. The MarAd 70 program The second factor is the ability of the
was not successful,resulting during the 1970s shipyard to develop and maintain a commer-
in construction of only 80 new ships and the cial ship market. In this instance,the factors
conversionor reconstruction of 56 ships. With favor the smaller, more agile shipyards, or
the subsequent collapse of the commercial shipyards that can more easily leverage from
market, and failure to achieve the higher their military ship construction program into
profits commensurate with the added risk commercialship construction.Yards that will
assumedunder TPP, the financial position of survive as a result of this secondfactor might
much of the industry was shaky at best. include Avondale and NASSCO. who cur-
28 SHIPPRODUCTION
rently dominate in the construction of naval Although labor rates have shaped na-
auxiliary ships, or McDermott and Trinity, tional policy, they do not explain the labor
who have had extensive experience in the intensivenessofthe industry nor the low pro-
construction of ships and platforms for the ductivity compared to foreign shipbuilders
offshore industry. and other construction and batch manufac-
An observable response to government turing industries. The U.S. government has
market control is conservatism,both techno- shapeddemand,and demand has guided tech-
logic and economic.This is evidencedin the nolory and capital formation. The demand for
defenseindustries by slow growth rates, low ships in the United States has historically
profitability, and apparent inability to mar- been uneven and, more importantly, uncer-
ket high-technology products in the more pro- tain. Demand is based on the underlying
fitable civilian markets.[lS] The stmcture world demand for shipping and national de-
and performance of the shipbuilding industry fense requirements, both highly cyclical, as
has been greatly influenced by government modifred by the political and economiccli-
policies that have been implemented on a reg- mate. Additionally, in an attempt to broaden
ular basisduring the last 50 years.It remains the shipbuilding base, Na'vy acquisition has
to be seen what is in store for the industry in traditionally been spread among several
the future. Government policy will certainly builders. Programs comprising 20 and 30
play an important role. However,many ship- ships have been allocated to as many as
builders have embarkedon a courseofinvest- sevenshipyards. The fragmentation of orders
ing in innovations in management and pro- and ensuing uncertainty did not offer incen-
cessesgearedto operatingefliciently in diver- tive either to modernize facilities or reor-
sifredmarkets. In the final analysis, the per- ganize pmduction. The result was a high-cost
formance of the industry will be determined labor-intensive industry.
by the successofthese innovations. In the late 1960s and 1970s, the Navy
initiated acquisition policies, such as multi-
3.6.TechnologyDevelopments
and Productivity ship contracts,intended to encourageinvest-
Efficient production in any industry depends ment in shipbuilding technology.In addition
on the nature of demand for the product and to Navy efforts to provide incentives for mod-
the relative prices of resources.Much has ernization, the Maritime Administration de-
been written about labor intensivenessand veloped standard ship designs to promote
capital formation in the shipbuilding indus- multi-ship construction programs. Through
try comparedto other industries. Similarly, the National Shipbuilding ResearchProgram,
shipbuilding technical processesand labor the Maritime Administration also conducted
intensivenessin the United Stateshave been an active education and technology transfer
measured against foreign shipbuilders. The program in conjunctionwith the shipbuilding
conclusions have generally been that U.S. industry. The industry responded to these
shipbuilding is more labor intensive than policies and has made major organizational
other U.S. industries and foreign shipbuild- and technologicalchangesover the past ten
ers. Suchcomparisonsare meaningless,how- years. Despite significant capital expenditures
ever, by themselves. The economic perfor- in the 1970s,an overall decreasein produc-
mance implications of labor intensivenesscan tivity during approximately the same period
be evaluated only in the context of resource was reported to be between 15 and 35 per-
and product markets. cent.[16]The United States is recosnizedas
INTRODUCTION 29
a leader in the construction of nuclear and was found in a similar survey conducted in
conventionally powerednaval combatant ships. 1978.[19]
But in terms of man-hours and dollar costs, The functional areas that were evalu-
productivity has also continued to declinein ated were: outfitproduction and stores,desigrr/
this sector. drafting/production engineeringAofting, ship
In late 1979a team ofsix individuals exper- construction, steelwork production, organi-
ienced in shipbuilding visited six Japanese zation and operating systems,layout and en-
shipyards.[17]The visit was intendedto iden- vironment, and other pre-erectionactivities.
tify low-investment, high-return shipbuilding The largest differences were noted in the
technology. The purpose of the study, and first two (outfit production and stores, and
subsequentreports publishedby membersof design/drafting/pnrduction engineering/lofting).
the team, was to "encourageU.S. shipbuilders There was a medium gap in the next three
to adopt the observedadvancedtechniquesfor (ship construction, steelwork production, and
the purpose of improving productivity." Pri- organization and operating systems). The
mary reasonscited for high productivity were: smallest gap existed in the last two (layout
and environment and other pre-erection ac-
o the utilization and application of the
tivities). The study concluded that even
logic and principles of zoneplanning though U.S. yards havelost ground compared
and construction to their foreign competitors in the sixteen
. the developmentand use of a very
yearsbetween 1978and 1994,there were some
effective material classifrcation scheme reasonsfor optimism. Labor costsand average
for definition, procurement, and control hours worked for U.S. yards are world com-
of material petitive. Additionally, technology improve-
r the extensiveuse and continued devel-
ments neededare generally of the sofbor man-
opment of high-quality shipbuilding agement technologytype, rather than facility
standards and modules or hardware type. Thus, major capital im-
r the rationalized developmentand use
provementsare not required to producema-
of effective cosVman-hour-reducing jor productivity improvements.
computer aids
SH I P B U I L D I N G M A N A G E M E N T T H E O R Y
1. lntroduction
The theoretical,economicmodel of shipbuild- generalprinciplesofgroup technology,which
ing introduced in this chapter is based on are introduced and related to the traditional
theoretical and empirical analyses of ship- economicmodel of shipbuilding in the second
building programs carried out in U.S. ship- sectionof this chapter.Two work breakdown
yards in the 1970sand 1980s.[1]The model structures, one system-orientedand one pro-
will be used to highlight major cost drivers in duct-oriented,are describedin the last sec-
ship construction and to show how costscan tion. The product-orientedwork breakdown
be controlled through improved organization structure (PWBS) is the vehicle for applying
of the work. group technologyto ship construction.PWBS
Shipbuilding work can be organizedusing will be exploredin depth in Chapter III.
2. Shipbuilding
Economic
Theory
The shipbuilding model is based on the the- productionrate varies over time accordingto
ory of production applied to a production run the stageof completion.Second,ship cost esti-
for a predetermined,frxedtotal output. When mating is inexact and as construction pro-
total output is frxed,the producer'sdecisions ceeds,production rates have to be adjusted.
include the productionrate and when to start Consequently,this shipbuilding model reflects
and stop production. These decisionsare, of the effects, on total cost, of production rate
course, interdependent; when any two are changes over time. These effects, and the
made, the third is determined. Total output underlying variables which determine pro-
is fixed at the time of contract signing. The duction rate, will be examinedin detail as the
times to start and complete production are modelis developed.This modelhas beenused
generally determined as part of the ship- to analyze and explain cost overruns in ship-
builder's bid, subjectto somemodifrcationas building programs. It is used here to gain
a result of frnal negotiations.Consequently, insights into costdrivers and how costsmight
the average production rate is also deter- be controlled using better production man-
mined. However, traditional shipbuilding, agementtechniques.
comparedto most manufacturing industries, Defining a production function for ship-
is complicatedby two important factors. First, building entails three basicbut essentialcon-
31
32 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
siderations:(1) defining a measureof output, The second and third major considera-
(2) the time dependenceof production costs tions, time dependenceand production rate
on resourceutilization, and (3) the effect on effectson cost, are particularly important to
ship production costs of changesin produc- this discussion.A ship consistsof many inter-
tion rate. mediate products, called work packages.A
Ships are often producedsingly or in batches work package consists of some number of
of a few over a period ofyears. Therefore,it required man-hours.An increasein required
generally does not make sense to treat an output implies an increasein number of work
individual ship as a unit of output. Usually packages or an increase in required man-
output is measuredas percentagecompletion hours per work package.The optimum erec-
of the ship. This is a very subjectivemeasure tion sequenceimplies the availability of each
and dependsheavily on assumptions about completedwork packageat a specificpoint
the work content of all the componentswhich in time. Completedinterim products(work
make up the ship. Components,called work in process)represent significant inventory
packages,are estimated to require somenum- costs.If interim products are completedtoo
ber of man-hours,accordingto certain industry early, capital is tied up in the form ofvalue
or shipyard standards. The actual required added, and storage costs may be increased.
hours vary according to when and in what Interim products generally require more ex-
order the work is done,and what other work pensive storage facilities, corrosion control,
is being accomplishedin the samegeographic and security than raw materials. Late com-
area of the ship. Additionally, the required pletion ofinterim products results in bottle-
man-hours for work packages are in fact neck delays and interference among work
budgets. If a work package is not complete packageswhich were originally scheduledfor
when the budget is used up, there is a ten- different time periods.Similar problems can
dencyto "borrow" man-hours from other jobs be anticipated if material or equipment that
and credit them to the work packagewhich is supplied by vendors outside the shipyard
has overmn its budget. In effect the ship- arrives too early or too late.
builder starts with less than an exact esti- The shipbuilding progress curve is S-
mate of the number of man-hoursrequired to shaped,as shown in Figure 2-I(a). This im-
build the ship, and then attempts to measure plies a bell-shaped production rate. If pro-
progressby counting inputs (man-hours). duction proceedsaccordingto plan, the pro-
Progress is also cross-checkedusing ac- duction rate curve correspondsto the rate of
tual physical completion,such as feet of pipe resourceapplication, as shown in Figure 2-
installed, tons of steel in place,or number of 1(b). In the early stages of ship production,
compartmentsclosedout. However,theseare steel is being cut and formed. At this time,
not homogeneousunits. A ton of steel is not outfitting is limited; the work area is limited
necessarily equivalent, in terms of output, by shop and platen space,and these deter-
throughout the sameship. Such a measureis mine the optimum production rate. As erec-
even less meaningful when used acrossdiffer- tion proceeds,more resourcescan be applied
ent ship designs or $rpes. "Equivalent tons," in the form of simultaneous prefabrication,
used by many authors, is basedon the work fabrication,erection,and outfitting. This cor-
content of a ton of steel in some theoretical responds to the central portion of the curve
ship type (see glossary). This assumeslike shown in Figure 2-I. Later in the cycle, the
capital and work processesacrossshipyards, work area is again severelyrestricted.A lim-
another shaky assumption. ited number of workers can be in the same
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEORY 33
compartment, and many operations,such as
painting and welding, are completelyincom-
patible. The rate ofresource utilization (pro- u1
>U
duction rate) therefore decreasesduring the FF
<O
last half of the construction cycle until it >-
again reacheszero. Od
are to producethe ship(s)in the specifredtime tual time is t'. At this time, planned progress
period at minimum cost.Wage rates are gen- is about 40 percent.Actual progressis about
erally not controllable by the firm, different 35 percent, while actual man-hour expendi-
crafts are not usually substitutable,and most tures are nearly 60 percent of the total man-
material is contractedfor in advanceor sup- hour budget.The variance indicates that some
plied by the owner. Consequently,cost mini- work packages are requiring more man-
mization is essentially equivalent to mini- hours than were estimated and budgeted.
mization of total labor costs.
Shipbuilding is assumed to consist of 2.1.1. ProductionRelationship.A stable pro-
many (n) discrete operations or tasks. The duction technology across operations is as-
output of most of these tasks is an interim sumed, and work packages are defined to
product, which is an input for a subsequent consistof the samenumber of required stand-
product. Each interim product is called a ard man-hours.It is assumedthat the rate of
work package.Output is defined in terms of production at time t, q1,dependson the level
the number of work packagesrequired. The of manning and capital facilities.
total required output (Q) is the sum of all Rate of productionin shipbuilding is also
required work packages(n). dependenton changesto the productionplan,
Progresson the ship is measured as the either becauseof customer-initiatedchanges
ratio of output at time t, Q1,to required out- to plans or specifications,or becauseofesti-
put. This is just the number of work packages mation or scheduling errors by the builder.
completed at time t, (WPt) divided by the Changes may require additions to the re-
number required. The units of output can quired number of man-hours per work pack-
also be thought of as "standard man-hours" age or to the number of work packages.They
(SMH). For example, suppose a particular may also require rescheduling of work to a
task (say, the installation of 1,000 feet of different time frame than originally planned.
pipe) is expectedto require 200 man-hours. The rescheduling of work and the physical
One thousand feet of pipe actually in place is interface of changed work with unchanged
then equivalent to Q=200 standard man- work may causedisruption of the production
hours of physical output. Note that the num-
ber of actual man-hours used to install the PLAN (SMH)
1,000feet of pipe in the examplemay or may A C T U A L P R O G R E S S( S M H )
not be 200. Progressat time t is simply: A C T U A LM A N - H O U R S( M H )
results from the interaction ofshort-run frxed with higher-level directives such as environ-
and variable costs. There are some costs mental standards.Changesmay also be pro-
whether or not work is being doneon the ship. posedby the builder either to correct design
When the productionrate goesup, thesefixed deficienciesor to accomplisha given task at
costsare averagedover more and more units, lower cost.A changemay also be a "construc-
so averagecosts(costper unit output) fall. At tive change,"resulting from someact or omis-
the same time as the production rate in- sion of the customer, such as customer-fur-
creases,management costs rise and worker nished material or documentsthat are late,
productivity falls, becausemore workers are defective, or otherwise different than origi-
sharing the frxed capital stock.Thus average nally specifred.Additionally, required out-
costsfall as the output rate is increasedto the put may changebecauseofnatural disasters,
optimum, and rise thereafter. such as hurricanes. Underestimating total
This simple model illustrates two impor- required output may occur becauseof a ten-
tant points. First, in the absenceof labor dency to "buy in," or bid low on an initial
adjustment costs, the optimum manning contract with the expectation of recouping
level should be attained instantaneouslyand any lossesthrough follow-on contracts. Un-
maintained at a constant level throughout derbidding has also been shown to be a natu-
the constructionperiod.Second,the optimum ral result of some contract forms becauseof
output rate determines the minimum aver- risk-aversebehavior of the bidders.[7]
agecostflow and total averagecost.Oncethe One effect ofchanges to required output
optimum rate is chosen,the optimum con- is often describedby the term "disruption." In
struction period is determined. Thus, this addition to the identifrable increase in re-
model demonstratesthat constructionsched- quirements, changesin required output may
ule decisionscannot in generalbe made inde- have a compounding effect on effrciency over
pendent of decisionsto changerequired total a number of ship systems, cost centers, or
output.[11 programs.Planning breaksdown becausethe
changedor added work must be done out of
2.2.1. Changesin RequiredOutput. Required the usual sequence,and this causesschedul-
output can changefor severalreasons:initial ing problems in other parts of the ship or
estimatesmay have been too low; or the cus- shipyard.Ifthe addedwork requiresa change
tomer may require changesto plans or speci- in production method, it may have the same
fications after construction is underway. effect on learning as breaking the produc-
Requiredoutput may alsoincreasebecauseof tion run into a larger number of smaller
unanticipated rework. This may be attribut- production runs. The result could then be
able to the production process itself or to additional setup costs and greater total and
reduced labor quality. Labor quality will be averagecosts.
treated directly in Section2.2.2. It is also possiblethat addedwork result-
Generally,initial estimatesare lower than ing from customer-directedchanges can be
frnal ship costs.Customer changesalso usu- done concurrently with the basic ship work
ally increaserequired output. Thesetwo fac- and with little increase in capital require-
tors are particularly prevalent in Navy ship- ments. This is equivalent to an increase in
building programs.Contract changesmay be the business base for a yard with unused
initiated by the customerin order to incorpo- capacity. The result could be no change or
rate newer technology,enhance safety, cor- even an increasein productivity. Curve A in
rect design errors and omissions,or comply Figure 2-3 showsthe averagecostfor a hypo-
I
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEORY 39
right ofq', but costsare not affectedat output nized) by an amount, A. The builder must
rates below q'. determine a new optimal manning level over
Two hypothetical shifts of the cost curve time. This is doneby determining the optimal
are illustrated in Figure 2-5. Curve B illus- path for the rate of changein manning and,
trates a case where the effrciency costs of in the secondexample,an optimal completion
working around the bottlenecks are small. date. In the example, overtime will be held
Although costs are higher than in the base constant in order to highlight the inde-
case,it is still less costly to maintain output pendent effect of labor adjustments.
at q" rather than cut back to q'. The optimal The "S curve" shape, typical of system-
costin this caseis (c/q)2.Curve C showsa case oriented shipbuilding, is assumed for this
where the costsofworkaround are very large, analysis.In the early stages,steelis being cut
and q' itself is the shipbuilder's least-cost and formed. Production rate is limited by
alternative. Ifcurve C rises very sharply, the available shop facilities. In the middle por-
shipbuilder has no practical choice but to tion, production rate frrst increasesas more
reducethe rate ofoutput to q'. intermediate products become available to
the work force. As erection proceeds,work
2.2.4. Adjustments to the Production Plan: space becomeslimited and production rate
Adjustment Costs. In Sections 2.2.1. through decreasesat an increasing rate. Toward the
2.2.3.,average costs for a given single time end ofconstruction, the production rate goes
increment were examined.In this subsection smoothly to zero as the last work packageis
man-hour costs over the remaining produc- completed.Note that productionrate may be
tion path, causedby production rate adjust- in one-to-onecorrespondencewith manning
ments, are analyzed. throughout construction. Total man-hours
The shipbuilder's short-run production are equal to the area under the manning
and manning paths are shown graphically in curve times the length of the work day, which
Figure 2-6. In this examplethe costeffectsof is assumed to be constant for the original
the state of completion of the ship when a optimum plan.
changeoccurswill be further developed.The
effect of allowing the completiondate to be a . Completiondete the sameas originally
decisionvariable will also be demonstrated. planned.
The purpose of this exposition is to further
developan intuitive feel for the shipbuilding Under the production plan describedby
processand the alternatives available to the the dot-dash curve in Figure 2-66), produc-
shipbuilder. tion rate is increasedabovethe original plan
Figures2-6(a),2-6(a.1), and 2-6(a.2)show at time to. The combinedeffectsof decreasing
cumulative output, production rate, and productivity-resulting from greater than
manning level for the situation where the optimal manning and adjustment costs be-
delivery date after the scheduleis adjusted, causeof the more rapid increaseand decrease
t', or is frxed at the original date,T. In Figures in manning-results in a bulge in the man-
2-6(b),2-6(b.1),and 2-6(b.2),the shipbuilder ning curve. This bulge is displacedfrom the
is free to determine the final delivery date. correspondingbulge in the production rate
The original time paths of output, production curve. The manning curve is displacedto the
rate, and manning are shown as solid lines. left and upward in the rising portion because
It is assumedthat these were chosenas opti- of adjustment costs. Production lags man-
mal paths for the original output, Q. At time ning in this region.At the apex,the manning
t0 required total output is changed(or recog- curve is higher than the comparableproduc-
42 SHIPPRODUCTION
Q+A
-
> z
{=
r l l (b)
l r l
>l | | l
I l
ill
;
F
(I
z
F
l
o
(r
o-
t 0 t i = l t6
Tl[rtr /r\ T|ME(0
z_
z 1\
z
z
to tr=T
T r M E( t )
tion rate curve because of decreasing mar- The policy describedby the dashedcurve
ginal productivity of labor. maintains production rate for a time at the
As production rate is decreased, the man- originally optimal level. Because the work
ning curve is displaced more and more be- space is becoming increasingly restricted,
cause of initial adjustment costs. As the man- manning continues to increase even though
ning adjustment decreases nearly lo zeto production rate is constant. This represen-
just before reaching time tr the manning and tation implies decreasingreturns to a fixed
production paths approach the original plan- factor where the fixed factor is work space.
ned optimums. Again, manning lags the pro- Here the rapid decreasein manning at the
duction rate path. end of construction results in a horizontal
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEORY 43
overtime worked during off-hours (at overtime hours are plotted as functions of
night or on weekends)may be an effi.c- time after the start of fabrication for one
ient way to keep the ship on schedule ship. This chart shows some of the key ele-
becauseit decreasescongestionand ments of ship cost associatedwith traditional
allows more intensive use of capital shipbuilding in an environment of changing
facilities. requirements.
(4) Bottlenecks(becauseof late or miss- The graph shows signifrcant changes in
ing plans or equipment) reduceopti- required production beginning shortly after
mum production rate and increase the start of fabrication (A). Such changes to
minimum average cost. Some bottle- requirements are characteristic of "design in-
necks are too costly to work around, stability." Design instability can result from
and the delays they causemay delay customer-originatedchangesto plans or spec-
completionof the ship. ffications, the discoveryof errors or major pro-
(5) Changesin required output (changes ducibility problems in the plans as drawn, or
ordered by the owner or correction of late or defectivematerials, components,or doc-
builders' mistakes) increase mini- uments. Given a required increase in output,
mum average cost and may also re- managementcan increaseproduction rate (ac-
duce optimum production rate. This celeration),or the length ofthe production cy-
occurs partly becausecongestionre- cle. Assuming capital is fixed, production rate
duces productivity when manning is can be increasedby a combinationof increased
increasedin responseto the increase manning and working overtime. For the ship
in required output. construction project depicted in Figure 2-2,
(6) Adjusting labor in responseto changes management choseto acceleratethe program
in the optimal production rate results in order to minimize delay. Acceleration com-
in internal adjustment costs. These bined with critical periods of performancefor
costs occur becauselabor and man- some changed work resulted in schedule in-
agement serviceswhich could be pro- flexibility. This in turn meant that it was near-
ducing output are diverted to train- ly impossible to maintain a reasonably con-
ing or schedulingtasks. This means stant level ofresource usage.
that in addition to the added cost Although signifrcant increases to total
caused by congestion after labor is output had been accumulatingsincepoint A,
adjusted upward, there is a cost of the original production rate was maintained
getting to the new level. This cost until point B. This meant that a great deal of
may be incurred when manning is work was being deferred. At point B, the
reduced as well. This occursprimar- builder acceleratedthe program in order to
ily becauseoflabor hoarding. get back on schedule.The remainder of the
constructionperiodwas characterizedby "com-
pression" (g1eater than optimal production
2.4.TheShipbuilding
Model:An Example
rates) as well as some designinstability. Al-
Figure 2-7 demonstrates the effect on ship though it may not be readily apparent to the
cost of the variables discussedindividually eye,the actual man-hour increaseaboveplan
earlier in this chapter. This example is rep- is greater than the total change in required
resentative of man-hour profiles for one ship output. This means that productivity was
in a multiship construction progrzrm.Average lower than planned.A heavy costwas associ-
daily man-hours(plannedand actual),average ated with the high manning levels used to
change in required man-hours, and average attain the increase in production rate dur-
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEORY 45
. A
/\ . . l\
!\/\t\./\,ir
. t Vi i , i
, y r , . JY
\. / i\
a
E
l
I
2
iI
\
\
o
u
\
E
u
TIMEAFTERSTARTFABRICATION
ing the last halfofthe constructionperiod. control associated with design instability.
This cost is caused primarily by congestion. Nevertheless,the hours lost to waiting are a
In addition to the costs associatedwith significant part of adjustment costs.
very high manning levels,considerableextra Overtime was concentrated in the latter
man-hours were expendedin order to accom- stages of construction. This is fairly typical.
plish out-of-sequence work and in moving This period is crucial in the shipbuilding con-
individuals and crewson and offthe job. Note structioncycle.Machinery and other systems
that throughout the period when required out- are being interfaced, trials conducted, and
put was being changed, manning was fluctu- final quality assurance milestones com-
ating sharply. These fluctuations are typical pleted. The builder's choices become even
of a program where design instability is sig- more limited, becausethere is only so much
nificant. The rapid changes in resource level physical spaceavailableaboardthe ship. It is
result in signifrcant adjustment costs. generally more effrcient to reduce congestion
A secondpart of adjustment costswhich and accommodateschedulechangesby work-
is not as obvious from the graph is waiting ing overtime rather than increasing man-
time. The graph shows rapid shifts in man- ning. This has been confirmed by empirical
ning. It does not show the instances when analyses of major programs, which showed
workers were waiting for accessor for parts that the partial effect of increased overtime
because of the breakdown in planning and is a reduction in total man-hours.
3. GroupTechnology
The economic model of shipbuilding devel- as knowing how to control them. In this sec-
oped in the previous section describesimpor- tion the basis for controlling costs through
tant cost drivers and the mechanics of cost improved management and production or-
measurement in shipbuilding. Knowing the ganization is presented.The meansof organ-
major sourcesof costs and how to measure izing the work is the application of group
them, however, is not necessarily the same technology.
44 SHIPPRODUCTION
overtime worked during off-hours (at overtime hours are plotted as functions of
night or on weekends)may be an effic- time after the start of fabrication for one
ient way to keep the ship on schedule ship. This chart shows some of the key ele-
becauseit decreasescongestionand ments of ship cost associatedwith traditional
allows more intensive use of capital shipbuilding in an environment of changing
facilities. requirements.
(4) Bottlenecks (becauseof late or miss- The graph shows significant changes in
ing plans or equipment) reduceopti- required production beginning shortly after
mum production rate and increase the start of fabrication (A). Such changes to
minimum averagecost. Somebottle- requirements are characteristic of "design in-
necks are too costly to work around, stability." Design instability can result from
and the delays they causemay delay customer-originatedchangesto plans or spec-
completionof the ship. ifications, the discoveryof errors or major pro-
(5) Changesin required output (changes ducibility problems in the plans as drawn, or
ordered by the owner or correction of Iate or defectivematerials, components,or doc-
builders' mistakes) increase mini- uments. Given a required increase in output,
mum average cost and may also re- managementcan increaseproduction rate (ac-
duce optimum production rate. This celeration),or the length ofthe production cy-
occurs partly because congestion re- cle. Assuming capital is fixed, production rate
duces productivity when manning is can be increasedby a combinationof increased
increasedin responseto the increase manning and working overtime. For the ship
in required output. construction project depicted in Figure 2-2,
(6) Adjusting labor in responseto changes management choseto acceleratethe program
in the optimal production rate results in order to minimize delay. Acceleration com-
in internal adjustment costs. These bined with critical periods of performancefor
costs occur becauselabor and man- some changed work resulted in schedule in-
agement serviceswhich could be pro- flexibility. This in turn meant that it was near-
ducing output are diverted to train- Iy impossible to maintain a reasonably con-
ing or schedulingtasks. This means stant level ofresource usage.
that in addition to the added cost Although significant increases to total
caused by congestion after labor is output had been accumulating since point A,
adjusted upward, there is a cost of the original production rate was maintained
getting to the new level. This cost until point B. This meant that a great deal of
may be incurred when manning is work was being deferred. At point B, the
reduced as well. This occursprimar- builder acceleratedthe program in order to
ily becauseoflabor hoarding. get back on schedule.The remainder of the
constructionperiodwas characterizedby "com-
pression" (greater than optimal production
2.4. The Shipbuilding
Model:An Example
rates) as well as somedesign instability. Al-
Figure 2-7 demonstrates the effect on ship though it may not be readily apparent to the
cost of the variables discussedindividually eye,the actual man-hour increaseaboveplan
earlier in this chapter. This example is rep- is greater than the total change in required
resentative of man-hour profiles for one ship output. This means that productivity was
in a multiship construction program. Average lower than planned.A heary costwas associ-
daily man-hours(plannedand actual),average ated with the high manning levels used to
change in required man-hours, and average attain the increase in production rate dur-
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEORY
. A
/\ ; t I\ . .
i \,/\/\ . t\ /\ /\
I \
2 I
\
!
\I
o
U
\
E
u
TIMEAFTERSTAFT FABRICATION
ing the last halfofthe constructionperiod. control associated with design instability.
This cost is caused primarily by congestion. Nevertheless, the hours lost to waiting are a
In addition to the costs associatedwith significant part of adjustment costs.
very high manning levels, considerableextra Overtime was concentrated in the latter
man-hours were expendedin order to accom- stages of construction. This is fairly typical.
plish out-of-sequencework and in moving This period is crucial in the shipbuilding con-
individuals and crewson and offthe job. Note struction cycle. Machinery and other systems
that throughout the period when required out- are being interfaced, trials conducted, and
put was being changed, manning was fluctu- final quality assurance milestones com-
ating sharply. These fluctuations are typical pleted. The builder's choices become even
of a program where design instability is sig- more limited, becausethere is only so much
nificant. The rapid changes in resource level physical spaceavailable aboard the ship. It is
result in significant adjustment costs. generally more effrcient to reduce congestion
A secondpart of adjustment costswhich and accommodateschedulechangesby work-
is not as obvious from the graph is waiting ing overtime rather than increasing man-
time. The graph shows rapid shifts in man- ning. This has been confirmed by empirical
ning. It does not show the instances when analyses of major programs, which showed
workers were waiting for accessor for parts that the partial effect of increased overtime
because of the breakdown in planning and is a reduction in total man-hours.
3. GroupTechnology
The economicmodel of shipbuilding devel- as knowing how to control them. In this sec-
oped in the previous section describesimpor- tion the basis for controlling costs through
tant cost drivers and the mechanics of cost improved management and production or-
measurement in shipbuilding. Knowing the ganization is presented.The meansof organ-
major sourcesof costs and how to measure izing the work is the application of group
them, however, is not necessarily the same technology.
46 SHIPPRODUCTION
areas. Thus the benefit of repeating many producesthe shipbuilding system to be de-
similar operations is balanced by the addi- scribed in this text.
tional material handling, storage,inventory
control, and work in processcosts.For exam- 3.2. GroupTechnologyDefined
ple, assuming a batch size of 100 and 4 min-
The purposeof addressingGT in this book is
utes for each process,the conventional six
to help the reader better understand ship-
processsteps shown in Figure 2-8(a)require
building and how productivity can be im-
2,400 minutes for each batch (4 x 6 x 100 =
proved in the shipbuilding industry. While
2,400 minutes). Using the group technol-
the treatment will be rigorous with regard to
ogy process,Figure 2-4(b), the total batch in-
the description of group technology,the em-
processtime is 420 minutes. The first part
phasis will be on those aspectsof GT which
requires 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 =24 minutes.
are applicable to and interpretable in the
The remaining parts require 4 x 99 = 396
context of shipbuilding.
minutes, for a total of 420 minutes.
Group technologymay be defined as:
The group technology layout results in
the more or less continuous manufacture of The logical arrangement and sequenceof
an individual part, within a single cell, by all facets of company operation in order
the same group of workers. Not only are to bring the benefits of mass production
throughput times greatly reduced for the to high variety, mixed quantity produc-
layout shown in Figure 2-8(b), but the ma- tion.[11]
chine grouping enhancesthe cohesivenessof
the workers in the cell. Expanding this ap- This generaldefinition emphasizesa systems
proach to an entire manufacturing operation approach to management, as opposedto a
A) CONVENTTONAL
PROCESS
METHOD
B) GROUPPROCESS
METHOD
One classification system, the Product- casting are two very different methods
oriented Work Breakdown Structure, is in- of producingidentically shapedparts
troduced in the last section of this chapter of different material. A familiar exam-
and will be treated in detail in Chapter III. In ple is the classificationofplaying cards.
this subsection, general application of the A bridge player might categorizethe pop-
abovefour principles is addressed. ulation in samplesof 13 cards arranged
first by suit and secondby value with
. User'suiewpoint- A classification the ace at the high value end. This
system must be responsiveto the classificationsystem would be of little
objectiveofthe next higher system of value to a poker player. For poker the
which it is a part. A primary applica- population would be broken into sam-
tion of a classificationsystem is to ples offive or sevencards ranked
define families of parts in order to according to certain combinationsof
facilitate engineeringor manufacturing cards, such as flush, straight, pair, etc.
decisions.Shapemight therefore be Within these classesranking is deter-
an important attribute. However, mined by card value, with the acehigh.
shapeis important only as it relates . Scopeof the classification - A classifi-
to problem area or work process.For cation system must be able to accom-
example,two nearly identically shaped modate the product, the means of
parts might present two completely production,and the controls over pro-
different problem areas becauseof duction. In line with the secondprinci-
differencesin chemistry. Extrusion or ple, that the systembe all-embracing,
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEORY 51
etc.).The effectofsuch cost drivers is exacer- such as the fire main work order, then be-
bated by accounting and production control comes a logical source of borrowed budget.
procedures which are oriented to functional Shop foremen simply charge resources ex-
ship systems.Functional system orientation pendedfor onejob to the job with the remain-
contributes to a highly sequence-dependent ing budget. It is something like a pyramid
production operation. For example, a frre club. The final accounting can be deferred as
main system spans nearly the entire ship. long as somework orders are still open.The
The labor and material required to fabricate shop foremen,of course,hope to bring budg-
and install a fire main system would not be ets into line through various effrcienciesbe-
diflicult to estimate if the system were laid fore the final accounting.Even if this is done,
out in an open field. However, the system it is impossible to properly account for ex-
must interface both in time and space with pendedcostsof somesectionsof the ship. As
the remainder of the ship. This creates a a result, estimating future jobs or even
massive accounting and control problem. It ships in the same seriesis very inexact. Ad-
also creates a practical problem having to do ditionally, areas where productivity might
with human nature. be improved may be disguised.Management
If a work order is issued for the entire doesn't know that such areas are contribut-
system,as is commonpracticein manyyards, ing to costs in excessof what was planned.
it must remain open for nearly the entire Consequently, no effort may be made to cor-
construction cycle.This work order then be- rect the situation.
comes a prime candidate for "creative pro- Another sourceof low productivity is idle-
gressreporting" by various shops.Sometimes ness.A major sourceof idleness is a break-
the man-hours and material budgeted for down in resource scheduling and control.
another work order are used up before the Workers report to a job and find someone
work is completed. A work order having a from another trade in their way becauseof a
large budget and spanning a longtime frame, lack of schedulecoordination. The workers
sz!
{tu'
*at"r,";
/!'rccs-s
--{%c)
-^sls eNo { PARTg
't)--
Spa^
1:onlasLE --AlD
-
ME|{r
eo\.IP
3600
ds
"'
{ 5t AlRPt l{EOEStGr
ANOMAXUFrcTUR}{O
eE^
tsit
4. WorkBreakdown
Structures
Any management approach must specify into componentparts. The system by which
what is to be done, where it is to be done, these componentsare subdividedin order to
when it is to be done,and what resourcesare control the processis called a work break-
to be applied. This specification generally down structure (WBS). A work breakdown
takes the form ofdivision ofthe total process structure is a classification svstem. Work
54 SHIPPRoDUcTIoN
breakdown structures commonly used in Each major group (000, 100, 200, 800,
shipbuilding are either systems-or product- etc.) is broken down into hierarchical subdi-
oriented. Both will be initially describedin visions called subgroupsand elements.Sub-
this section.The product-orientedwork break- groups are those three-digit numbers ending
down structure will be addressedin detail in in a singlezero.All otherthree-digit numbers
the remaining chapters. are calledelements.An exampleofthis struc-
ture is illustrated in Figure 2-11:
4.1. Systems-Oriented
Work Breakdown Briefly, the structure may be interpreted
Structure
as follows:
Systems-oriented work breakdown struc-
tures are useful for initial estimates and the o Groups 100 through 700 equal hard-
early design stage.They are not appropriate ware cost and weight condition A
for planning, scheduling, and executing a (light ship without margin).
zone-oriented manufacturing process. By . Groups 100 through 200 plus 800 and
their very nature they institutionalize the 900 equal ship constructioncost.
problems addressedin the previous section . Groups 000 plus 100 through 200 plus
with work packages which are too large for 800 and 900 equal total ship cost for
effectivecontrol of material, man-hours, and conditionA.
schedules.
The systems-orientedstructure used by 4.2. Product-Oriented
Work Breakdown
the U.S. Navy will be describedas an example Structure(PWBS)
of such a system. The Navy Ship Work Break- The U.S. Navy has used a classificationsys-
down Structure (SWBS) is used throughout tem, part of which is incorporated in the
". . . the
entire ship life cyclefrom early design SWBS described above, for over 50 years.
and cost studiesthrough production and sub- This classification system was tailored to
sequent layup, including cost, weight, speci- past design practice, where drawings and
frcations, system function and effectiveness, interim products were identifred by system.
design, production, and maintenance."[16]All Such a schemeis appropriate for estimating
classification groups are defined by a three- and the early designstage.However,the way
digit numeric code according to functional that ships are actually producedis by procur-
system. There are ten major groups,the last ing or fabricating parts and joining them to
two of which are used primarily for cost esti- createsubassemblies.In turn, these are com-
mating and progressreporting. The ten ma- bined through several manufacturing levels
jor groups are: to produce increasingly larger subassem-
blies. Thus, the ideal way to subdivide ship
000. General Guidanceand Admini-
constructionwork is to focuson neededparts
stration
and subassemblies(interim products).
100. Hull Structure
Aclassification schemeto subdividework
200. Propulsion Plant
in accordancewith an interim product view
300. Electric Plant is a product-oriented work breakdown struc-
400. Command and Surveillance ture (PWBS).[17] Parts and subassemblies
500. Auxiliary Systems are grouped by common permanent charac-
600. Outfrt and Furnishings teristics and classifredby both design and
700. Armament manufacturing attributes. The classification
800. Integration/Engineering system typically specifiesparameters, such
900. Ship Assembly and Support Services as form, dimensions,tolerances,material. and
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEORY 55
types and complexity of machinery opera- Thesethree types of work are further subdi-
tions. The codesused to processdata accord- vided into fabrication and,assemblyclassifr-
ing to this classifrcation scheme must be cations which are normally associatedonly
applicable to previously manufactured as with hull construction and outfitting. Within
well as current parts for the purpose of re- the painting classification, fabrication ap-
trieving processstandards. This sectionand plies to the manufacture or preparation of
Chapter III will concentrateon the classifrca- paint, and.assemblymeans its application.
tion system (PWBS) and its relationship to These assembly subdivisions are naturally
group technology.Coding systems and spe- linked to zones and are the basis for zone
cific codesin use in the United States will be dominancein the managementcycle.
addressedin Chapter VII. Secondly,PWBS classifiesinterim prod-
Classifrcationby product aspectsrelates ucts in accordancewith their needs for re-
a part or subassemblyto a systemor zone of sources,i.e., material, manpower, facilities,
a ship design and also to work processesby and expenses.For example,resourcesare clas-
problem area and.by work sfage.Thus, prod- sified and allocated in accordancewith com-
uct families are determined both by design mon parameters to different structural pan-
and manufacturing attributes. This concept, els, regardlessof their location in the ship.
combined with a greater degreeof interaction Different outfit units are treated the same
between design and production engineers, way. Definitions of theproduct resourcesarel
has proven to be a powerful means for im-
proving productivity. . Material, to be used for production,
either direct or indirect, e.g.,steel
4.2.1. WorkPackageClassification PWBS first plate, machinery, cable,oil, etc.
divides the shipbuilding processinto three . Manpower, to be chargedto production,
basic types of work: hull construction,outfit- either direct or indirect, e.g.,welder,
ting, and.painting,becauseeachimposesman- gas cutter, fitter, finisher, rigger,
ufacturing problems that are inherently dif- material arranger, transporter, etc.
ferent from the others (see Figure 2-12). . Facilities, to be applied to production,
Zone-orientedproduction,i.e., the Hull Block either direct or indirect, e.g.,buildings,
Construction Method (HBCM), is already be- docks,machinery, equipment, tools, etc.
ing applied for hull construction by most
shipyards. The same logic is not employed In order to optimize productivity, a ship must
everywhere for outfrtting by zones,which is be constructedin accordancewith a carefully
more complex and diffrcult to undertake. establishedplan that provides for processes
Fig.2-11.Example0f U.S.Navyhierarchicalsubdivisions.
56 SHIPPRODUCTION
PRODUCT
WORK
BREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE
(PWBS)
PIPE
PIECE
FAMILY
MANUFACTURING
(PPFM)
PRODUCT
ASPECTSAXIS
SYSTEM ZONE
(r1) lY2\
AREA
(y3) (v4)
o
x
@
PRODUCIRESOURCES U
AXIS E
l
(x1)
MATERTAL
@
U
MANPowER(x2) c
(x3)
FACtLtTtES
o
expEHses(xa)
E
o
ln
l/ r ,,1
\| \
T N
1 , ,
*1,/
o
tion of the quality specified for an interim of zone and problem area considerations.
product. If its contribution to PV is not Each proposed work package should be so
enough,the quality of the interim product is evaluated regardlessofwhether it has been
not good enoughfor a larger assembly. employedin the past. It is probablethat some
Further, productivity values cannot be circumstance,especiallyregarding resources
precisely determined. Therefore, they are and time available,will have changed.
guidance to serve a judgmental processfor The iterative development and evalua-
evaluating work packages.Their use at first tion of work packagesthrough the planning
involves trial and error and thereafter expe- processis illustrated in Figure 2-16. Work
rience. For example, a geographicaldivision packages classifredby product aspects are
of a product into seeminglyideal zonescould systematically analyzedin order to determine
yield unacceptablework packageswhen the their productivity values. The analysesmay
neededwork processesare analyzedby prob- be iterative through several planning levels.
lem areas. Zone boundaries would then be The work packagesare immediately updated
adjusted until there is an ideal compromise based upon restudy following production.
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEoRY 59
P R O D U CT - O R I E N T E D
W O R K B R E A K D O W N S T R U CT U R E
1. lntroduction
Major shipbuilding cost drivers, the princi- ticular applicationofgroup technologyto ship-
ples ofgroup technologyby which costs can building, involving the integration of hull
be controlled,and two classificationsystems construction, outfitting, and painting, will
(work breakdownstructures)were presented be addressedin the remainder of this book.
in Chapter II. In this chapter the logic and [1] The componentsof this integrated ap-
proceduresby which group technology(GT) proach are:
is applied to shipbuilding will be introduced
and the product-oriented work breakdown . the hull block constructionmethod
structure (PWBS) described in detail. The (HBCM), wherein hull parts, sub-
theoretical model of shipbuilding partially assemblies,and blocks are manufac_
explainedwhy overlap and parallelism of plan- tured in accordancewith the principles
ning, design,material definition, material pro- of group technology(family manufac_
curement, and construction of interim prod- turing) in organizedproduction lines
ucts are key elements in high-productivity (also referred to as processlanes or
shipbuilding. This overlap,alongwith highly work flows)
organizedplanning and controlling, contrib- o the zoneoutfrtting method (ZOFM),
utes to maintaining a level or near-levelwork which makes possibleefficiencygains,
load and to reducingidlenessand congestion. through concurrent hull construction
Overlap is also necessaryto minimize the and outfitting, by providing precise
inventory costof work in process,and to max- zoneby stagecontrol for which there
imize the utilization of capital equipment. are three basic stages:on-unit, on-block,
The overlap of design, material definition, and on-boardoutfrtting, and a substage
material proflrrement, and production requires for downhand outfitting on overheads
that information developedin each phasebe when blocks are upside down
formatted according to the requirements of e the zonepainting method (ZpTM), in
the other. This commonalityis achievedusing which sur{acepreparation and coating
the product-oriented work breakdown structure are treated as an integrated aspectof
(PWBS) describedin this chapter. the overall constructionprocess
Up to this point the generic term group o family manufacturing, such as in pipe
technologyhas been used extensively.A par- piece family manufacturinC (ppFM)
60
PRODUCT-ORIENTED
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE 61
2. Planning
for Production
Planning starts with preplanning, alsocalled formatted to more fully anticipate needs re-
the marketing stage, and continues through lating to material and production.
design and material defrnition. Preplanning In addition to overlap in time, there is an
includes initial regulatory body review, pre- overlap betweenfunctional systemsand pro-
liminary definition of contract specifications, duct aspects.The work breakdown structure
proportions, lines, other technical data and must allow for dual grouping. With PWBS,
procurement specifications,and preliminary work packagesare grouped by product as-
block defrnition. Preplanning will be covered pects and cost classificationsby product re-
in detail in Chapter VII. In order to success- sources.Thus, manpower expenditures can be
fully include production considerationsin pre- collectedby zondproblem area,/stage,while ma-
planning, a building strategy is developed.The terial costscan be collectedby system. Figure
building strategy reflects the capabilities and 3-1 showsthe basicmanagementcycleof any
preferences of the shipyard, modified to frt large industrial project. The cycle includes
the specifrcsof the vessel to be built. It is project estimating, planning (including design
developedby consideringblock breakdowns, and material defrnition),schedulingof work,
processlanes, and pallet lists and material executing or actually performing the work,
with which the shipyard has experience,and and frnally evaluating (a review of how effec-
which representits current best practice.The tive eachofthe phasesand the overall project
building strategy helps to defrne and priori- has been).In applying PWBS, the unique na-
tize decisionsabout the shipbuilding project ture of each of these phasesin the manage-
at its earliest stages.The building strategy is ment cycle is addressedin terms of system
discussedin more detail in Chapters VI and versus zone orientation. Since a key to ship-
VII. An overview of designand material defi- building employingPWBS is the construction
nition, the importance of overlap of these ofinterim products,the executionstageis or-
stageswith production, and their impact on ganizedby zone.That is, the ship will be built
PWBS will be treated in this section.This will by zone,to bejoined in the final stagesofcon-
be expandedin a more detailed treatment in struction. Consequently,efforts are made to or-
Chapter VI. ganize support functions, such as planning, de-
Signifrcant overlap of design, material sigrr,material definition, scheduling,and testing
procurement,and production is essentialfor to match the zoneorientation of construction.
reducing the overall constructionperiod, but Figure 3-2 indicates the primary focus,
overlap reducesthe time neededto organize system or zone,of each of the phasesin the
information developedby designers. Thus, managementcycle.Note that the processbe-
from the outset, desis-ninformation must be gins with a systems orientation. This is a
62 SHIPPRODUCTION
ESTIMATING
PLANNING
SCHEDULING
EXECUTION
Fig. 3-2. Systemand zoneorientationsin the
managementcycle.
r transition design
. work instruction design (detail design)
EVALUATION
During basic design, specifications which
establish performancerequirements are de-
Fig. 3-1.Industrialprojectmanagement
cycle. termined. Systems diagramrnatics are devel-
oped from the basic design as a part offunc-
view ofthe total final product, the ship as a
tional design.Simultaneously,material lists
whole, broken down by systems (structural divided into material-ordering zonesare de-
and functional). During planning (including
velopedfor eachsystemdiagrammatic.Other
design), a key transformation from systems
key drawings,suchas generalmachinery and
orientation to zone orientation occurs.This block arrangements,are prepared as a part
zone orientation is then maintained through
of functional design.
execution and some testing (a part of evalu-
During these frrst stages,drawings and
ation) to mirror the manner in which the material lists are developedby system. Dur-
work is performed.Finally, a transformation
ing basic design, products are classified by
back to systems orientation takes place to total system. Individual systemsare treated
permit overall evaluation of the product and
in functional design. A system orientation is
systems testing. These system-to-zoneand
appropriate in the early planning stages in
zone-to-systemtransformations are a key to
order to facilitate estimating and establish
group technologyshipbuilding (PWBS).
spatial relationships.
During transition designthe work break-
2.1. Designand MaterialDefinition down structure must accommodatea transi-
Design is divided into: tion from system to zone groupings. Trans-
formation to zone orientation begins with a
. basic design block plan for hull constructionand compos-
. functional design ite drawings for outfrtting. Theseincorporate
WORKBREAKDOWN
PRODUCT-ORIENTED STRUCTURE 63
HULL
SUPERSTRUCTUBE
SUPERSTRUCTUFE
MACHINEFY
H - HULLOUTFIT
M - MACHINERY
OUTFIT
S - SUPERSTRUCTURE
OUTFIT
Fig. 3-4. Design outfrt specialtygroups.
PRODUCT.ORIENTED
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE
rJ
*
ffi
B
ltr
t?
HE
66 SHIPPRODUCTION
a pipe shop which fabricates and assembies tions would facilitate group technology ship-
pieces required for all pipe systems. In a building, traditional trade organization would
zone-orientedorganization,suchworkers are not precludethe adoptionofthese principles.
assignedeither to a fabrication shop or to a
team specialized for a specific category of 2.3.Controlling
assembly problems. This has given rise to Zone-orientedschedulingis necessaryto con-
trades which cut acrosstraditional jurisdic- trol the flows of work on various processlanes
tions. Workers called "assemblers"or "fitters," so that the creation of interim products an-
in addition to putting together all but high- ticipates only immediate needs.Such sched-
pressurepipe, assembleeverybhingfor which uling coordinateshull construction,out- fit-
a manual "stick" welder or spanner wrench ting, and painting, and allows periods after
suffices. This includes pipe supports, walk- work stages for the collection and distribu-
ways, handrails, electric cable trays, etc. tion of interim products to other work sta-
Other trades represented on a team are as tions. The goal is to minimize buffer storage.
neededfor special or extensivewelding, rig- Thus, integrated schedules,as shown in Fig-
ging, insulating, joinery, etc. In shipyards ure 3-6, are essential for fabrication through
that have changed completely to zone-ori- final outfitting. The schedulesshould address
ented construction,many related specialists all fabrication and assemblywork, including
have been combined into two: a fitter who lofting and painting.
does some welding, and a welder for special A primary end product of schedulesis
or large amounts of welding. As zone outfit- flexibility, the ability to quickly identify good
ting becomesmore universally adopted, a options basedupon constant feedbackabout
logical developmentwould be an "outfitter" material procurement and work progress.
trade. While such simplified trade demarca- Adjustments are neededto counter potential
INTEGRATED
HULL
CONSTRUCTION
OUTFITTING
&
PAINTING
MASTEF
SCHEDULE
ON-BOARDOUTFITTING
MASTERSCHEDULE
3. ZoneConstruction
Method
Becauseinherently different types of work . hull block construction method
are required, a product-oriented breakdown (HBCM)
of ship construction work should accommo- . zoneoutfitting method (ZOFM)
date the following zone-orientedmethods: . zonepainting method (ZFTM)
rr
,'
i
I
68 SHIPPRODUCTION
Also, because large quantities and varieties throughout the fabrication and assembly
of pipe pieces,ventilation ducting, structu- levels which precedeblock assembly.Thus,
rals, etc., are needed,the work breakdown planners have to keep in mind that break-
should accommodateproblem area-oriented ing down the work leading to block assem-
family manufacturing (FM). bly requires shifting welding from difficult to
Work packagesare ideally sized for the downhand positions to reduce the working
three zone-orientedmethods when, for each times needed, and distributing much work
processlane, their required working times traditionally performed during block assem-
for all manufacturing levels are the same, bly amongearlier levelsto equalizetheir work-
and, within each manufacturing level, their ing times. Chapter VI providesadditional dis-
work contentsare the same.Compliancewith cussionof the formulation of a block break-
these conditionspermits eachprocesslane to down for a new ship construction project.
be operatedlike an assemblyline where work For large ships,blocksplanned in accord-
starts, flows, and stops in unison. In order to ance with the foregoing should also be of the
balance work accordingly, special manufactur- largest size permitted by facilities. The same
ing levels outside the main flow are neededto planning applied to a smaller ship of the
adjust work amounts and to provide for in- same basic type quickly achievesnearly the
terim product features that would otherwise samework balancewith the samegameplan.
be disruptive. This is an important competitive advantage.
However, pertinent work packagecontents,
3.1.HullBlockConstruction
Method(HBCM) working times, and interim product sizes
Optimum blocks(zones)are key objectivesas becomesmaller. Thus, there is sometimes
the basis for control in HBCM. But blocks need for an additional manufacturing level
also impact on zone outfitting and painting. for joining blocks into grand blocks.
Therefore,the defrnition of blocks,compared With regard to this objective,it is practi-
to other interim products,has the greatestin- cal to plan hull construction in seven levels
fluence on shipbuilding productivity. Blocks as shown in Figure 3-7. Starting with the
should be designedso that: block level, work is subdivided down to the
parts fabrication level to optimize work flow.
. for block assemblypurposes,they are In contrast, work assigned to the grand
assignableto one of a minimum number block level serves to minimize the duration
of work packagegroups, considering sim- required for erection in a building dock. The
ilarities in problem area and the need main work flow path, or processlane, follows
to minimize variations in working times the arrows on Figure 3-7. For maximum pro-
. for block erection purposes,they will ductivity, this main work flow must be level.
be stable confrgurations requiring no Within each level other than the grand
temporary support or reinforcement block and hull erection levels, the resulting
and otherwise shapedto achievemini- proposedinterim products are examined for
mum working times similarities in their product aspects. Then
. for on-block outfitting and painting, they are groupedby similarities in order to:
they are sized for maximum accessi-
bility (maximum area and./orvolume) . further modularize the production
processes
Also, there should be similarities in volume, ojustify expensive but highly efficient
weight, shape, etc., even at the expenseof facilities
designconvenience,to distribu te work evenly . achieve
manpower
savings
STRUCTURE
WORKBREAKDOWN
PRODUCT-ORIENTED
70 SHIPPRODUCTION
ASPECTS
PRODUCT CODES
PLAN'G MFG
LEVEL LEVEL
ZONE AREA STAGE ZONE AREA STAGE
ul
o = TEST
U U
= J o F
o o
o o J
J o 2
o
()
SHIP - I
l t C)
1 7 U o
o
ul
z.
T
F
=
:<
o
U
o
(E
o cc 6 E U'
t (t,
L z. ut ERECTION 6 o
o trJ
l
U'
ut
= BACK NIL Y Y
F PRE.ERECTION () U
o o J U
o
o
FLAT lt tnrtrl
f dH 40 o
2 6 PANEL PANEL q,
PRE-ERECTION NIL oO
z.o
AO
=<)
U
UJ E CE
L
)v, JOINING NIL
(t (' U'
U
(E BACKASSEMBLY NIL
U
3 e F
o
5 x !(rrr
o
1!
o
q t6 ()
L
Y UJ f l
(r ASSEMBLY
3 5 o
o 3
I
J
g
o
t
o
F
o
FRAMING NIL
q6
6o do
U
U
o-
o () E
t! F
J (t, l! o- U'
z. U'
f
U' PI.-ATE
JOINING NIL
6 2 ,B.BLOCI BUILT.UP
PAKT PART
EE
ASSEMBLY 4F
l u
rr
FdgF =t
IJJ BENDING NIL U
o
o
i4sE
(l
i d fr.6
rlu Ful
E
7 1 { =7
l!;
F
l'oIIJ
U
b
MARKING
& CUTTING FE Fg U
(,
F
>n .t; PI.ATEJOINING NIL
o
AREA:PARALLEL
PARTSFROM PLATE
+
AREA:NON.PARALLEL
PARTSFHOM PLATE
<t--:1'^
- <-.---->
\
\-------
AREA:INTERNAL ffi t
s- -------' \
s13
. _ f l
\ r ' . . , . . \ r
\--i--i--,-------- =YJ
AREA:PARTSFROM
ROLLEDSHAPES
-
z
r similar size in small quantities
?
encescan be mass produced size by size on
process lanes with appropriate facilities,
such as conveyors.Thosein the secondcate-
gory require ajob-shop approachbecauseof
insufficient numbers for any one size, and BLOCKPABT
different working times required for the dif-
ferent sizes that are normally encountered. Fig. 3-10. Part assembly level classification.
Stage classificationsare:
During back assembly,parts and./orassem-
. assembly bled parts are frtted on the oppositeside ofa
. back assemblyor nil marked surface of a main part (back assem-
STRUCTURE
WORKBREAKDOWN
PRODUCT-ORIENTED 73
bly is additional frtting after overturning). which is outside the main flow, is neededin
Examples are shown in Figure 3-11. order to quickly achieve a nearly uniform
work balance when zone divisions from a
3.1.4.Semi-blockand BlockAssemblyand Grand- large ship are applied to a small ship. The
block Joining. A block is the key zone for hull ensuing smaller size blocks are joined into
construction as indicated in Figures 3-7 and grand-blocksto minimize the working time
3-8. It may, dependingon circumstances,be neededin a building dock for erection. The
planned in three assemblylevels: zone of semi-blockand block assembly,and
grand-blockjoining rangesfrom block to ship,
. semi-blockassemblv
. block assembly as shown in Figure 3-8.
. grand-blockjoining The semi-blockassemblylevel is divided
by problem area in the samemanner as for the
Only block assemblyis in the main work flow. sub-blocklevel Most semi-blocksare rather
The other levels provide useful planning al- small in size and two-dimensional, so that
ternatives. All are planned in accordance they can be producedin a sub-blockassembly
with the conceptof grouping work packages facility. In planning work, this should be the
by problem area and stage. point of divergencefor separatingsemi-block
A semi-blockservesthe needto assemble assemblyfrom block assembly.The grouping
a partial zone separate from a key zone for stage for semi-blocksis also the same as
(block) whenever a block would otherwise for sub-blocks,as also shown in Figure 3-8.
disrupt work flow. When a semi-blockis em- The block assembly level is divided by
ployed, the block assemblylevel is where it problem area using distinguishing features
joins its "mother" block,which was processed of the panel needed as a base for attaching
in the main work flow. parts, assembledparts, and./orsub-blocks,and
Grand-block joining (combining a num- uniformity of required working times. These
ber ofblocks to create a larger block at a site characteristicsdeterminewhether platens or
near a building dock) reduces the working pin jigs are required, or blocks are to be
time neededfor erection in a building dock, assembledin a flow where work starts and
producesa shapethat is more stablefor erec- completesin unison. Becauseof their unique-
tion purposes,and providesgreater area and ness,superstructureblocks are addressedsep-
volume, which facilitates further on-blockout- arately. Pertinent problem area divisions and
frtting and painting. The grand-block level, necessarydefinitions are:
SUB.BLOCK LEVEL
ASSEMBLY
ASSEMALY
STAGE
@@ =K f
*il9 VP
$VM,
AREA:SIMILARWOFKCONTENTIN LARGEOUANTITY AREA:SIMILARWORKCONTENT
lN SMALLOUANTITY
Fig.3-12(a) Fis.3-12(b)
Fig.3-12(c) Fig.3-12(d)
Fig.3-12(e) F i g .3 - 1 2 ( f )
Fig. 3-12. Block assembly problem area and stage classifications. (a) Problem area: flat; stage: egg box
framing. (b) Problem area: flat; stage: assembly. (c) Problem area: special flat (greater work content);
stage: assembly off flow. (d) Problem area: curved; stage: assembly. (e) Problem area: special curved
(gteater work content); stage: assembly off flow. (f) Problem area: curved and special curved; stage:
assembly on and offflow.
76 SHIPPRODUCTION
B L @ K A S S E M B L YL E V E L
P $ T E J o I N I N G S T A G E I F F A M I N G S I A G E I A S S E M B L Y S T A G E
BL@KASEMBLY LEVEL
ASSMBIY SIAGT
590TONS
INCLUOING
OUTFIT
Fig. 3-14. Block assembly and grand-block joining, showing the top of a wing tank.
Fig. 3-15. Semi-block and block assembly, showing a bottom wing tank side shell with hopper and the
transverse hopper in a cargo hold.
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
B L O C KA S S E M E L YL E V E L
GMNDA!@X J O I N I N GL V E L
J O I N I N CS I A G E
z2
))
75E TONS
INCLUOING
outa'T
Fig. 3-16. Block assembly and grand-blockjoining, showing a corrugated transverse bulkhead and a deck
center between cargo holds.
P U T E J O I N I N GS - A G E I A S S E M S L YS I A G E
A S S E M B L YS I A G E
PANEL + SUBAL@KS =
B L O C KA S S E M A L YL E V L
A S S M 8 L YS T A G E
Fig. 3-18. Block assembly, showing an upper deck and an engine room flat.
S E M I . B L @ KA S S E M E L YL E V E L
assEMaLy srAGE I B A C K A S S E M B L Ys r A G E
/'v
M I STAG
LEVEL
trg
u_-,'
\
ft t ,\ \ \
('\l-uH
\ \-/v ' ,
@ putE JorNrNG
8L@KASSEMBLY
LEVEL
AssEvB.tsracE
srAGE I
)
"'^,,eleo
re*
Fig. 3-20. Semi-block and block assembly, showing a forecastle and the upper deck in a fore body.
GMNOBL@(JOINING LEVEL
Fig. 3-21. Grand-blockjoining, showing a forecastleand the upper deck in a fore body
PRODUCT-ORIENTED
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE 81
G M N O - 8 L @ K J O I N I N GL E V E L
J O I N I N GS T A G E
Fig. 3-22. Block assembly and grand-block joining, showing the bottom of an engine room.
ASSEMBLY STAGE
PANEL + PARTS +
SU&SLOCKS =
OPERATION
A N DT E S T
ON.BOARD
OUTFITTING
ON-BLOCK
OUTFITTING
COMPONENT
PROCUREMENT
Consideringthese requirements,it is practi- Within each level, other than that for
cal to plan outfitting in six manufacturing grand units, the resulting proposedinterim
levels as shown in Figure 3-24. The compo- products are examined for similarities in
nent, unit, and grand-unit levelsare executed their product aspects.Then, as in the HBCM,
independent of the hull structural zones in they are grouped by similarities to further
which they will eventually be fitted. The on- modularize the production process,justify
block and on-board levels are, ofcourse, en- expensivebut highly efficient facilities, and
tirely dependenton structural entities. achievemanpowersavings.
In order to minimize the impact of these Typical groupingsby product aspectsare
dependencies,fitting componentsshould be shown in Figure 3-25. Horizontal combina-
assembledinto units and grand units as much tions characterize the various types of work
as possible,provided that they are truly inde- packagesthat are requisite and sufficient for
pendent (i.e., rigid and stable without extra- the work to be performed for each manufac-
ordinary temporary reinforcements or sup- turing levei. Vertical combinations of the var-
ports). This approach is the primary means ious work packagetypes denote the process
for shortening the durations required for on- lanes for outfitting work flow which corre-
block and on-boardoutfitting. spondto thosesimply illustrated in Figure 3-5.
84 SHIPPRODUCTION
Fig.3-27(a) Fig.3-27(b)
Fig.3-27(c) Fig.3-28(a)
Fig. 3-29
Fig.3-35 Fig.3-36
Fig.3-38
Fig. 3-35. Engine room tank top components block. Fig. 3-38. On-block outfi tting and painting,
fitted on-biock. Fig. 3-36. Outfitted engine room on the ceiling and on the deck. Fig. 3-39. Two
blocks erected over previously landed outfit complex blocks, outfitted together, upside down,
units (courtesv Avondale Shipyardt. Fig. 3-37. to ease erection. Fig. 3-40. On-board outfittirre
Downhand outfitting on-block, in an upside-down performed priorto landing the main engine.
PLATE III
Fig.347 Fig.3-48
F i g .3 - 5 1 Fig. 3-52
Fig. 3-47. On-block outfitting of a forecastle deck side shell and engine room flat right side up. Fig.
upside down. Fig. 3-48. On-block outfitting of'a 3-51. On-block outfitting of the block shown in
forecastle deck right side up. Fig. 3-49. On-block figures 3-49 and 3-50 being completed right side
outfitting of a side shell and engine room flat up next to the building dock. Fig. 3-52. Erection of
upside down. Fig. 3-50. On-block outfitting of'a the block shown in figures 3-49 through 3-51.
PI"ATE IV
Fig.3-54
Fig. 3-55
Fig Fig.3-57
Fig. 3-56.Erection, keel laying plus 11 workdays. Fig. 3-57.Erection,keel laying plus 18 workdays.
PI.ATE V
Fig.3-60 F i g .3 - 6 1
Fig. 3-58.Erection, keel laying plus 15 workdays. Fig. 3-61.Erection,keel laying plus 22 workdays.
Fig. 3-59.Erection, keel laying plus 19 workdays. Fig. 3-62.Erection,keel laying plus 24 workdays.
Fig. 3-60.Erection, keel laying plus 22 workdays. Fig. 3-63.Erection,keel laying plus 24 workdays.
PLATE VI
Fig.3-66 Fig.3-67
Fig.3-68
I
PRODUCT.ORIENTED
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE 85
ASPECTS
PRODUCT CODES
PLAN'G M'F'G
LEVEL LEVEL
ZONE AREA STAGE ZONE AREA STAGE
U
E
F E z
o uJ o o o
J l z. OPERATION z z. E IIJ
1 6 cr 'ad
U)
f
- F
a
= AND o-
-(t -at) clo
E
(J TEST uo
o-
IJJ = o
)
U'
E G. WELDING NIL
S u r { u r
= 5 ( t x z
Pz 322 =-= =>j FITTING
ON.CLOSED.SPACE
.n=o
U
o
9H
Eg oo= o?<) s8
=eiEEfi
o
2 5 ?>
NIL >89 >
- =Yru , =8=e () Y
sU
WELDING =zu,
z^
=vg NIL o JF
H ; F=E
o- Fo> J
)ut
uJ
B O -
U) att ONPEN.SPACEFITTING
WELDING NIL
}e Y -
z.r- E
OUJ gts
EH=EE5 RTNNG
ON.FLOOR = 8
Eg H8
Y
() =o
3 4 o
J
ID
NIL 624
HRU
-6q ua* WELDING
ON.CEILINGFITTING
NIL
o
?uJ
AC
6>
z.
o
<)fl
5 E
Ou)
J
dr
WELDING NIL
ge z
F
z
?2.
4 3 NIL NIL =o 8x oo
e 6
E= =9 t
(,
JOINING
5e
OUJ d.4
LARGE. d=
UNIT SIZE 8e
UNIT AQ
6= 3Z
WELDING NIL >E
do 5 Q z
sMAu"- Y= o
5 2 slzE
UNIT
E6 q5 g,
-
ASSEMBLY
Vr= z
l
='
z
(9 (, PALLETIZING U
o a
z. z (, 6U s- u)
z u rE> ,"aC z .-O zj- z
llJ
z
g U' -o tJJz
I
6 I o o()
=F
(ro MANUFACTURING NIL
2<)
l--
z.tlt
o > U'
+< lrJ o- tu
= 5-< o 2.4
>cr o
o -z z3 o= E oi 6l
z
=
f
o- DESIGN
AND
MATERIAL NIL
*E
o
do
t
o
PREPAMTION o-
PROBLEM
AREASUBDIVISIONS
PROBLEM
AREA
DESIGN
TO FURNISH MATERIALTO BE FURNISHED
PURCHASING PURCHASEORDER / NO
SELDOM
SPECIFICATION
Fig.3-30 Fig.3-31
Fig.3-32 Fig.3-33
Fig. 3-30. Engine room outfit unit (courtesyAvondale Shipyard). Fig. 3-31. A hatch cover and coaming
unit. Fig. 3-32.Very complexpiping units, for the deck ofa product tanker (courtesy Avondale Shipyard).
Fig. 3-33. Mast units.
When the items to be frtted compose a small bled. When a large quantity is planned, the
quantity per block, outfit work can be per- completedblock should be transferred to an
formed at the site where the block was assem- indoor or outdoor region designatedfor out-
88 SHIPPRODUCTION
PRODUCT-ORIENTED
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE 89
need for high-skill frtting work required in ing work, traditionally performedin a build-
many ship compartments. In such cases, ing dock or at an outfit pier, to preceding
large zonesgroupedby specifrcproblem areas manufacturing levels by integrating paint-
could be most beneficial. Stage for on-board ing with hull construction and outfrtting pro-
outfitting could be divided into: cesses.Painting is treated as another assem-
bly processaccomplishedat each manufac-
. open-space(blue sky) fitting turing level, as shown in Figure 3-41. There
. open-space(blue sky) welding or nil are certain prerequisitesfor successfulappli-
. closed-space
fitting cation of ZPTM:
. welding or nil
closed-space
o the painting interval between one coat
The welding stagesapply only if there is spe- and a next coat must be shorter than
cial or extensivewelding to be done. Open- the allowable exposureperiod for the
space frtting and welding should be com- former
pleted before closures imposed by the con- . each hull block should be virtually
tinuing erectionofblocks in order to take full frnished in order to minimize surface
advantage of easy access.Therefore, such preparation and painting rework caused
work should be incorporated in the erection by further cutting, fitting, and welding
schedule. Closed-spacefrtting and welding . the shop primers applied to plates and
activities should be minimized as much as shapesshould not impede effrcient
practicable as they require more working cutting and welding
hours, more transportation services, and
longer durations (seeFigure 3-40,Plate II). The aboverequires that hull, outfitting, and
The on-boardoutfittinglevel useson-board painting planners work together to control
divisions as zoneswhich are subdivisionsof the durations between the shop primer and
the ship as a zone as for the erection level in primer levels, and between the primer and
hull constrrrction work. frnish undercoatlevels.Additionally, manag-
ers must ensure effective accuracy control to
3.2.7. Operationand Iest The operation and limit the need for surface preparation and
test level applies to work required to assess painting rework resulting from inaccurately
the performanceof eachship'sfunctional sys- producedinterim products.
tems. At this level, zone is the entire ship. The main planning objectivesfor shifting
Problemsare groupedto match teams of spe- paint-related work to the manufacturing lev-
cialists to the hull, machinery, and super- els prior to on-boardpainting are to:
structure areas. . shift positionsfrom overheadto down-
Operation and test are regarded as a
hand or at the minimum to vertical,
single stage.Thus, at this level, work is pack- from high to low places,and from
aged by one or more systemswithin each of
confinedto readily accessibleplaces
the problem areas defrned for the specialist . facilitate the use of temperature- and
teams. It is the traditional method for plan- humidity-controlled buildings, especially
ning operation and test work.
for sophisticatedcoatings
. provide safer environmentswithout
3.3.ZonePaintingMethod extraordinary devicesthat would
The ZonePainting Method (ZPTM) is a natu- encumberworkers
ral extension of the logic employed in both . prevent in-processrust and associated
HBCM and ZOFM. It transfers much paint- rework
90 SHIPPRODUCTION
ASPECTS
PRODUCT CODES
PLAN'G M'FG
LEVEL LEVEL
ZONE AREA STAGE ZONE AREA STAGE
PAMNNG NIL
U'
(t F
HEFEE
TOUCH.UP at9 D
oo
6
1 4 = 8 Oo ou
*ur
CI..EANING = 6 zfi
4)N fg
z l
tr z
PREPAMTION
SURFACE
PAINTING
AFTER
OVERTURNING NIL
TOUCH.UP
AFTER NIL U'
OVERTURNING ko r
D 5
HEEEE HAHo o
CLEANINGAFTER NIL oo
OVERTURNING OL
o(ro =
e=H
2 3 PREPARATION
SURFACE
AFTEROVERTURNINGN I L =tr lL
o-
6g
PAINTING o
tr z j
rcUCH-UP I
CLEANING N
PREPAMTION
SURFACE =
o
PAIMNNG -
AFTER NIL L
TVFRTIIRNING o
U
CLEANING (t)
AFTER NIL
ts o
Bs
EE8 OVFRTIIRNING D
oo
5 U
O o
3 2 SURFACE oO
cro ()ou
AFTER
PREPAMTION NIL at
=gE
OVEFTURNING
PAINTING HH =fr
fg
z
CLEANING
SURFACEPREPAMTION
PAINTING z.
g U
E, utlll
o
rO
t! tr$ iiio
4 1
uJ
r
J
z. 3 t5 =o =
E
= 62 :z IU
+N
T
SHOT.BLASTING U'
MANUFACTURING
LEVEL PAINT SYSTEM A PAINT SYSTEM B
division (as defined in ZOFM), or a block (as . surfacepreparation after block turnover
defrnedin HBCM). Theseconstitute the zone or nil
categories.Problem areas are grouped by: . cleaning after block turnover or nil
. touch-up after block turnover or nil
r paint type (i.e., conventional,epoxy, o painting after block turnover or nil
inorganic zinc-silicate,etc.)
. number of coats The work at this manufacturing level is coor-
. tYPeof zone dinated with ZOFM so that primer is applied
just before the on-ceiling fitting stage and,
The latter further classifies each component, following block turnover, just before the on-
block, or on-board division by problem area, floor frtting stage. Nil applies to blocks that
to anticipate: are not turned over.
3.3.4. FinishPainting.Finish painting is the Integrated HBCM, ZOFM, and ZPTM for a
final manufacturing level in ZPTM. Zone, 22,000dwt, multipurpose cargocarrier, which
problem area, and stage classificationsare is not one ofa standard series,is illustrated
the same as in the frnal undercoat level ex- in Figures 3-44through 3-68 (Figures 3-47 to
cept that stages associatedwith block turn- 3-68, see Plates III-U). Typically, all work
over are not applicable,and "nil" in the final shown was performed during a single eight-
stagemeans a frnish coat will not be applied, hour shift per workday. Somenominal over-
as in the caseofepoxy. time was applied,usually for painting.
4. PipePieceFamilyManufacture
The integration of the HBCM, ZOFM, and stage-by-stage progressionof developingpipe
ZPTM representsthe application of the prin- pieces within such work flow lanes greatly
ciples of group technology to shipbuilding. enhancesproduction control. Further, the sep-
Together they form a total shipbuilding aration by stages permits the switching of
system.Group technology(GT) may also be work flow from one processlane to another
used to organizework within individual shops, without diminishing control.
such as the pipe shop or machine shop. In In PPFM the key zone is that which de-
fact, these applicationsare closerto the tradi- fines a planned pipe piece.It is an optimum
tional beginnings of GT. Pipe shop organiza- division of a pipe line, usually consistingofi
tion will be consideredas an example of the . cut pipe (including branch when
application of GT to one particular shop in a
applicable)
shipyard.[21 . flanges
The engine room of a 22,000 dwt diesel-
. elbows,sleeves,tees,etc.
propelled ship contains about 3,600 pipe
pieces. The many differences among them A finished pipe pieceappearsin Figures 3-25
hide commonalitiesthat are useful for plan- and 3-26 as a componentfrom the "in-house
ning their manufacture. GT is used to sys- manufacturing" problem area within the low-
tematically classifypipe piecesinto groupsor est ZOFM manufacturing level needed for
families having design and manufacturing outfrtting on-unit, on-block,or on-board.Thus,
attributes which are suffrciently similar to zone for PPFM is different from that for
make batch manufacturing practical. The pro- HBCM, ZOFM, and ZPTM, in that it is not
cessis called Pipe PieceFamily Manufactur- derived from a hull block. Because of this
ing (PPFM). difference,PPFM is developedindependently
The collectionof seeminglydifferent pipe and is only problem area oriented, as distin-
piecesinto suchfamilies avoidslaboriousjob- guishedfrom the zoneorientationsof HBCM,
shop type planning, scheduling, and manu- ZOFM, and ZPTM.
facturing.
Instead, pieces
different withina A further
distinction
isthatPPFM
isa
family are designated for the same machines fabrication process,as compared to the as-
and tooling setups, which are arranged in a semblyprocesseswhich characterizeHBCM,
rationalized processlane. The manifestly clear ZOFM, and ZPTM. Typically, PPFM is ap-
94 SHIPPRODUCTION
{F
Horizontal combinations of the product as-
:* pects characterize the various types ofwork
that are requisite and sufficient for the
work to be performed at each manufactur-
ing level. Vertical combinations of the vari-
ous work package types denote the process
lanes for pipe piece manufacturing. Typical
problem area subdivisionsfor only the pipe
fabrication, pipe piece assembly, and pipe
piecejoining levels are presentedin Figure
3-71.
The work packages,grouped by unique
Fig.3-45
similarities at all levels, facilitate modular-
ization ofthe fabrication processesandjust-
ification for expensive but highly efficient
facilities. Whether manual or automatic
fabrication methods are used, the number
and variety of pipe pieces needed for ships
justifres PPFM. Advantages are:
. less rearrangementof jigs and tools
r less variation in the work durations
and man-hours required among the
sametype work packages
o better accuracy
o signifrcantmanpower savings
Fig.3-46
4.1.WorkLots
Fig. 3-44. A center deck and center transverse It is impractical to control PPFM with one
bulkhead grand block, upside down. Fig. 3-45. A
work packageper pipe piece,becauseeach is
grand block, including the side shell, top side tank,
transverse hopper, and side transverse bulkhead
a relatively small job and a wide variety and
ofa cargo hold. Fig. 3-46. The same gtand block as large number of pipe pieces are needed per
in frsure 3-45. ship. Controlby lot (i.e.,a group of work pack-
STRUCTURE
WORKBREAKDOWN
PRODUCT-ORIENTED 95
ages) is far more effective, provided certain which composea lot could be manufactured
principles are applied. in any random sequencewithout diminishing
Within a processinglane the optimum control.One very effectivemanually operated
durations required for each work stage and pipe shop posts a large calendar marked to
the times required for material handling be- showa colorcodeassignedto eachwork week.
tween stages,when summed,yield the over- A dab of paint marks eachpipe piecein proc-
all duration (Iead time) required for a pro- esswith a color assignedper work lot. Thus,
cessinglane. Thus, minimizing the time re- anyonecan readily determineifthe lot in pro-
quired for material handling between stages cessis on schedule.A lot should be sized by
also requires careful attention. Further, the evaluatingits productivity value (PV),partic-
durations required to manufacture all pipe ularly in considerationofits product resources.
piecesof a particular family should be equal
4.2. MaterialReceiving
to each other. A lot should consist of a mix
from different families that will fully load a Material receivingis the preparation or frrst
facility during a designatedperiod, such as a manufacturing level, as shown in Figures
workday or a workweek. Thus, pipe pieces 3-69 and 3-70.Problemarea is determinedby
96 sHtppRoDUcloN
PLAN'G M'F'G
PRODUCT
ASPECTS CODES
LEVEL LEVEL
ZONE AREA STAGE ZONE AREA STAGE
o
1t o UJ
<vx
EIE
o<
=O o== o o
PALLET o z z
1 7 dE-
zi) <fF PALLETIZING F I il
Yul
gtr
o
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o-uJ
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3e$ U
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d<
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U)
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COATING NIL
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2 6 COATING o
PROCESS = =
PICKLING NIL
k k
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U
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3 5 TEST
PROCESS TESTING NIL r!
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PIPE
PIECE NIL ut U
FINISHING
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PIPEMATERIAU WELDING U U
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z z.
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PIECE
PIPEMATERIAU z z
FINISHING NIL
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U U
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7 1 MATERIAL PIPE PIECE RECEIVING
J
z
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uJ ul
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P I P EP I E C EJ O I N I N G
PIPE PIECEASSEMBLY
U
J PIPE FABRICATION
STRAIGHT
SMALL
BENT
SHORT
STRAIGHT
LONG
MAIN MEDIUM
NIL AENT
STEEL
SHORT
STRAIGHT
LONG
U LARGE
E
s EENT
o
BRANCH
X.RAY
NONFERROUS
PVC
OTHER
type of material and shapein accordancewith These problem area divisions and further
the following: subdivisionsare incorporatedin Figure 3-72.
Stagesfor this level are:
o pipe
. flanges,elbows,tees, sleeves,etc. o marking and cutting
. bending of cut pipe or nil
Stage is simply: . machining or nil
. material receiving Preferably, bending should be deferred to the
next manufacturing level becauseit is easier
4.3. Pipe PieceFabrication to attach flanges or sleevesto straight pipe.
Pipe piece fabrication, the second manufac- The bending stage at the pipe fabrication
turing level, applies to processingofthe pipe level is only for thoseexceptionalcaseswhere
only. Problem area is grouped by: flanges would losetheir required orientations
during bending. The machining processap-
r pipe material (steel,nonferrous,poly- plies to the preparation of pipe ends for
vinylchloride, etc.) welded or threaded joints. Typical PPFM
. main pipe or branch classifrcations and decision logic for deter-
. bore (small, medium, or large) mining pipe piecefamilies are shown in Fig-
98 sHrPPRoDUcroN
PPFM
NO. P I P EP I E C EC L A S S I F I C A T I O N S S K E T C HO R R E M A R K S
01 Straight 4 50 mm t-
04 L 20Omm
o7 I 250 mm
14 65 \ 200 mm
ntc tested
z4 c lnso
25 HydrostalicTested ) 40 ko/cm2
27 J . 40 kgicm,
31 Plaslic
57 i zilmm
I - - * I F - - - T - <
61 SpecialCoatjng - Lining
81 Heating Coils
;2
-'--{ I
u StainlessSteel
6l NonJerrous
90 Urgent (M)'
92
93 Aluminum brass pipes (M)
l r f
95 Unit Assembled r - r + t L ' l - . - - t
a7 Cast Steel
9!) General ( M ) - E x c e p tf o r P P F MN o . 9 6
M A N U F A C T U R I N GS Y S T E M Altor-T,oatmont
Svstem
2 3 4
20@ & below 30 30
27 27
; 3t
29 29
3 33
35 35
26
4
Low Presuro
a 34
Pio6 in Gsnoral
g2 32
E E
30 30
23 23
;
2A
a
25
I
3. 34 I
fi 31 I
:
4
n
4 29
I
27 27
a a
Attor-Treatment
Sysrem Code
. cut pipe joining or nil Cut pipe joining is for producing a cut pipe
. assembling longer than a standard length (the break be-
o welding or nil tween short and long straight in the problem
. finishing (grinding or machining) or nil area subdivision).The welding and finishing
. bending or nil stages for main and branch subassemblies
Fig.3-74(a) Fis.3-74(b)
Fig.3-74(c) Fig.3-74(d)
F i g . 3 - 7 4 . T y p i c a l P P F M c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s .( a )
Straight. (b) Straight. (c) Bent after fabrica-
tion. (d) Bent after fabrication. (e) Bent after
fabrication.
Fig.3-7a(e)
PRODUCT-ORIENTED
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE 101
are deferred until after they arejoined to cre- piecesand machining on pipe piecesto be X-
ate a branch pipe pieceduring the next manu- ray tested, or on pipe for hydraulic systems,
facturing level. Grinding on non-tested pipe are deferred to the next manufacturing level.
Fig.3-75(a) Fig.3-75(b)
Fig.3-75(c) Fig.3-75(d)
Fig. 3-75. Typical PPFM classifications. (a) Bent before fabrication. (b) Bent before fabrication.
(c) Assembled.(d) Unit assembled.(e) Mocks for molding. (f) Adjustable (looseflange).
102 SHIPPRODUCTION
Fig.3-76(a)
Fig.3-76(b) Fig.3-76(c)
Fig. 3-76.Typical PPFM classificationsofpenetrations.(a) Parallel runs. (b) Coppertubing brazedto steel.
(c) Completedpenetrations.
Fig. 3-79.Pipepiecepalletsandpalletstorageareas.
Figure 3-77 showspipe pieceassemblywork- The marking and cutting stage at this level
stations, with containersfor completedassem- pertains to boring a hole in a main pipe sub-
blies and lanes wide enoughfor forklift trucks. assemblyas preparationfor joining a branch.
Stage is simply:
o palletizing
METAL MANUFACTURING
A N D C O N S T R U C T I O NP R O C E S S E S
1. HullMaterials
The materials used in shipbuilding may be watertight doors. A secondcategory of out-
conveniently discussedin the categoriesof fit components are manufactured into parts
hull construction, outfrtting, and painting. within the shipyard from raw materials,
The complexity of functional requirements of such as sheet metal, or from materials pur-
a ship results in the use of a wide variety of chased in bulk, such as pipe and tubing,
materials. Structural materials are required electric cable,joinery materials, and insula-
to assure structural and watertight integrity, tion. Various types of paint and coating ma-
in addition to providing a platform for accom- terials, and materials for surface prepara-
plishing the ship'smission objectives,such as tion, are also used. These are all likely to be
carrying cargo or passengers. Additionally, purchased rather than manufactured by the
structural materials are required to support shipyard.
machinery and equipment. Ships are made The discussionof shipbuilding materials
primarily of metal. Various gtades of steel is intended to indicate major impacts of spe-
predominate, although aluminum is some- cifrcmaterials on shipbuilding processes. The
times used for superstructures of ships in major effect is in the area of hull materials.
which weight or stability is a critical factor. Consequently,discussionof the impact of spe-
Outfrt systems are required to perform a cific materials on outfitting and painting will
wide variety of functions, such as main ship be included within those subsectionsof this
propulsion,hotel services,andpumping. With- chapter dealing with the outfitting and paint-
in outfit, the major categoriesare machin- ing processes.This sectionwill concentrateon
ery, piping, I{VAC (heating, ventilation, and hull materials.
air-conditioning), electrical, accomrnodations,
deck fittings, cargo-handlingequipment,and 1.1.Structureof Metals
combat systemsfor naval ships. Many of the Metals exist in nature in chemical com-
componentsused in outfrt systems are pur- pounds. These compounds,or ores, must be
chasedfrom outside vendors and installed refrned to produce pure metals or combina-
by the shipbuilder. Included in this cate- tions of metals and other elements which
gory are main engines, generators,motors, possesspropertiesthat make them usableas
pumps, valves, winches, chocks,cleats, and structural materials. The refining and use of
105
106 SHIPPRODUCTION
"Fq##*
Fig.4-2.Dendriticcrystalgrowthschematic. Fig.4-3.Grainboundaries
of dendriticcrystals.
nuclei and act as seedsfor further solidifrca- differently from pure metals when solidify-
tion. Small solid impurities may provide the ing. They also have considerably different
starting points for the nuclei. mechanicalproperties,which affectstheir use.
Crystals grow by the joining of atoms to The major controlling variables are the com-
those already in the lattice structure. The position of the alloys,their temperature, and
growth proceedspreferentially in certain di- the mechanical or thermal treatments that
rections, since atoms can attach themselves may have been used in their manufacture.
to other atoms on some planes of the lattice Basic information concerning the equilib-
more readily than on other planes.Preferen- rium temperature and compositionof an al-
tial growth is perpendicularto the facesofthe loy can best be presentedin a phasediagram.
existing cube.The result ofthis preferential The phase diagram is a plot of temperature
growth is a treelike structure composedof versus composition of the alloy. Phase dia-
branches at right angles to one another (see grams are not theoreticallypredicted,but are
Figure 4-2). This type of crystal is called a rather the result oflaboratory investigation.
dendrite. As growth continues,the branches This experimentation involves a determina-
become larger and thicker and the spaces tion of the melting and freezing point for
betweenthe branchesare frlled by the solidi- various alloy compositions,or determination
fying liquid. Random orientation of the axes of a plot of the liquidus and solidus curves as
of different crystals results in the formation a function of composition.For any alloy, there
of many crystals. These crystals come into is one compositionthat will freeze(solidify)
mutual contact at grain boundaries, where at a lower temperature than any other alloy.
they are held together by atomic attractive This alloy with the lowest melting point is
forces(seeFigure 4-3). The processof solidi- called a eutectic.
fication, including crystal formation and Since steel is the primary metal alloy
grain growth, has a significant impact on the usedin hull construction,a detailedreview of
material's mechanicalproperties. its phase diagram will be presented. Pure
iron is a relatively weak and ductile metal
1.2. PhaseDiagramof Steel and is rarely used in structural applications.
Metal alloys are metals formed by the combi- The addition of small amounts of carbon(and
nation of two 0r more elements.They behave perhapsother elements)producessteel,with
108 SHIPPRODUCTION
3000
I I
I
\\- I| /
-sc \LIDUS:FR ,rr"o)
I
ts coMPt .ETE
ruErr \
AND
JSTENITE
r
t \
2079F
AUSTENITE
ut
(I
2000 v(r)
f
- z
1800 <.\
E.
t"lr AUSTENITEAND
0- tso- EUTECTIC
'\ 1670"F I
2tr
L! 1600 >u
- \ -
u
o
.,/urrrr,r,
o*o
CEMENTITE
1400 - FERRITE AND
I AUSTENITE E
1200
E,!;tr* o
FERRITE ts^
o l!
q F
0 ts:
1000 p
=RRITEAND o$r CEMENTITE AND CEMENTITE AND
PEARLITE ;'5 PEARLITE PEARLITE t!
o
800
o a?
a
N
600
,,20.0082.C
0 0 . 2 5 0 . 5 1 1 2
considerably more favorable mechanical melting point, contains 4.3 percent carbon
properties that have resulted in its becoming and melts aL 2075'F . This alloy is a cast iron
the most important engineering material. and is not used as a structural material in
Since carbon is the major alloying element, shipbuilding. Steel also undergoes phase
the iron/iron carbide phase diagram will be changes at temperatures below the lowest
considered(seeFigure 4-4). melting point. These changestake place in
Carbon up to 2.0 percent goesinto solid solid steel and have important implications
solution in iron. As is indicated in Figure 4-4, for its mechanicalproperties.
steelis iron with a possiblemaximum content Pure iron exists in three solid phases,
of2 percentcarbon.The solidificationofsteel including alpha iron from room temperature
takes place at temperatures between the li- to 1670'F,gammairon from 1670'Fto 2550"F,
quidus and solidus lines in Figure 4-4. The and deltairon from 2550"Fto the melting
eutectic alloy, i.e., the alloy with the lowest point of 2800'F. Alpha and delta iron are
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES 109
FERRITE
A
AUSTENITE (870'C)
AT 16OO"F AUSTENITEAND FERRITEJUST
BELOWUPPER ENDOF
TRANSFORMATION RANGE
AUSTENITE
PEARLITE
FERRITE
FERRITE
AUSTENITE
AND FERRITEJUST PEARLITE
AND FERRITE
ABOVELOWERTRANSFORMATION AT ROOMTEMPERATURE
RANGE
Fig. 4-5. Structural changes in0.40Vo carbon steel during slow cooling.
body-centered cubic crystals, while gamma bide is called cementite, and the mixture of
iron is face-centeredcubic.Solid steel,as it is ferrite and cementite is called pearlite. Pearl-
cooledfrom the solidustemperature,takes on ite is actually composedof alternating thin
one of three possiblephases:austenite, fer- plates of ferrite and cementite.
rite, or cementite.At high temperatures (see The solidifrcation processdepicted in Fig-
Figure 4-4), solid steel is austenitic, a solid ure 4-4 and described above occurs during
solution of carbon in gamma iron. As cooling slow cooling.The solid phasetransformations
continues in alloys of less than 0.8 percent are accompaniedby volume changes.Devia-
carbon, the solid solution forms crystals of tion from slow cooling produces changes in
alpha iron containing about 0.02 percent dis- grain size and grain growth. The mechanical
solved carbon.The remaining gamma iron be- properbiesofthe steel can be controlled and
comes enriched in carbon (up to 0.8 percent) altered by varying the cooling process.Rapid
and, upon cooling, transforms to a structure coolingofaustenite can result in the suppres-
made up of a mixture of alpha iron and iron sion of the equilibrium condition for the for-
carbide crystals (seeFigure 4-5). In steelsof mation of ferrite or cementite. The result
greater than 0.8 percent carbon, iron carbide can be described as a supersaturated solu-
crystals appear initially. The remaining gam- tion ofcarbon in ferrite. This solution is called
ma iron drops in carbon content (down to 0.8 martensite,the essentialconstituent of hard-
percent) and transforms to the mixture of ened steels.The presenceof other elements
alpha iron and iron carbide crystals. The al- in addition to carbon can also precipitate the
pha iron containing about 0.02 percent dis- formation of martensite in steel. A third mix-
solved carbon is called ferrite. the iron car- ture of ferrite and cementite (in addition to
110 SHIPPRODUCTION
pearlite and martensite) can be formed. This at the point at which plastic deformation
mixture, called bainite, has properties be- occurswith no increasein load. When such a
tween pearlite and martensite and is gener- point exists, it is called the yield point. Duc-
ally formed at cooling speedsbetween those tility is commonly given either by a percent
for pearlite and martensite. elongationor by a percent reduction in area.
Steels can generally be subdivided into Both the stress-straincurve and the two duc-
three types: pearlitic, martensitic, and austen- tility measures are determined from a stand-
itic. Pearlitic steels,or mild steels,have valu- ard tension test. This test involves applying
able properties and are generally easyto pro- a uniaxial load to a smoothspecimenin order
duce. handle. and weld. Martensitic steels to produceextensiveplastic flow and eventu-
are producedby processesthat include quen- ally a ductile shear mode fracture. As their
ching and generally tempering. They may name indicates,the high-strength steels(with
alsohave additional alloying elements.These a microstmcture of martensite and bainite)
steels are the higher-strength steels,having have higher yield strength and better ductil-
mechanicalproperties that are superior to the ity characteristicsthan the mild steels(made
pearlitic steels.Welding processes,however, up of ferrite and pearlite).
are more complicatedfor martensitic steelsin
order to prevent deterioration of these prop- 1.3.3.Notch Toughness.Inaddition to failure
erties. A third general class of steels, the following plastic flow, steel is susceptibleto
austenitic steels,are made by including rela- brittle fracture, which is preceded by no
tively large amounts of alloying elements, readily apparent plastic flow. Brittle frac-
such as nickel and manganese.These steels, tures alsocommonlypropagate athigh speeds.
which include stainless steels,have valuable Sometotally weldedsteel ships sufferedse-
corrosion-resistance properties,but alsorequire rious brittle-fracture failures during World
specialwelding procedures. War II, and an extensivebody of research
into this phenomenonwas subsequently de-
1.3. Propertiesof Steel veloped.Brittle fractures can be caused by
several factors, including temperature, strain
The great value ofsteel as a structural metal
rate, and state of stress (notch and size ef-
is based on certain properties.These can be
fects).Sincelow temperatures are associated
consideredin four categories:
with brittle fracture, the other factors are ac-
. strength and ductility countedfor using a transition temperature ap-
o fracture toughness proach. This approachis based on determina-
. fatigue strength tion of an equivalent temperature at which
. corrosionresistance the ftacture mechanism changesfrom ductile
to brittle.
Thesepropertiesare controlledby the compo- Brittle fracture or notch toughness char-
sition and production processesofthe steels, acteristics are determined using the Charpy
and may affect their welding and handling V-notch test. This test involves the applica-
requirements. tion of a bending load to a test specimenthat
has a V-notch in it. The Charpy V-notch im-
1.3.2. Strengthand Ductility.The strength of a pact value, usually expressedin foot-pounds,
metal is commonlyreportedin a stress-strain is the load required to fracture the test
curye, such as the one shown in Figure 4-6. specimen.
The yield strength is measuredat somearbi- An alternate technique for brittle frac-
trary amount of permanent plastic strain, or ture or notch toughnessanalysis is common-
PROCESSES
AND CONSTRUCTION
METALMANUFACTURING 111
UNIFORM NECKING
ELONGATION ELONGATION
(UPPER)
Y I E L DP O I N T
0
G
F
a
OFFSET
FBACTURE
YIELD
STBENGTH
STRENGTH
S T R A I N . . I N C H E SP E R I N C H
100
80
_ 6 0
a
Y
b 4 0
ut
U)
U
(!
F
a z v
'- B: -1 1f rc-cir',llEEssror.r
FNsroN TO EOUAL
C Y C L E ST O F A I L U R EN
,
Table4-1. Requirements
for ordinary-strength
hullstructural
steel
Grades D E DS CS
Deoxidation Any method Any method Fully killed Fully killed Fully killed Fully killed
except rimmed except fine-grain fine-grain frne-grain fine-grarn
steel for plates rimmed steel practice2 practice practice practice
over 12.5 mm (See43.3.2d) (See43.3.2d) (See43.3.2d) (See43.3.2d)
(0.5 in.)
Chemical For all grades exclusive ofGrade A shapes and bars the carbon content +1/6 ofthe manganese content is not
Composition t o e x c e e d 0 . 4 0 V a . T h eu p p e r l i m i t o f m a n g a n e s e m a y b e e x c e e d e d u p t o a m a x i m u m o f 1 . 6 5 V ap r o v i d e d t h i s
(Ladle Analysis) condition is satisfied.
Tensile Test
Tensile strength For all Grades:41-50 kglrnm2(58,000-71,000psi); for Grade A shapes41-56 kg/mm2(58,000-80,000psi).
For cold flanging quality: 39-46 kg/mm2(55,000-65,000psi)
Yield Point, min. For all Gradesl.24kg/mm2(34,000psi); for Grade A over 25.0 mm (1.0 in.) in thickness23 kg/mm2
(32,000psi). For cold flanging quality: 2l kg/mm2(30,000psi)
Elongation,min. For all Grades:2lVoin 200 mm (8 in.) (See43.3.4dand 43.3.4e)or 24Vorn 50 mm (2 in.) (for specimen,see
Figure 43.2)or 22Voin 5.65 \F (A equalscross-sectionalarea of test specimen).For cold flanging quality
23Vomin. in 200 mm (8 in.)
Impact Test
Charpy V-Notch
Temperature 0"c (32'F) -10'c (14'F) -40'C (-40"F)
Over 25 mm
( 1 . 0i n . )
Energy avg. min.
Longitudinal Specimens 2.8 kg-m 2.8 kg-m 2.8 kg-m
(20 ftlbs) (20 ftlbs) (20 ft-Ibs)
Transverse Specimens 2.0 kg-m 2.0 kg-m 2.0 kg-m
(14 ftlbs) (14 ft-lbs) (14 ft-lbs)
No. of Specimens 3 from each 3 from each 3 from each
50 tons 50 tons3 plate
Heat Treatment Normalized Normalized Normalized
over 35 mm
(1.375in.) thicka
AB AB AB5 AB AB AB
Marking
A B D D DS CS
Notes
1. A maximum carbon content of 0.26Vais acceptablefor Grade 3. Impact tests are not required for normalized Grade D steel
A plates equal to or less than 12.5 mm (0.5 in.) and all when furnished fully killed fine grain practice.
thicknesses of Grade A shapes. 4. Llontrol rolling of Orade D steel may be specially considered
2. Grade D may be furnished semikilled in thickness up to 35 as a substitute for normalizing in which caseimpact tests
mm (1.375in.) provided steel above25.0 mm (1.00 in.) in are required for each 25 tons of material in the heat.
thickness is normalized. In this case the requirements 5. Grade D hull steel which is normalized or controlled rolled
relative to minimum Si & Al contents and frne srain prac- in accordancewith Note 4 is to be stamped ffi
tice do not apply.
114 S H I PP R o D U c T I o N
Table4-2. Requirements
for higher-strength
hull structuralsteel
Carbon,Vo 0.18max.
Manganese, %2 0.90-1.60
Phosphorus, 7o 0.04 max.
Sulphur, 7o 0.04 max.
Silicon, %3 0.10-0.50
Nickel, % 0.40 max.
Chromium, To 0.25max.
Molybdenum, % 0.08max.
These elements need not be reported on the
Copper, To 0.35 max.
mill sheet unless intentionally added.
Columbium,9. 0.05max.
(Niobium)
Vanadium, To 0.10max.
Tensile Test
Tensile Strength 48-60 kg/mmz;68,000-85,000psi 50-63 kg/mm2;71,000-90,000psi
Yield Point. min. 32kg/mm2;45,500psi 36 kg/mm2;51,000psi
Elongation, min. F o r A l l G r a d e s : I 9 V c i n 2 0 0 m m ( 8 i n . ) o r 2 2 V o i n 5m
0 m ( 2 i n . ) ( f o r s p e c i m e n i n F i g u r 4e 3 . 2 ) o r 2 0 7 c
in 5.65 !A (A equalsarea of test specimen).
Impact Test
Charpy V-Notch
Temperature None -20'c (-4'F) -40'c (-40'F) None -20"c (-4.F) -40'c (-40.F)
Required Required
Energy, avg. min.
Longitudinal Specimens 3.5 kg-m 3.5 kg-m 3.5 kg-m 3.5 kg-m
or (25 ft-lb)6 (25 ft-lb) (25 ft-1b)6 (25 ft-lb)
Transverse Specimens 2.4kg-m 2.4kgm 2.4kgm 2.4k4-m
(17 ft-lb)6 (17 ft-]b) (17 ft-tb)6 ( 17 ft-lb)
No. of Specimens 3 from each 3 from each 3 from each 3 from each
40 tons plate 40 tons plate
Notes
1. The numbers following the Grade designation indicate Unless otherwise specially approved, Grade AH over 12.5
the yield point to which the steel is ordered and produced mm (0.50 in.) is to be killed with 0.10 to 0.50 percent Silicon.
in kglmmz. A yield point of 32 kg/mm2 is equivalent to Grades DH and EH are to contain at least one ofthe grain
45,500 psi and a yield point of 36 kg/mm2 is equivalent to refining elements in suffrcient amount to meet the frne
51,000 psi. grain practice requirement. (See 43.5.2d).
2. Grade AH 12.5 mm (0.50 in.) and under in thickness may o - Impact tests are not required for normalized Grade DH.
have a minimum manganese content of 0.7}Vo. 7 . The marking AB/DHN is to be used to denote Grade DH
3. Grade AII to 12.5 mm (0.50 in.) inclusive maybe semi-killed plates which have either been normalized or control rolled
in which case the 0.107o minimum Silicon does not apply. in accordance with an approved procedure.
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1 16 SHIPPRODUCTION
sium, silicon, and/or zinc. These alloys offer must be consideredand controlled.The major
good strength, corrosionresistance,and weld- problems in welding aluminum are weld po-
ability. rosity, shrinkage, and distortion as a result
Like steel,welding is the commonmeans ofhigh heat conductivity, and loss ofstrength
ofjoining aluminum parts. Weldingof alumi- in the heat-affected zone. Careful control of
num is quite common in shipyards but, as the welding processis required to minimize
with high-strength steels,a number offactors these problems.[5]
2. MetalProcesses
A large part of the production work per- ter rolls produces several bends; other rolls
formed at a shipyard involves the handling, gradually straighten the plate. The greater
straightening, cutting, forming, and joining the distortion ofthe plates, and the less their
of steel plates and steel structural sections. thickness, the greater the number of passes
Most structural shipbuilding therefore in- that are required.
volvesthe related processesofcutting, shap- Plates that are in a hogging condition
ing, and welding steel. For commercialship- (more commonly found in thin plates or sheet
building, steel processesare subject to review metal) require additional attention because
and approval by regulatory bodies (USCG) hogging causesa springing effect. This makes
and./orclassificationsocieties(ABS). In U.S. straightening more difficult, and roll straight-
practice, most oversight is performed by ABS, eners must therefore have a large number of
operating under a memorandum of under- rolls (up to 17 for sheet metal), with one pair
standing with the USCG. The ABS Rules for acting as clamps.Figure 4-9 is a diagram show-
Building and Classing Steel Vessels[2] con-
tains a section on the required procedures
and practices of welding for hull construction
and outfitting. Similar standards and require-
ments have beenestablishedby the U.S. Navy
for naval ship construction.
2.2.Cutting
Steel and aluminum generally come to a
shipyard in standard sizeplates or structural
shapes.Prior to its use in shipbuilding, much
of this material must be cut to required
sizes and shapes.The cutting of metals in a
shipyard is done by mechanical or thermal
processes.
2.2.1. MechanicalCutting.Mechanicalcutting
primarily involves two types of machines:
shearsfor heavier, structural steel,and saws
for lighter metal, e.g., sheet metal. These
mechanical devices are being used less for Fig.4-11.Bandsawfor sheetmetalcutting(cour-
heavier cutting work, having been replaced tesyClausingStartrite).
by thermal cutting equipment. Heavy-duty
shears (see Figure 4-10), sometimes called if the radius of curvature is small or if the
guillotines, may still be useful for cutting edgesare ofirregular shape.
smaller shapesor improvingwork flow. Sheet One of the advantagesof mechanicalcut-
metal is commonly cut in shops,often using ting is that there is little distortion causedby
band saws (seeFigure 4-11). the cut. As a result, mechanical cutting is
Plates with straight edgesare cut using often specifredwhere dimensionalcontrol can
guillotine shears(or press shears).Plates with be affected by the heat distortion that occurs
curved edgesare cut with press shearsif the in a thermal cut; an example would be the
radius of curvature is large, or with disk shears cutting of thin materials.
118 SHIPPRODUCTION
2.2.2. ThermalCutting.There are four types powderinto the cutting stream.Titanium can
of thermal cutting: oxygen (or gas) cutting, be cut, but the oxidizedcut surfacesmust be
plasma arc cutting, air carbon arc cutting removedbeforewelding.
(sometimescalled air-arc gouging),and laser Manual oxygencutting is common,and a
beam cutting. These processesprovide low- worker can be trained in a short time to make
cost,precisioncuts ofhigh quality in a variety satisfactorycuts. However,considerableskill
of metals. The applicability of these cutting is necessaryto produce a cut that might be
processesto shipbuilding metals is summa- suitable for welding. Finally, the capital invest-
rized in Table 4-4. ment in cutting equipment is modest. Even
heaq'-duty, manual equipment is available
Table 4-4. Applicabilityof cutting for lessthan $500(1991dollars).t61
processes
to materials
(To be usedonly as a very generalguide) Equipment for mechanizedequipment is
more expensive,and the skills required
Air to use this equipment are dependenton
. Plasma : Carbon Laser
Matenal I Oxygen I Arc Arc Beam design and application. Relatively little
i Cutting Cutting Cutting Cutting
training is needed to produce good
Carbon straight cuts since all of the operation
steel Yes Yes Yes Yes
Stainless
conditions can be preset using tabulated
Special
steel Treatment Yes Yes Yes data. Considerableskill is necessaryto
Cast iron Special produceshapecuts with multiple torches
Treatment Yes Yes Yes
because of the complexity of the equip-
Aluminum Yes Yes Yes
ment. Equipment costswill vary depend-
Titanium ] Special i
i Tieatment Yes Yes Yes ent on the nature ofthe drive and control
Copper y*"
-
Yes
i
Yes systems,the sizes of the plates to be
R"lr;.,)
Refrlc l I cut, and the number oftorches. . . A coor-
-"t1o
[ dinateddrive systemwith optical track-
Source: Welding Handbooft, Eighth Edition.
ing for shape cutting will cost abour
Oxygen(gas)cutting usesa flame to rap- $20,000( 1991dollars).IT]
idly oxidize (burn) the metal to form a liquid A computer-controlledsystemwith digital con-
oxide, which is then blown away by the ki- trol would cost considerablymore.
netic energy of the gas stream. It can be
manual or automatic and both types are com-
monly used in shipyards.Acetyleneand pro-
pane are the most commonfuels used for gas
cutting. The equipmentfor gascutting is sim-
ilar to that used for gas welding, except a
burning torch is used (see Figure 4-I2) in-
stead of a welding torch. Oxygen cutting is
almost always selectedto cut mild steel plates
up to 12inches(300mm) thick. Alloy steelsare
more diffrcult, and the quality of the cut in
such steelsdependson the alloy formulations
that exist in the material. Stainlesssteelscan-
not be easilycut, but a poorquality separation Fig. 4-72. Burning torch (courtesy Ingalls Ship-
can be made by introducing a flux or iron-rich building).
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES 119
Plasma arc cutting is the other predomi- as carbon and ceramics. High-power lasers
nant thermal cutting technique.It is an effi- have these advantages:[8]
cient processthat provides excellent quality
cuts and may also be used for edgeprepara- . The ability to cut any metal and
tion. Plasma arc cutting seversthe metal by many nonmetals regardlessof
melting a localizedarea with a constricted hardness.
arc and blowing away the molten metal . Narrower kerf and heat-affected
with a high-velocityjet of ionized gas. The zonethan those producedby other
principle is identical to plasma arc welding, thermal cutting processes.
and the torch is similar. Plasma arc cutting . High cutting speeds.
is often done with the workpiece over or im- . Ready adaptability to computer-
mersed in a water bath, to limit problems controlled contour cutting.
associatedwith noise.smoke.and the molten
metal. The major disadvantageof laser beam cut-
The plasma arc cutting processis versa- ting is the relatively high capital cost ofequip-
tile. AII metals can be cut, and mild steel can ment. This factor, coupled with the rapid
be severedfaster if the material is less than decreasein cutting speed as thickness in-
314inch thick (approximately).On the nega- creases,limits the cost effectivenessto Il2
tive side, more metal is removed because inch (13 mm).
the kerfs are wider and, in thick plates, the One of the major automatic thermal cut-
kerfs are smoothbut slightly beveled.The pro- ting operationsis the cutting of flat plate into
cessproduceslarge amountsofoxidesofnitro- parts for later assembly. There are two main
gen and is much noisier than the oxygen cut- processlanes for this activity: One is per-
tingprocess.Finally, the processis a consum- formed by a "flame profiler" and is the cutting
er of electricity, and this can make it more cost- of the plate into complicatedinternal parts,
ly if electricalenergyis priced at a premium. (e.g.,innerbottomfloorsand deepwebs).This
The air carbon arc cutting processuses machineis capableofcuttingin any direction.
an arc to melt metal which is removed by a The secondprocessis performedby a "flame
high-velocityjet of compressedair. The depth planer"; this machine can only cut in two
and contour of the groove are controlled by directions:one straight ahead and the other
the electrode angle, travel speed, and cur- at a perpendicular angle. This machine is
rent. Groovesup to 5/8 inch (16 mm) deepcan used to perform edgepreparation on the flat
be made in a single pass. In severing opera- plate (e.g.,deckplatesand side shell plates).
tions, the electrodeis held at a steeperangle Profile cutters or flame planers generally
and is directed at a point that will permit the use one ofthe two cutting processes:oxygen
tip of the electrodeto pierce the metal being gas or plasma arc cutting (seeFigures 4-13
divided. This processis noisy and expensive and 4-14).
and is thus used only for specializedopera- The machinesare automatically control-
tions, Iike removing weld defects,or severing led, using one of numerous possiblesystems,
excessmetal from castings. including direct computer control, control by
In laser beam cutting the sourceofheat numerical tapes, and optical control. Such
is a concentratedcoherentlight beam.A com- numerical control (N/C) cutting machines
bination of melting and evaporationprovides are used to cut individual plates, to cut mir-
the mechanism for removing material from ror imagessimultaneously,to make required
the kerf. Laser beam cutting can cut all met- edge preparations, and to mark plates to
als and certain nonmetallic materials, such establish stiffener, bulkhead, waterline,
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
Fig. 4-13. Profiie cutter (courtesy Ingalls Ship- Fig. 4-14. Flame planer
building).
Fig. 4-15(a).Rolls used for shell plate curving Fig. 4-15(b).Rollsusedfor formingroundcompo-
(courtesyTodd Pacific Shipyards, Los Angeles nents(courtesyIngallsShipbuilding).
Division).
section, and other required locations. (See to provide cylindrical or conical curvature in
Chapter VI for more detailed information shell plate. They also may be used to roll
about N/C controls, lofting, and interfaces full circles for building round components
using CAD/CAM.) suchas masts and booms(seeFigure 4-15).
Rolls fitted with accessoriesare also used
2.3. Forming to make flanged plate. Pressesare used to
Shipbuilding involves applying considerable bend,straighten, and flange plate (seeFigure
curvature to steel plate and structural mem- 4-16). They are also the primary machines
bers. As in cutting, forming can be accom- used to form compoundcurvature in plates.
plished using mechanical or thermal tech- Compoundcurvesare made using specialdie
niques. sets or can be made by knuckling. Knuckling
is the processof making many slight bendsin
2.3.1. Mechanical Forming. The primary me- a seriesby repositioning the part after each
chanical forming machines are rolls, presses, bend until the desired shapeis achieved.Gen-
and shape benders. All these machines are erally, press brakes are used for shell plate
hydraulically operated and commonly work work (seeFigure 4-17),while gap pressesare
with the steel cold. Rolls are primarily used used for smaller cut parts (seeFigure 4-18).
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES 121
i , l l
Structural shapes such as angles, tees, and deformation, just as if mechanical forces were
I-beams can be bent mechanically using applied. Herein lies the principle of thermal
frame bendersor beam benders(seeFigure forming or line heating. [9] Thermal forming
4-19).The frame bender is used for larger may also be called flame bending.
bends or heavier sections,while the beam When one side of a plate is heated along
benderforms smaller sectionsor makesslight a line, it will bend upon cooling to form a slight
bends. knuckle along the line. When the heated areas
are cooled with water as the heat source
2.3.2. ThermalForming(Line Heating).The fact progresses, the bending effect is more evi-
that stress is inducedin a steel plate when dent. The curvature achieved is the same as
it is subjected to nonuniform heating is well if the plate were worked slightly with a press,
known. When such stressesare controlled it except that some shrinkage occurs (see Fig-
is possibleto produce strain, i.e., permanent ure 4-20).Suchheatingcanbe appliedin all
122 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
Fig.4-23(a) Fis.a-23(b)
Fig.4-23(c) Fig.a-23(d)
Fig.a-23(e) Fig.a-23(f)
Fig. 4-23. Typical line heating operations.(a) Bending plate (courtesyAvondale Shipyard). (b) Finishing
plate using sight line templates(courtesyAvondaleShipyard).(c)Forming extremecurvature for a bulbous
bow (courtesyLockheedShipbuilding).(d) Using adjustablesight line templates.(e) producing secondary
curvature in a plate that had previouslybeen line heated.(0 Use of dogsand wedgesin conjunctionwith
line heating.
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES 125
FUSED ZONE
PROCESS PROFILE
FLUX,SHIELDED --o-
A R CW E L D I N G
GAS,SHIELDED
A R CW E L D I N G
N O R M A LC U R R E N T --o-
Fis..4-24. Butt weld. H I G HC U R R E N T -____<--)_
V
L O WC U R F E N T -*O-
H I G HC U R R E N T
-T-
ELECTRONBEAM
AND LASER
DEFOCUSEDBEAM ---o-
FOCUSEDBEAI\,4 --------{-'+
\|,
Fig. 4-25. Fillet weld.
U
Fig. 4-27. Typical penetrations for various welding
processes.
FUSION
BOUNDARY
ZONE
FUSION
F I L L E RP A S S E S
rates, cooling rates, and weld pool size. In ness, as grain size increases.A high heat
general, the higher the heat input rate the input rate will tend to producecoarsergrain
lower the coolingrate and the larger the weld structures. Consequently,a heat input rate
pool size. There is an inverse relationship that gives an optimum combination of grain
betweencoolingrate and weld pool size.This size and coolingrate is sought.
is an important relationship in the welding of
steel, since higher coolingrates increasethe 2.4.3. Shielding.While the temperatures in
risk of hydrogen-inducedcracking of a weld. the weld pool are substantially above the
Heat input rate also directly affects gr:ain melting point, the drop at the tip of a fusion
size in the weld and the heat-affectedzone. welding electrode may reach the boiling
Grains in the solidifying weld metal and in point. At these temperatures, reaction with
the solid metal at the weld pool boundary oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere is
grow coherently.Therefore,coarsergrain struc- extremely rapid. Should oxygenand nitrogen
tures will result from longer times spent above becometrapped within the weld metal, em-
the grain-coarseningtemperature of the steel brittlement of the weld will occur.To protect
being welded.Pearlitic steelssuffer a deterio- against this degradationof the weld quality,
ration of properties,particularly notch tough- shielding from the atmosphere is required.
126 SHIPPRoDUcTIoN
I
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES 127
of selectedfusionweldingprocesses
Table4-5. Characteristics
Arc Allenating or Slag ad sell All enginsire 1 mm upwards All lields ol ngrnssing
dtrd cuiienl generare gas merars atu
E drde Fsirve alloys excepl
or n4atve pufe Cu pGcrous
m6tats tow-
meftng arc
Arc Allemaling or Slag and sell Carbn. low 1 mm upwads Downhand or hoizontal
dnd curenr automatc Arc marntained generard gas alloy atu hqh (bul geneGlly vsdil joinls suilable tor
In vity o{ mohen flux alloy slesls over l0 mm) aolomalic woldrng Boile.s
iormd fom granuh maleilal CoWr alloys p.essure vessels studural
srel hon2onlal pinls In
sloa! tanks
Arc Allernaling Msual or aulomatic arc ftgon.Hlium Allereineeri4 1 mm lo doul Non ferous and alloy sreel
(GTA) weldinq currniwilh ma'nlaind b&een non or Argon/Helium melds expl 6 mm weldiru In all eernesnry
sl$ilizalion consumde luruslen mrxlures Zn ad Be atu nlds Boot pass in piF
lor alumin!m lhi alloys weos
magnesium ad
dred cuiienl
eledrd nqalve
lor other melals
Arc 0tr9c1 cu(enl Flux rs enclosd ln lutular Slag atu gas. Catun sleel 1 mm upwards Shet mela wldrru.
electde psitive electde ol small dameler gerera ererneerq
Aulomatc of sm! aulomatc
Wre id contnuously thrcugh a
gun wilh o. withoul a gas shield
(noffially Co,
Arc Dtrtrl cuiienl tu tuve but In shon 1 mm upwards shet metal. .ool pass rn
arc (GMA) eldrode psove cncu[rE mela tanster Aeodcq prF wldire. Fsfiona
Coz weErre
Arc Dned cuiienl, As lor gas lungslen arc Usually up lo Normally iow.curenl
eledrde nsrve excepl lhal arc torms In a tuut 1 5 mm applition where gas
lungslen arc lads sliflnss
plasma rs ejecld thmugh Also usd al highsr curenls
amzzle mprovdsliffness in keyblre md tor r@l
atu less pwer variaron
Manual Metal me[d by Gas (CO, H,. Catun s1el Sheel melal Sh@l melai weldire, small
flame ad filler wne ld CO,. H,O) cowf duminlm, and dF uplo diamelsr piF
2!nc and lad
Bronz weldiQ
Slud{Sw) Arc Dkd cuilenl, $llgenerald C&n low Slud diamelers Shrpbuilding railway and
ddrde nqanve aulomanc Arcdrawn gas + Gnrc alloy atu high. uP lo &ul aulomotve rdusties
lo. stsl, psitiv ben tp oi stud ad terule arcund alloy slsl 25 mm Prssu@ vesssls (lor anachire
lor nonietrous work untl mellino oeurs weld zone Alumrnum. insulalion), turnace lubs and
art sbd hn pressd on Nrdel ad gonral orernnre
lo suda@ Web qde cwr alloys
rqurc
ituividud study
Electosiag Eesshn@ Alle.naling or Aulomatc. Jornl sei up Slag Catun. low 50 mm upward Weldie thck sclions lor
Webire (ESw) halire ol dkecl cutrenl vedrdly. weld rcl ad alloy and high pss liames, p.essure vossels
liqurd s14 slag @daind by waler alloy slel shaffs, etc Foudry ad
c@ld sh@s Fillsr wre sl@Moils rylrtons.
ld rnto de pl ad Gsnoralereinedre
meltd by fesrstane
Chemil None A minure ol melal otde None Sleel, austenitic Nomdly up lo Wldrre rads, mmr
atu aluminum is nild, CNi nsl, 100 mm condudorc lo ad olhef
lormiru a@lol suFileald corr, copFr ad lo sleel
liquid meral, whrch hen flows
Into ad tuses Sh h pint
Edron Fam Electon Dtrecl curienl Aulomatc wldiru Vacuum All melals excepl Nuclea ad aerospae
(EBVO bam 1r2m kV. Fwe. dd oul in vacuum (10: mm Hg) where exessrvo 25 mm nomally IndustDs Wddiry ad
geneally n farye &am ol sledrcns emifled g* ovoluion ador
1i2 l0 kW Wodpise by lhde locusd on 100mm compnnls such as gears
@sitive prnl No mtal fansler
128 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
Each ofthese processes and their application joint. The surface of the workpiece melts to
in shipbuilding will be discussedin the fol- form a molten puddle with frller material
lowingsections.[5,10,11] usedto fill gapsor grooves.The molten metal,
including filler metal, solidifies as the torch
2.5.1. Gas Welding.Gaswelding employsheat progressesalong the workpiece (see Figure
generated by the burning of a gas fuel and 4-29). The apparatus required for oxyacety-
generally usesa filler rod for the metal depos- lenegaswelding includesa welding torch and
ited. The most commonfuel is acetylene,used tip, oxygen and acetylenehoses,regulators,
in combination with oxygen (oxyacetylenegas and cylinders(seeFigure 4-30).
welding).A hand-heldtorch directs the flame Gas welding is comparatively slow and
to the workpiecewhile simultaneouslymelt- not suitable for use with automatic or semi-
ing filler metal which is deposited on the automaticequipment.Consequently, it is rare-
DIRECTION
OF TRAVEL
I N N E RC O R E
WELDING
TORCHTIP
ACETYLENEFEATHER
F I L L E RR O D MOLTENWELDMETAL
SOLIDIFIED
WELDMETAL
,r*^x WORKING
PRESSURE
GAUGE PRESSURE
CYLINDER
GAUGE
OXYGENREGULATOR
M I X I N GC H A M B E F I
ACETYLENE OXYGEN
NEEDLEVALVE NEEDLEVALVE
OXYGENHOSE
ACETYLENE
REGULATOR
CYLINDER
PRESSURE
ACETYLENE
HOSE GAUGE
TWIN
HOSE
ly usedfor normal productionweldingin ship- rarely use electric resistance welding except
yards. The equipment is small and portable for electroslag process(see Section 2.5.4.).
and it can be useful for welding thin plate (up
to about 1/4 inch, or 7 mm), as well as for 2.5.3. Electric Arc Welding. In electric arc weld-
small-diameterpipe,IIVAC trunks (sheetme- ing a circuit is created between the workpiece
tal), electriccableways,and for brazingor sold- and an electrode or wire. When the electrode
ering. Identical or similar equipmentis usedfor or wire is held a short distance away from the
cutting and forming or distortion removal, as workpiece, a high-temperature arc is created.
discussedin Sections2.2.2.3. and 2.7. This arc generates su{ficient heat to melt the
edges of the workpiece and the tip of the
2.5.2.ElectricResistanceWelding.Electric re- electrode or wire to produce a fusion welding
sistance welding fuses metal with the heat system. There are a number of electric arc
generatedby the resistanceofthe workpiece welding processes suitable for use in ship-
to an electric current in a circuit of which building. All require the shielding of the
the workpieceis a part. Electric resistance weld area from the atmosphere. They may
welding requires that the weld area be un- be generally subdivided into flux-shielded
der pressure while the welding is taking and gas-shielded processes(see Figure 4-3'rt.
place. Pressure is applied by mechanical, Flux-shielded electric arc welding proc-
hydraulic, or pneumaticsystems.Due to the esses are distinguished primarily by their
complexityof this welding process,resistance manual or automatic nature and the type of
welding operationsmust be automatic. Cur- electrode used. The manual process, shielded
rent is generatedby an electrodein contact metal arc welding (SMAW), uses a consum-
with the workpiece. The welder's primary able electrode or welding rod held in a holder
tasks are to set the machine, including cur- and fed to the workpiece by the welder (see
rent, pressure,and travel speed,and to load Figure 4-32). The electrode metal is sur-
and unload the work. The major application rounded by flux which melts as welding pro-
of resistance welding is to mass production gresses, covering the deposited molten metal
systems, since setup and adjustment are with slag and enveloping the immediate area
time-consumingand consistent conditions in an atmosphere of protective gas (see Fig-
need to be maintained. Therefore,shipyards ure 4-33). Numerous electrodes are available.
I
INERTGAS FLUX
SHIELDED SHIELDED
processes.
I'ig.4-31.Electricarcwelding
130 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
as classifredby the American Welding Soci- Manual shieldedmetal arc welding may
ety (AWS) [11] and the American Societyfor be used for downhand, horizontal, vertical,
Testing and Materials (ASTM). The choiceof and overhead welding (see Figure 4-34). It
electrodeis basedon the specifrcsof the weld- may also be semiautomatic through the use
ing, i.e., the required compositionand prop- of a gravity welding machine. This machine
erties of the deposited weld metal. The usesthe weight of the electrodeand holder to
position of the welding may also affect the producetravel along the workpiece.The an-
choice of electrode.The flexibility of this gle of the electrodeto the workpiece can be
processmakes it one of the most popular in adjusted to alter the amount of metal depos-
shipbuilding. ited (see Figure 4-35). Fully automatic
shieldedmetal arc welding is also employed,
using a continuously fed electrodemounted
on a moving carriage (seeFigure 4-36).Con-
tinuous frllet welds on both sidesof stiffeners
can be obtained using this type of automatic
equipment. The electrodeis normally a flux
coredwire. Additional COz shielding may be
usedto improve the weld quality. Theseauto-
matic processesare fast and efficient and
particularly useful in shipyard panel lines.
Submergedarc welding(SAW) is another
flux-shielded electric arc welding process
used in many shipyards. In this process,a
Fig.4-32. Manual shieldedmetal arc welding. blanket ofgranulated flux is depositedon the
PROTECTIVE
GAS FROM D I R .O F T R A V E L
ELECTRODECOATING
MOLTENWELDMETAL E L E C T R O DW
E IRE
ELECTRODE
COATING
SOLIDIFIED ARC
WELDMETAL
M E T A LD R O P L E T S
BASEMETAL
DOWNHAND
ELECTRODE
workpiece, followed by a consumable wire thermally insulated molten shield for the
electrode.The arc, submergedin the blanket weld zone (seeFigures 4-37 and 4-38). High
of flux, melts the flux to producea protective, heat concentration permits heavy weld de-
posits at relatively high speeds.After weld-
ing, the molten metal is protectedby a layer
of fused flux, which is subsequentlyremoved
and may be recovered.Backing bars may be
used, and the processmay employ single- or
multiple-passwelding. Submergedarc weld-
ing must be performeddownhand and is ide-
ally suited to butt welding plates together.
Stud welding is a form of electric arc
welding in which the stud itself is the elec-
trode. A stud welding gun holds the stud
while the arc is formed and the plate and stud
Fig. 4-35. Gravity welding machine (courtesyTotal end becomemolten. The gun then forcesthe
Tlansportation Systems). stud against the plate and the stud is welded
W I R ES P I R A L
PROVIDING
ELECTRIC
CONTACT LONGITUDINAL
C O R EW I R E ELECTRODE
FEEDROLLS
FLUX
COATING W E L D I N GC U R R E N T
SHELLPLATE
WELDING
ELECTRODE
SOLIDIFIED ACOR DC
WELDING ELECTRODE-
WELDING COMPOSITION
coi/4PosrTroN D I R E C T I OO
NF W E L D O R " F L U XT" U B E
H
GROUND V E EI F R E O U I R E D
W E L DB A C K I N G
IFREOUIRED
PLATEMETAL
W O R KP I E C E
WELDMETAL
to the plate. Shielding is obtainedby the use provide filler material. Unlike most other
of a ceramicferrule surrounding the stud (see electric arc welding processes,the arc does
Figure 4-39). Stud welding is a semiauto- not transfer the filler metal, but simply melts
matic processcommonlyusedin shipbuilding it, resulting in a cleaner weld. GTA welding
to facilitate installation of nonmetallic mate- is most often employedin shipyardsfor weld-
rials, such as insulation, to steel surfaces. ing aluminum, sheetmetal, and small diame-
The secondmajor categoryof electric arc ter pipesand tubes,or to depositthe frrst pass
welding is the gas-shieldedprocesses.These on a multipass weld in larger pipe.
processesuse bare electrodeswith an exter- A related welding processis called gas
nally supplied gas shield, employing either metal arc (GMA) welding or metal inert gas
inert, active, or a combination of inert and
active gases.The first processofthis type is
gas tungsten arc (GTA) welding or tungsten
inert gas(TIG) welding (seeFigure 4-40).The
arc is generatedbetween the workpiece and
a tungsten electrodewhich is not consumed.
An inert gas, usually argon or helium, pro-
vides the shielding. Often the welding torch
is provided with a water cooling system. In
most cases a filler rod is externally fed to
Fig. 4-38(a). Submerged arc welding, semiauto- Fig. 4-38(b).Submergedarc welding, automatic
matic. equipment (courtesy Total Transportation Sys-
tems).
STUD
I STUD
STUD MOVEMENT MOVEMENT
i
FERRULE
['is.4-39.
St"d*"ldi"e'.
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES 133
DIRECTION
OF TRAVEL
SHIELDING -------.-------
GAS
WELDING
TORCH
MOLTENWELD TUNGSTEN
METAL ELECTRODE
ARC
SOLIDIFIED
WELDMETAL FILLER
ROD
BASEMETAL
--_--,_-> DtRECTtON
OFTRAVEL
NOZZLE
ELECTRODE
(MIG) welding (seeFigure 4-41).GMA weld- welding. Aside from the use of the orifice to
ing usesa consumableelectrodeand inert gas acceleratethe gas, plasma metal inert gas
shielding. Generally, a wire spool provides welding is identical to GTA welding, using a
the electrode, with argon or helium being nonconsumabletungsten electrode and an
used as the shielding gas. It was found that inert gas shield. Plasma arc welding is gen-
for rvelding steel, COz could be used as the erally manual and has had minimal use in
shielding gas to replace the more expensive shipbuilding.
argon or helium. Often, a combination of the
gasesis used to optimize cost and weld qual- 2.5.4. Other Welding Processes.Five addi-
ity. GMA welding is generally an automatic tional types of welding may be used in ship-
or semiautomaticprocess. yards. Theseare electroslag,electrogas,ther-
The last of the inert gas welding proc- mit, laser, and electron beam welding. Elec-
essesis plasma arc welding (seeFigure 4-42), troslag welding transfers heat through mol-
sometimescalled the plasma metal inert gas ten slag, which melts the workpieceand the
process.The plasma is an ionized stream of filler metal (see Figure 4-43). Although the
gas that carries the arc. It is generated by equipment used is similar to that used for
constricting the arc to pass through a small electricarc welding,the slag is maintained in
orifice in the torch. Plasma metal inert gas a molten state by its resistance to current
welding results in a more concentrated,high- passingbetweenthe electrodeand the work-
temperature arc and thus permits faster piece,and thus it is a form of electric resis-
134 SHIPPRODUCTION
DIRECTIONOF TRAVEL
-
W I R EG U I D EN O Z Z L E
ARC
Coz
WATER-COOLED
C O P P E RS H O E
OF]IFACETO
CONSTRICl ARC
FILLER
S H I E L D I N GG A S ROD
SOLIDIFIED L i BASE
MET
AL
METAL Ef:-\:Il:.L_
r r rr F T. . . i r . r r \
Fig. 4-44.Electrogas
welding.
MOLTEN
WELDMETAL
2.7. DistortionRemoval
Even where the best-known techniques are
employedto avoid distortion causedby heat R E DH O T - F O RE X T R E M D
E I S T O R T I O NASC; C O M P A N I EBDY
GR P R E S S I N (GB L A C K S M I T H I N G ) .
H A M M E R I NO
processes,enoughdistortion often remains to
adversely affect the efficiencyof subsequent Fig. 4-45. Classification of fairing methods.
assemblywork. Thus, for productivity reasons,
line heating can be applied for fairing after impact on the strength characteristicsof ma-
gas cutting parbs,subassembly,and block as- terials. However,someshrinkage is inherent
sembly. In each such manufacturing level, in line heating, and the processcannot be
line heating for removing distortion is a regu- applied to all fairing problems. Other fair-
lar work processequivalent to marking, cut- ing methods,such as spot heating, triangle
ting, frtting, or welding. Line heating is also heating, red-hotheating, and mechanicalbend-
applied for fairing after erection, but is re- ing may be employed.Basic classificationsof
quired in significantly lesser amounts than the various fairing methods are shown in Fis-
when not applied throughout the earlier man- ure 4-45.
ufacturing levels. Surrounding membersoften have an im-
Compared to conventional methods for pact on the effectivenessof fairing methods
fairing, properly applied line heating pro- for a distorted region. Prestressingwithjigs,
duces more accurate finishes and has less jacks, gravity, or other mechanical means,
136 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
Fig.a-46(c)
followed by line, triangle, or spot heating is permitted for many high-strength steels.
often effective.Extreme indentationsor creases Air cooling is effective for the latter and,
usually require red-hot heating and pressing regardless of materials, also for fairing the
or hammering (blacksmithing). surfaces of subassemblies,including blocks.
As for forming curved plates, water cool- Applications of some distortion-removal tech-
ing is effectivefor most fairing work but is not niquesare illustrated in Figures 4-46 and4-47.
3. OutfitProcesses
Outfrt includes all nonstructural parbs of a . accommodationsand hotel services
ship. Among these items are: . deck and cargospaceequipment
. weaponsand combat systemsfor naval
. main propulsion systemsand auxiliary
vessels
machinery
. pumps and piping systems Design of these systems is adequately de-
o heating, ventilation, and air-condition- scribedin the technicalliterature, in general
ing machinery and systems@VAC) in mechanicalengineeringand electrical en-
. electrical systems gineeringtexts, and for shipboardapplication
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES 137
Fig.4-47(a) Fig.4-47(b)
Fig. 4-47 . Distortion removal. (a) At a block butt joint. (b) At a hatch coaming. (c) At a bulkhead, using a
pine leafpattern. (d) At a deck, using a water ring surrounding a torch (courtesy Avondale Shipyard).
inches (50 mm) in diameter. Depending on ic flange frtting and welding machines are be-
the particular shipyard and the quantity and comingmore commonin shipyard pipe shops.
variety of pipe piecesmanufactured, further Certain operations require that material
subdivisionmay be warranted. in a localizedarea of pipe be upset or formed
Pipe cutting processescan be mechanical into a prescribedshape.Such operationsin-
or thermal. Mechanical cutting is performed clude the swaging of pipe ends to a larger
using stationary band saws or rotating ma- diameter, the similar operation of forming
chine tools (seeFigure 4-49).Semiautomated pipe reducers from short pipe sections,and
stationary abrasive cutoff saws may be used the extrusion of bossesdirectly on the pipe.
in some pipe shops. Portable or stationary Shipyards may swage the ends of copper-
propanetorch or plasma arc cutting are com- nickel pipe in order to minimize the use of
mon thermal processes(Figure 4-50). Ther- pipe couplings.One such processuses hand-
mal processesare generally used to make held mandrelsto swagethe endsofheater coil
contour cuts or hole cuts for fabricated sad- piping; the mandrel is simply struck with a
dles or branches.Often, numerically control- hammer to form the swageof the proper size.
led plasma arc machines are used for com- Thesesamedevicescan be used to make pipe
plex cutting and edgepreparation. reducers from short pipe sections,although
End preparation, when not performedas the more common method is to use a forming
part of a thermal cutting process,is done jig on a conventionallathe. The pipe-bending
using portable grinders, either manually or phase can be the most expensive phase of
semiautomatically,on tracked guides.Boring work in the pipe piece fabrication process.
mills or pipe lathes are alsousedfor mechani- Considerablecapital investment is required
cal end preparation. The pipe lathe is pre- to set up and use eventhe simplestof bending
ferred, sinceit can easily be adjusted to han- equipment. This fact has forced some ship-
dle straight pipe of almost anymaterial,length, yards to fabricate all but the smallest piping
and diameter. with purchasedelbows.
Pipe piece welding, including welding of The two basic processesof bending are
flanges and branchesor tees,is usually done cold bending and hot bending. Cold and hot
using submergedarc or gas metal arc (GMA) bending can be further subdivided into bend-
processes. Occasionally,gastungsten arc (GTA) ing with or without internal support. As wall
may be used for a root passfollowedby GMA, thickness and bend radius decreaserelative
especiallyfor larger-diameterpipe.Automat- to pipe diameter, internal support may be
Fig. 4-49.Pipe shopband saw (courtesyAvondale Fig. 4-50. Plasma arc pipe cutter (courtesy Avon-
Shipyard). dale Shipyard).
140 SHIPPRODUCTION
Fig. 4-52. Palletized pipe pieces(courtesyAvondale Fig. 4-53.Sheetmetal duct work (courtesyIngalls
Shipyard). Shipbuilding).
Fig.4-55.Pressbrakefor sheetmetalcuttingand
forming(courtesyFamco).
Fig. 4-54.Sheetmetalcutterwith numericalcon-
trol (courtesyIngallsShipbuilding). forming operations.Pressescommonly used
in a shipyard sheet metal shop are press
ing systemsfrom sheetmetal (seeFigure 4-53). brakes and turret presses.Press brakes can
Other system components,such as blowers, make bends in wide sheetswhen used with
compressors,heat exchangers,dampers,and dies, or cuts (called a shearing press) when
diffusers, are generally not manufactured in usedwith a long blade or knife on its ram (see
the shipyard. Sheet metal ducts are made Figure 4-55).Turret pressesare used to pierce
with riveted, welded, or hooked seams.Sec- sheet metal to make a variety of shapes of
tions are joined by attaching flanges. The holes(seeFigure 4-56).
major processesin the sheet metal shop are Installation involves welding, riveting,
therefore cutting (generally using saws, and bolting. Insulation is usually required
shears, or punch presses)shaping, welding, and is often installed along with the duct
and riveting. Some shipyards use numeri- work. Some I{VAC systems may use pipe,
cally controlled thermal cutting machines(see especiallyfor steam heating systems.In this
Figure 4-54).Sheetmetal-shaping processes case,the shipyard work would be performed
involve the use ofa variety ofpresses.Every by the pipe shop and pipefrtters.
presscontains a frame and bed, a ram or slide,
a drive for the ram, a power source, and a 3.4. Electrical
transmission.Numeroustoolsand dies are also Shipyard electricalwork in new construction
employed for accomplishing specific metal- primarily involves running cable, splicing ca-
142 SHIPPRODUCTION
describedpreviously.Naturally, closecoor-
dination of all these crafts is required for
productive shipbuilding. In essence,joiner
work includes what was formerly woodwork
on a steelship. Woodhas beenalmost entirely
replacedby fire-resistant materials for ship-
board application. These include plastics,
inorganic composition materials, and sheet
metal (steel, aluminum, and laminates).
Joiner work therefore involves the construc-
tion and installation of nonstructural bulk-
heads and doors, and other means for the
subdivision of living and working spaces
aboard ship. Additionally, accommodations
include the installation of furniture, equip-
Fig. 4-56.Turret press(courtesyThor). ment, and insulation found in these spaces
on-board ship. Work processesinclude cut-
ting, fitting, bolting, welding, and soldering
ble, and making connectionsto equipment.
and brazing, and are commonly manual in
Cable is generally run through cableways or
nature.
supportedby hangers.Additionally, the man-
ufacture and installation of switchboards,con-
3.6. DeckFittings
trol panels, circuit breakers, alarms, lights,
and other equipment forms a part of the Deck fittings are generally fabricated from
electrical outfit work. Since cableoften must steel, comprising parts manufactured in the
passthrough watertight bulkheads,installa- shipyard (suchas ladders,bulwarks, railings,
tion of cableway bulkhead penetrations is hawsepipes,and masts)and items purchased
another important aspectof this work. from vendors and installed by shipyard per-
Trends toward increasingshipboardsys- sonnel(suchas winches,windlasses,anchors
tem complexity and automation have result- and chain, and lights). Somecargo-handling
ed in the need for large and complicatedelec- equipment may also fall within this outfit
trical systems.Although the work processes category.In general,equipment requires foun-
are comparativelystraightforward, coordina- dations. Most deckfrttings are welded in place
tion of electrical installation within the ship- and, consequently,the predominant work pro-
building process is very important and is cessesinvolved are cutting and welding of
discussedin detail in Chapters III and VIl. steel pieces. Some bolting may also be in-
volved. Operational equipment requires the
3.5. Accommodations connectionof controls (electrical)and power
Accommodationsare all the spaceswhere supplies(electrical,hydraulic piping, etc.).
the crew and passengerslive and work. These
3.7. CombatSystems
are primarily located in the vessel'ssuper-
structure and/or deckhouseon commercial Combatsystemsaboardnaval vesselsconsist
vessels. Outfit work processesincluded of command and control spacesand equip-
within the general category of accommoda- ment, sensors,weapons, and aviation sup-
tions are called joiner work. They exclude port. Table 4-6 lists the major componentsof
piping, IIVAC, and electrical work processes weaponssystems.
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES 143
Table4-6.Weapons systems
components Combat systemsconsistprimarily of hydrau-
of combatant
ships lic and electronicequipment which is gener-
ally provided by the government. Much of
. Command and Control the installation is accomplishedby ship-
-Combat information center (CIC) yard personnel,frequently with the assis-
-External communications flag tance of representativesfrom the equipment
. Sensors manufacturer.
-Radar A significant portion of the work involves
-Sonar alignment and test. In the last decade,many
-Electronic warfare combatant program contracts have included
o Weapons provision for land-basedtest facilities. These
-Guns may be operated by the shipbuilder or sub-
-Missile launchers contractors and may or may not be located
-Torpedo launchers within the shipyard. Completecombat suites
-Small arms may be installed at the test site in the exact
-Directors configuration as the eventual shipboard in-
-Handling equipment stallation. After testing of primary and aux-
o Auiation iliary equipment, the complete package is
-Hangars disassembled,shippedto the yard, and rein-
-Maintenance spaces stalled aboard ship.
-Stores
4. Material-Handling
Processes
As describedin the preceding two sections, cranes and hoists, industrial vehicles, and
shipbuilding entails a large number of sepa- containers.
rate manufacturing and construction proc-
esses.Both raw materials and equipment are 4.1.1. Conveyors.Conveyors are commonly
deliveredto the shipyard.Various operations used to move materials in a frxed-path,con-
are performed on these materials, and they tinuous movement mode.Although common
are combinedto producethe frnishedproduct, for handling bulk materials, the main ship-
a ship. Inherent in this production processis yard applicationsof conveyorsare for moving
the need to move material during all stages material as part of assemblyline type produc-
ofconstruction,coveringa wide range ofsizes tion processes.These include surface prepa-
and weights, within shops, between shops ration and coating (see Figure 4-57), steel
and storage areas, and to and onto the erec- beam lines (seeFigure 4-58), and pipe shop
tion site. This section will consider general systems(seeFigure 4-59).Shipyard conveyor
categories of material-handling equipment systemsare predominantly roller type equip-
applicableto shipyardsand then considerap- ment and move heavy materials from work
plications of specificequipment to manufac- station to work station generally within a
turing and constmctionprocesses. [13] single shop. Steel plate, structural sections,
and pipe may be movedon conveyorsystems
4.1. Material-Handling
Equipment
to perform initial surface preparation and
Material-handling equipment can be subdi- coating prior to movement to cutting and
vided into four general categories:conveyors, forming work stations. Conveyorsas part of
144 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
beam lines generally operate in a semiauto- mally floor mounted and wide enough to han-
matic mode, providing flexibility to move dle the widest panel to be manufactured on
plate, structural sections, and panel assem- the line. Work stations can include N/C burn-
blies to desired work stations. They are nor- ing and marking, plate butt welding, stiffener
fitting and welding, and web fitting and weld-
ing. Conveyors provide similar advantages in
semiautomated pipe shops, serving work sta-
tions such as saw cutting, plasma arc cutting,
end preparation, contour cutting, hole cut-
ting, flange welding, pipe piece assembly,
bending, and weld testing. Conveyors facili-
tate the establishment of well-organized sta-
tions and superior material flow with much
less dependence on overhead cranes. They
also aid automation, including computer con-
trol, and can improve work flow. They may
Fig. 4-57. Conveyor used at surface preparation require additional shop floor space, although
and coating work station (courtesy Avondale the overall improvement of work flow can
Shipyard). compensate for this requirement.
F'ig. 4-60. Top-running bridge crane (courtesy Fig. 4-61. Under-running bridge crane (courtesy
National Steel and Shipbuilding.t. Acco Industries ).
Fig.4-62. Magnetic clamp for crane steelhandhng Fig. 4-63. Gantry crane (courtesy Ingalls Ship-
(courtesyIngalls Shipbuilding). building).
be effectively operated in two directions at running bridge cranes and are normally cab-
once (lifting and moving lengthways, moving in controlled.
lengthways and sideways, etc.). Pendant Jib cranes, like gantry cranes, are self-
hand-controlled bridge cranes are generally supporting and run on railways. They com-
restricted to moves in one direction at a time. monly are the revolving type to permit out-
Bridge cranes can be fitted with numerous reach over open work areas, including erec-
extra lifting and moving capabilities. For ex- tion sites and storage areas (see Figure 4-64).
ample, turning capabilities can be added by They normally have a counterbalance weight
mounting the lifting trolley on a turntable. and a pivoting, projecting arm with one or
Plate and structural section handling in more pick point locations. Their lifting ca-
shipyards is commonly performed by mag- pacities are generally less than those oftop-
netic clamps or lifts (see Figure 4-62). Other running bridge cranes. They are cabin con-
special-purpose fittings are commonly avail- trolled. Common practice is to use two or
able. Gantry cranes are similar to bridge more revolvingjib cranes to make heavy lifts.
cranes, except that they are self-support- Numerous special jigs are available for facili-
ing and travel in railways on the ground tating such multiple crane lifts. Hammer-
(see Figure 4-63). They commonly have lift- head cranes are similar to jib cranes (see
ing capacities and spans equivalent to top- Figure 4-65). They are revolving, counterbal-
146 SHIPPRODUCTION
Fig. 4-66.Mobilecrane(courtesyNationalSteel
and Shipbuilding).
"tIlI:,, ttlllf
tions with permanent staging platforms that work structures can be equipped with re-
can be used repeatedly for building similar quired tools and servicesfor the work proc-
blocks, subassemblies,or outfit units. These essesto be carried out.
5. SurfacePreparation
andCoating
The marine environment is hard on nearly all is established,with the anode the negative
elementsof a ship. The problemsof corrosion pole, the cathode the positive pole, and the
and deterioration are continual and are the circuit completed by the water and a solid
result of operationsin the saltwater environ- connectionbetweenanodeand cathode.posi-
ment, coupledwith the carriage of corrosive tively chargedatomsof metal leavethe anode
substances(such as fuel oil and chemicals), and enter the water. Their corresponding
galvanic action, biologicalfouling, and abra- negative charges flow through the water to
sive action.[14,15]Table 4-7 presentsthe the cathodewhere they react with negatively
factors present in the marine environment chargedions in the electrolyte.Wasting of the
that cause corrosionand deterioration, sub- metal occurs only at the anode. Commonly,
divided into chemical, physical, and biologi- the productsof the cathodicreaction migrate
cal categories. through the solution and combine with the
The driving force in the corrosionof met- products of the anodic reaction to form the
als is the consequenceof their transient ex- compoundsthat are the visible results of cor-
istence in the metallic form. In the natural rosion. For iron, the anodic processyields
state, metals occur in chemical compounds ferrous ions and electrons.The cathodicproc-
called ores.Energy is required to releasethe ess produceshydrogen atoms and hydroxyl
metals from these compounds.This energy, ions, resulting from the combination of hy-
which can be consideredto be stored in the drogen ions in the electrolytic solution (sea-
metal, is releasedupon corrosion,which re- water) and the electronsreleasedat the anode.
turns the metal to its natural state. Iron, for Ferrous ions at the anode combine with hy-
example,is commonlyfound in nature as hem- droxyl ions from the cathodeto form ferrous
atite, an oxide of iron. Rust, the most common hydroxide,which becomesrust.
product of the corrosion of iron, contains the Of primary concernhere are the implica-
same iron oxide plus water molecules. tions of these problems for the shipbuilding
The energy difference between metals process.In general, this implies the need to
and their ores can be expressedin electrical prepare and coat nearly all surfaces with
terms, related to the heats of formation of appropriate paint or other materials. The pro-
the compoundsthat make up the ores. The cessesinvolved can be generally divided into
relative amount of energy is reflectedby the surfacepreparation, priming, and coating.
location of a metal in the electromotiveseries
(see Table 4-8). Corrosion can take any of 5.1. SurfacePreoaration
several forms, but most marine corrosionin- A ship structure could be considereda com-
volves someaspectof electrochemicalaction. posite of a basematerial for strength, a coat-
Electricity flows from one metal or area of a ing for protection (or appearance),and an
metal to another, conductedby water. The interface betweenthe two for adhesion.To a
portion of the metal that corrodesis calledan considerableextent, it is the nature of this
anode and the portion of the metal from interfacethat determinesthe effectivenessof
which the current returns to the corroding the composite.It is estimated that at least
metal is calledthe cathode.An electriccircuit one-half to two-thirds of the funds expended
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES 151
Usinglronas reference,thefollowing
trendsaretypical:
1. Oxygenis a majorfactorin promoting
corrosion.
2. Thetendency to formprotective
scale(carbonatetype) withhigherpH.
increases
velocity
3. Increasing tendsto promotecorrosion.
4. Temperatureincreasetendsto accelerateattack.
5. Pressuremayaffectcorrosion.
canreduceattack,or promote
6. Biofouling localcorrosion
cells.
tervals, at least once each eight-hour shift. Simplificationsand refinementson earlier ma-
Often, a depletionlevel of one-third is usedas chineshave made porbablecentrifugal blasters
a rrrle of thumb. More exact control of the economicallycompetitive with conventionalair
profile mix can be maintained by using screen blasting for many shipbuilding applications.
analysis to determine the range and mix of Hull bottom cleanersincorporating an up-
particle sizes. The desirable procedureis to blast design have been developedusing two
add new abrasiveas the fines are removedin wheelsthat will cleana swath approximately
the dust separator and thereby maintain a 4feet(I.2 m) wide (seeFigure 4-76).Centrifu-
reasonably consistentworking mix. Prior to gal deck cleanerscomein a variety of sizes.
blasting, oil, grease, and other similar con- Large, mobile, self-propelledunits which clean
taminants should be removedto prevent con- a 4-foot(1.2-m)path were first used on air-
tamination of the abrasive. craft carrier decksin 1975(Figure4-77).Com-
Centrifugal blast cleaning of steel, fol- mercial models of similar size, and smaller,
lowed by shop priming, prior to fabrication, more maneuverable,single-wheelunits which
has several advantages: clean a 2O-inch (50-cm) swath, are now in
routine selvice.
. defectsin the steel may becomeevident
after blasting 5.1.2.NozzleBlasting.In nozzleblasting, an
o layout for fabrication operationsis more abrasive jet propelled by high-pressure air
accurate impinges upon the steel surface.Originally,
. burning and cutting speedsare increased sand was the most common abrasive but,
. tool life is improved becauseof health problems(silicosis),coal or
. welds are of higher quality
o the need for removal of mill scaleafter
fabrication is eliminated, thus reducing
secondarysurfacepreparation require-
ments
In shipyards a priming systemis often put on
line with the blasting machine to coat the
blasted pieceswith a shop primer which pro-
tects the steel from rust during fabrication.
In some shipyards, enclosedfacilities have
been provided for centrifugal blast cleaning
oflarge ship sectionsup to grand blocks (see
Figure 4-75). Fig. 4-75. Blast cleaningfacility.
Portable centrifugal blast machines,first
developedin the 1960s,have recentlybecome
a commercialcommodity.Even now, "airless
centrifugal blasting" generally denotesa large
blasting cabinet or room to which the work-
piece must be transported. Environmental
concernsand regulations prompted the de-
velopment of portable units. Shipyards,in fact,
were the first large consumersof these devices
becausethe large flat areas of ships were
conduciveto using this style of equipment. Fig. 4-76. Hull bottom cleaner.
154 SHIPPRODUCTION
t-.
Fig. 4-77. Self-propelled
deckcleaningunit.
5.1.3. Power and Hand Tool Cleaning.Hand methods.Someof the commontools are wire
tool cleaning consistsof removing loosemill brushes, scrapers, chisels, knives, chipping
scale,rust, and paint by brushing, sanding, hammers, and, in some instances,emery or
scraping,chipping, or a combinationof these sandpaper.
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES 155
156 SHIPPRODUCTION
RP I H
R P D
H
K DK
1 t 1 1 1
Deck SP
lI ll <n p> l r
r \ 2 /
TK TKr | |
SP
1+ m r l
Tank I
tz tz tz I ,
ou)
i (,5,)
SP 1-2
Numbers:
number e.g.i!' means2 or 3 coatsof antFfoulant.
of coats:
2-3
6. QualityAssurance
6.2. OutfitProcessQualityAssurance
Most outfit processquality assuranceinvolves
system and system component testing. In
general,following completionof the construc-
tion and installation of eachship system,it is
tested to assure that it satisfies design re-
quirements. This includes machinery, elec-
trical, piping, HVAC, and deck systems,and
Fig. 4-83. Piping unit hydrostatic test before
combat systemsfor naval ships. The specific erection.
testing requirements are contained in regu-
latory body or classification society rules or approachis particularly applicablewhere sys-
may be a part of the shipbuilding contract. tems or subsystemsare assembledon-unit or
Some system or subsystem testing may be on-block and can therefore be tested before
conductedprior to erection on the ship. This erection(seeFigure 4-83).
7. TestandTrials
Dock trials, builder's trials, and sea trials 6. Four-hour economyrun at normal
are the normal media for conductingtests on power ahead.
major or shipwide systems for merchant 7. One-hourwater rate test.
vessels.Dock trials are used to test major 8. One-hourboiler overloadtest.
outfrt systemsprior to completionof the ship. 9. TWo-hourendurancerun at maximum
Builder's trials are often conductedby the power ahead.
shipyard to locate and solve problemsbefore Perform turning circles.
the offrcial sea trials are held. The sea trials Perform Z maneuver.
involve testing of the vesseland its systems Perform ahead steering test,
underway. For naval ship construction,a sim- rudder hard over to hard over.
ilar series of trials is conducted. These are Crash stop t'o full power astern;
called builders' trials, acceptancetrials, un- measurereach.
derway trials, and final contract trials. The 10. One-hourendurancerun at full
specific items to be tested during sea trials power astern.
are generally included in the shipbuilding Perform astern steering test,
contract. The following is a typical list of sea mdder hard over to hard over.
trial activities. [5] Crash stop to maximum power
ahead;measurereach.
1. Depart shipyard. 11. Two-hour run at a desiredlower
2. Ballast to trial draft. power ahead.
3. Adjust magnetic compasses. 12. Anchor test.
4. Adjust radio direction finder. 13. Deballast.
5. Standardization runs. 14. Return to shipyard.
160 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
8. VesselDeliveryCertificates
The following is a list of the cerbificatesgen- U. S. Public Health Service
erally provided to the owner upon delivery of 16. Deratization exemptioncertificate
a merchant ship.[5] 17. Certifrcateof sanitary construction
References
1. Stout, R.D. and W.D. Doty, Weldability of 10. Lancaster,J.F., Metallurgy of Welding,
Steels,Welding ResearchCouncil,New GeorgeAllen & Unwin, London, 1980.
York, 1978. 11. Phillips, A.L., WeldingHan d,book,American
2. American Bureau of Shipping,Rules for Welding Society,New York.
Building and ClassingS/eel Vessels,New 12. Harringt on,R., M arirrc E ngineering, Society
York, 1978. of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers,
3. Masubuchi,K., Materials for OceanEngineer- New York, 1971.
lnal,M.I.T. Press,Cambridge,Mass.,1970. 13. Oser, G., "Material Handling Equipment and
4. "HSLA SteelsEnter the Fleet," NauyDo- SystemDesign-Lecture Notes,"University
mestic TechnologyTransfer Fact Sheet,Yol. of Washington,Seattle,June 1983.
9, No. 1, January 1984. 14. LaQue, F.L., Marine CorrosionCausesand
5. D'Arcangelo,E., Ship Design and Construc- Preuention,John Wiley & Sons,New York,
tion, Society of Naval Architects and Marine r975.
Engineers,New York, 1969. 15. Fink, F.W. and W.K. Boyd, The Corrosion
6. Welding TechnologyHandbook,Vol. I, 8th of Metals In Marine Enuironmenfs,Defense
ed.American Welding Society,1991,p. 28. Metals Information Center. Columbus.
7 . O p . c i t . ,p . 2 9 . Ohio, 1970.
8. rbid. 16. Peart, J.W. and G. Soltz,A Descriptiue
9. Chirillo, L.D., R.D. Chirillo and S. Nakanishi, Oueruiewof JapaneseShipbuilding Sur-
Line H eating, National Shipbuilding face Preparation and Coating Methods,
Research Program, Maritime Administra- National Shipbuilding ResearchProgram,
tion in cooperationwith Todd Pacific Maritime Administration in cooperationwith
Shipyards Corporation,November 1982. Avondale Shipyards,Inc., September1982.
CHAPTER V
SHIPYARD LAYOUT
1. Historical
Perspective
Chapter IV addressedshipbuilding manufac- three periods as first-, second-,and third-
turing and constrrrctionprocesses.The link- generation is presented by McNeill.tll A
ing ofthese processesinto a production sys- fourth-generation shipyard can be specified
tem is addressedin this chapter.The physical based on the developmentof group technol-
plant and production flow are emphasized, ogy and its applicationto shipbuilding. These
but with some consideration given to labor fourbh-generationshipyards were developed
costs.Organizational aspectsofthe total ship concurrently with third-generation yards.
production system will also be consideredin With this modification to the McNeill ship-
ChapterVII. yard classificationsystem,the various genera-
Through the 1970s, shipyard layout re- tions also reflect the production organization
spondedprimarily to advancesin technology classificationsystem presentedby Marsh.[2]
and to requirementsfor new types and larger Figure 5-1 providesa comparisonbetweenpro-
sizesof ships. Changesin the layout of ship- duction organizations. Shipbuilding has seen
yards were, in most cases,piecemeal.Many the complete range of organizations listed.
yards are a century old and have been ex- Prior to the advent of welding, shipbuilding
tended and revisedwith little opportunity for was a crafborganization relying heavily on the
a complete redesign commensurate with a skills of workers and little basedon prior plan-
total systemsapproach. ning. Following the application of welding,
The history of shipyard layout can be most ships were built using the hull block
divided into three distinct periods: (1) prior construction method, involving the schedul-
to World War II, (2) World War II to 1960,and ing and routing of steelassembliesand blocks
(3) from 1960 to the present. The movement and the forward loading of work areas.Peri-
from the first to the secondperiod coincides ods of high-volume,series ship construction,
with the changeoverfrom riveting to welding including World War I, World War II, and the
in the late 1930s.The introduction of flow supertanker building stage,saw the develop-
line techniques was primarily responsible ment of mass production shipyards. These
for the movement from the secondperiod to yards had someautomation,continuousflow,
the third. Superimposedon the latter was the and relatively simple planning and schedul-
rapid growth in ship size after closure of the ing. Group technology shipbuilding, as de-
Suez Canal. The characterizationofshipyards scribedin this text, involvesestablishmentof
built or substantially altered during these frxed and well-defrnedworkstations to pro-
161
162 SHIPPRODUCTION
I N C R E A S I NrG
+
f>
DECREASING
INCREASING'_2 DECREASING.>
EXTENTOF L>
INCREASING
properties.
Fig. 5-1.Productionorganization
duce similar interim products and is a prod- outfitting piers. Outfitting, including instal-
uct type or group technology production or- lation of power plants and auxiliary machin-
ganization. The categorization of shipyard ery, was accomplished,for the most part,
layout will be presentedin terms of the pro- after launch. Riveting was the major process
duction organization classifrcationshown in employedfor joining steel plates and parts.
Figure 5-1. First-generation shipyards were character-
ized by a long, narrow layout, following along
d a rl l
1 . 1 .P r e - W o r lW the waterway, with comparatively little depth
This period correspondedto the job shop or back from the waterway (seeFigure 5-2). The
craft type organization. Shipyards charac- work was concentratedaround the shipway
teristically had limited storage and shop fa- and outfrt pier.
cilities and lift capacitiesin the five- to ten-
ton range. Most of the ship componentswere 1.2.WorldWar ll-1960
assembledon or immediately adjacentto the This period was characterizedby adoption of
shipway. Much of the planning was accom- prefabrication of weldments away from the
plished by highly skilled craftsmen as the shipwaysand developmentof more accurate,
ship was erected. Shop requirements were high-technology steel cutting and welding.
minimal and consistedof steel,pipe, and ma- The processproduction organization corre-
chine shops located near the shipways and sponds to the shipbuilding system of this
SHIPYARDLAYOUT 163
STEEL SHOPS
OUTFIT
SHOPS
PIER
OUTFIT
Fig. 5-2.First-generation
shipyardlayout.
period. Sections of the ship were built in Important changesduring this period in-
shopsand transported to the shipwayswhere cluded fewer shipways and more space de-
they were erected.Work areas were defined, voted to storage and shop facilities, as more
but with some flexibility, and more complex work was accomplishedaway from the erec-
schedulingand planning were required.Flex- tion site. Crane capacity was increased to
ibility and required skill level were lower, accommodatethe movement of larger weld-
relative to the job shop organization, and ments in the subassemblyand erectionareas.
accuracyrequirements were greater. The shipwaysbecameassemblyareas,rather
This period was ushered in by Henry than fabrication areas, as they were in frrst-
Kaiser during the SecondWorld War, at ship- generation shipyards. More accurate gas
yards in Portland, Oregon, and Richmond, cutting and high-capacity welding methods
California. Other yards, responding to the were developed.Lofting improvements were
high demand resulting from the war effort, achieved,employing 1/10th-scaleoptical sys-
adopted similar methods.However,with the tems. Outfrtting techniqueschangedvery lit-
dismantling of much of the U. S. shipbuilding tle, however, and outfrtting was still accom-
industry after the war, due to the gr:eatly plished almost entirely after launch.
decreased demand for ships, many of the Figure 5-3 shows a typical second-gen-
Kaiser advancesdisappearedin the United eration shipyard. Comparedto the frrst-gen-
States. Many of the management concepts eration layout, there is a shrinking of the
were adapted and more fully developedby length of the yard alongthe waterway, but an
the Japanese and European shipbuilding increase in depth back from the waterway.
industries, but along different lines. The dif- The number and size of fabrication shops
ferenceswill be discussedmore fully in sec- increasedsignificantly.
tion 1.3. The basic ideas were combined
with technologicaladvancesdevelopedmost- 1.3. 1960-Present
ly in Europe, and most Western European Shipbuilding in the 1960s and 1970s was
yards developed along the lines of process particularly influenced by specialized ship
organizations. types, larger ships, and a move to seriespro-
164 SHIPPRODUCTION
LAUNCHING
WAYS
STEELSTOCKYARD
6-rL*4,
\)t-"- 4^\
r. -'a \ f -
'o^ \
\\
1\
A
r
I
L
f'%";s"^,
P\EF
OUIF\I
Fig. 5-3.Second-generation
shipyardlayout.
duction. European and someU.S. shipbuild- . gas carriers (LNGILPG) which required
ers began to modify existing yards to accom- highly advancedwelding systemsand
modate this mass production type organi- insulation
zation. Work stations were clearly defrned
and frxed.High technologywas introducedin Shipyards specializedin one or more of these
steel fabrication and transport. Scheduling types of merchant ships in order to attempt
was complex, and planning was character- to gain a competitive edgein a specificship-
ized by forward loading of work stations. Flow building market. Series production of a lim-
of weldments and modules took on the ap- ited product line resulted in lower prices and
pearance of an assembly line process in decreasedbuilding times. Additionally, the
some yards, with the attendant loss of U.S. Navy adopted a policy of contracting
flexibility in product line and required quan- with a single yard for an entire class or the
tity. For efficient production, these yards bulk of a classof ships.For example,all 30 of
required a standardized product and high the Spruanceclass destroyers and 27 of the
throughputs. 46 FF-1052 class frigates were allocated to
two yards.
1.3.1. Ship Size, Typesof Ships,and Series A new shipyard, built to accommodate
Production.Some yards specializedin new the Spruance class destroyers (see Figures
types ofships, suchas: 5-4 and 5-5),is an exampleof a high-capacity
in-line process(ormass-production) yard. Work-
o bulk carriers stations are frxed and assembliesare moved
. oil, bulk, ore carriers (OBO) toward the water on a heavy-lift rail system.
. roll-on/roll-offships (RO/RO)with At eachstation, subassembliesare combined
complexramps, doors,hatches,and until, at the final station, calledthe integra-
elevators,and high freeboard tion area,the ship consistsof three modules.
. barge carriers Someoutfitthg (pre-outfitting)is accomplished
. cement and grain carriers equipped throughout the movementof modulestoward
withspeci
aliredunloading
systems thaintogrilion
eree.?he
Spruance
class
sAips,
SHIPYARDLAYOUT 165
ally with jib cranes positioned underneath. structed and used to mark steel plate prior
Thesejib craneswere often installed so that to hand burning. This system was first re-
they could reach beyondeither end ofthe dock. placed by l/l0th-scale drawings. The 1/10th-
Docks have been built in several vari- scaledrawings were used to directly guide a
ations, including: cutting machine head in burning right- and
left-hand full-scale parts simultaneously.
. intermediate dock gates which enable The cutting machine used a photosensitive
flooding ofpart ofthe docks cell that followed the contour of the 1/10th-
. canal docks with openings on both scaledrawings.
ends, also incorporating intermediate An alternative method was to photograph
gates the drawingsand producea Vl0Oth-scaleslide.
. multilevel docks with an upper level A full-scale image was then projected on the
which can be flooded by pumping in plate for marking. The l/1Oth-scale drawings
water and a lower level which is could be used to produce offsets and then
gravity flooded punch tapes for numerically controlled burn-
ing. However, most lofting is now accom-
Figure 5-7 shows the layout of a typical plished using computer systems. Fairing is
third-generation shipyard.[1] Note the ar- accomplishedusing computer programs in
rangement of building docks, cranes, and conjunction with on-screenrepresentations.
fabrication areas.Flow lane productiontech- Once faired, the frnal lines plan is prepared
niques were introduced in third-generation and a computer data base constructed,from
shipyards.The trend to less length and more which numerical control instructions are
depth, begun in the transition from first- to produced.The numerical control instructions
second-generation shipyards,continuedwith guide high-speed multiple plasma arc or
the third-generation yards. flame burning heads.
Modular construction and the induced Initial attempts at advanced outfitting
requirement for large prefabricated panels (as describedin Chapter III) were begun in
and shapes also gave rise to high-capacity third-generation shipyards, but without
panel lines and the developmentof semi- marked success.This can be attributed, in
automatic high-capacitywelding systems.In part, to a lack of understanding of the re-
the early 1960s stiffeners were usually at- quirements for the integration of planning,
tachedto plates by hand, and websinstalled scheduling, material control, accuracy con-
piece by piece.This processwas replaced trol, and production control. Large modules
by semiautomatic panel lines, where plates were often constructedlike small ships,using
were weldedtogetherin long panels,and stif- conventionalmethods.The modules were still
feners positioned and held in place by me- outfitted to a great extent after being closed
chanical means were welded by automatic up. The final module was then heavier and
machines.Egg-boxconstructionwas also used created additional erection problems, with-
in somepanel lines. out the benefrt ofeasy accessand downhand
Modular constructionalso required more outfitting.
accurateand higher-speedmarking and cut- An exampleof a complicationinduced by
ting systems.A major advancein the 1960s large modulesis the additional requirements
was in mold loft procedures.The traditional for staging for working on these modules.
mold loft was a large coveredlofb where sec- Somevery complexsolutionsto this problem
tions at each frame were drawn to full scale were introduced by shipbuilders in Europe,
on the floot. Wood templates were then con- Japan, atrd the United States.For ship prod-
SHIPYARDLAYOUT 167
lill
tLt
u
IT
--E
9
ffi,ru
UT
[]T
B U I L D I N GD O C K 11 . B L O C KB U F F E RA R E A
B U I L D I N GD O C K 1 2 .O U T F I T T I N G
S E R V I C EC E N T E R
TOOTGANTRYCRANE 1 3 .P I P ES H O P
5 O TJ I B C R A N E 14. FORE/AFTASSEMBLYSHOP
1 5 TJ I B C R A N E 1 5 .P A N E LA S S E M B L YS H O P
ASSEMBLYAREA 1 6 .B L O C KP A I N T I N GSHOP
ASSEMBLYAREA 1 7 .S U B A S S E M B LSYH O P
S'STRUCTURE/ENGINE ROOM 18.STEELSTOCKYARD
PRE-OUTFITTING SHOP 1 9 .H U L LP A R T SS H O P
U N I TA S S E M B L YS H O P 2 0 . S T E E LU N L O A D I N GPIER
PRE-OUTFITTING SHOP
shipyardlayout.
Fig. 5-7.Third-generation
168 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
uct lines that were stable, facility solutions quirements.Block sizeis optimized to accom-
were effective.Largejigs, capableofhandling modate zone outfitting and facilitate erec-
large modules of approximately the same size tion in order to maintain balancedwork flow.
and shape, were developed and employed. Whereas the processtype yard requires se-
High-cost, highly specializedcapital equip- ries production and massivethroughputs for
ment, like these specializedjigs, are charac- efficiency,the product-orientedyards realize
teristic of many third-generation shipyards the benefits of mass production for small num-
of this period. bers of similar ships and have the manage-
ment flexibility to effectively build a wide
1.3.3. Product-Oriented Shipyard Layouf.Third- variety ofship types and sizes.
generation shipyards attained a high degree Figure 5-8 is an exampleof a fourth-gen-
of mechanization at the cost of inflexibility eration shipyard. [3] The two building docks
in product size and throughput. When the (No. 1 and No. 3) are about 1,000feet (300m)
demand for ships, particularly supertankers long and 200 feet (60 m) wide. Both docksare
andbulk carriers,collapsedin the mid-1970s, servedby two 200-ton and two 80-ton capac-
many shipyards went into receivership or ity jib cranes and can accommodateships of
were nationalized. about 180,000dwt. At its peak the yard pro-
Thoseshipyards which did not follow the duced 12,000metric tons per month with an
trend toward heavier lift capacity and larger employeecomplementof4,000.An additional
modules, but improved their management approximately 3,500 subcontractor person-
by using the technologlrcurrently available, nel are dedicatedto production for this one
fared better. Theseare the fourth-generation shipyard. The product line includesbulk car-
shipyards, which incorporate the principles riers, product carriers, tankers, and contain-
ofgroup technologyand are characterizedby erships. The principles of the fourth-gener-
greater flexibility in planning and through- ation, product-orientedshipyard layout will
put requirements. Production is synchronized be discussedin detail in the remainder of
to minimize buffer storage and transport re- this chapter.
2. ShipyardFacilities
and Siting
With the exceptionof the Ingalls West Bank ronmental requirements, energy costs, and
Facility, there have been no completelynew the availability and costs of land must be
major shipyards built in the United States conducted.This analysisshouldalsoconsider
since the Second World War. Some major geographidurbanfactors, such as:
redesignshave been accomplishedand more
are likely. Several shipyards have begun long- o proximity to open sea and protection
range redesigns based on the application of from the sea
the principles of group technolory. When com- . highway, rail, and water transportation
plete, some of these yards will be laid out es- r availability of air transportation
sentially as new shipyards. e proximity of technical schoolsand
Regardlessof whether a proposedship- universities
yard is to be built from scratch or as a modi-
fication to an existing yard, certain factors Perhaps the most important internal aspect
should be considered.A thorough analysis of ofshipyard layout is to analyzethe yard as a
potential markets, market shares, vendor/ total system.Oncea target shipyard capacity
subcontractor
markets,labormarkets,envi- hasbeen
selected,
based
onthepreliminary
168 SHIPPRODUCTION
uct lines that were stable, facility solutions quirements.Block sizeis optimizedto accom-
were effective.Largejigs, capableofhandling modate zone outfitting and facilitate erec-
large modules of approximately the same size tion in order to maintain balancedwork flow.
and shape, were developedand employed. Whereas the processtype yard requires se-
High-cost, highly specializedcapital equip- ries production and massivethroughputs for
ment, like these specializedjigs, are charac- efficiency,the product-orientedyards realize
teristic of many third-generation shipyards the benefits of mass production for small num-
ofthis period. bers of similar ships and have the manage-
ment flexibility to effectively build a wide
1.3.3. Product-Oriented Shipyard Layouf.Third- variety of ship types and sizes.
generation shipyards attained a high degree Figure 5-8 is an exampleof a fourth-gen-
of mechanizationat the cost of inflexibility eration shipyard. [3] The two building docks
in product size and throughput. When the (No. 1 and No. 3) are about 1,000feet (300m)
demand for ships, particularly supertankers long and 200 feet (60 m) wide. Both docksare
and bulk carriers, collapsedin the mid-1970s, servedby two 200-ton and two 80-ton capac-
many shipyards went into receivership or ity jib cranes and can accommodateships of
were nationalized. about 180,000dwt. At its peak the yard pro-
Thoseshipyards which did not follow the duced 12,000metric tons per month with an
trend toward heavier lift capacity and larger employeecomplementof 4,000.An additional
modules, but improved their management approximately 3,500 subcontractor person-
by using the technologycurrently available, nel are dedicatedto production for this one
fared better. Theseare the fourth-generation shipyard. The product line includesbulk car-
shipyards, which incorporate the principles riers, product carriers, tankers, and contain-
ofgroup technologyand are characterizedby erships. The principles of the fourth-gener-
greater flexibility in planning and through- ation, product-orientedshipyard layout will
put requirements. Production is synchronized be discussedin detail in the remainder of
to minimize buffer storage and transport re- this chapter.
2. ShipyardFacilities
and Siting
With the exceptionof the Ingalls West Bank ronmental requirements, energy costs, and
Facility, there have been no completelynew the availability and costs of land must be
major shipyards built in the United States conducted.This analysisshould alsoconsider
since the Second World War. Some major geographic/urbanfactors,such as:
redesignshave been accomplishedand more
are likely. Several shipyards have begun long- r proximity to open sea and protection
range redesignsbased on the application of from the sea
the principles of group technolory. When com- . highway, rail, and water transportation
plete, some of these yards will be laid out es- o availability of air transportation
sentially as new shipyards. r proximity of technical schoolsand
Regardlessof whether a proposedship- universities
yard is to be built from scratch or as a modi-
fication to an existing yard, certain factors Perhaps the most important internal aspect
should be considered.A thorough analysis of ofshipyard layout is to analyzethe yard as a
potential markets, market shares, vendor/ total system.Oncea target shipyard capacity
subcontractor markets, labor markets, envi- hasbeenselected, on thepreliminary
based
SHIPYARDLAYOUT 169
STEELMAT'L
DELIVEFIY
vlv
i r-rur-r-
l \L.
FABRICATION
i sHoPJ
NO.6 BLOCK
NO. 5 ASSYSHOP ASSY STORAGE
u o .r l r u o, l * o . r i " o o YARD
YARD
"o"j ro" BAY BAY
j l
SUB-ASSEMBLY
F I N I S H E' ' D
O'*' I
FROM-_J
SUBcoNTRACTORS
I
N O .1
BUILDING DOCK <- _
BLOCKSTORAGE
A N DP F E . E R E C T I O N
MAINOFFICE
Fig. 5-8.Fourth-generation
shipyardlayout.
market analyses,each of the yard facilities . minimizing the number of lifts and
must be sized accordingly.Just as a major reducing the distancematerial and
goal of PWBS is to balance the processflow interim productsmust be transported
lanes,eachfacility in the yard shouldcontrib-
ute to a balanced flow of material and interim The following discussionof facilities layout
products.Goals of facility layout which must assumes group technology ship production
be consideredare: will be adopted.Therefore,examplesof prod-
uct-orientedshipyards will be used through-
. optimizing material and work-in-proc- out to demonstratecertain principles.Figure
essinventory, which implies minimiz- 5-8 is an example of an establishedproduct-
ing inventory subjectto someaccept- oriented shipyard. This yard has a new con-
able risk that a part or component struction and repair facility. It is located ad-
will not be available when needed jacent to a boiler works and diesel engine/
o minimizing buffer storage consistent foundry works. Repair and new construction
witha uniformflowthroughout
the areOperated
asseparnte
rlelrartmentn,
Both
yard the new constructionand ship repair depart-
170 SHIPPRODUCTION
-1-4-4/
-14/'1, j4..L
z1/'.7/
J4-/t
n
zu
tr
tr
tr
1 . M A I NE N T R A N C E 1 2 . P A N E LL I N E
2. MAINOFFICE 1 3 . W E BL I N E
3. STAFFPARKINGLOT 14. STEELSHOP
4. VISITORS'PARKINGLOT 1 5 . E N G I N ES H O P
5. TRAFFICCONTROL 1 6 . U N I TS H O P
6. BUILDINGDOCK 1 7 . P I P ES H O P
7. GANTRYCRANE 18. VARIOUSSHOPSAND STORES
8. STEELSTOCKYARD 19. TRANSPORTROADS
9. SHOTBLAST 20. PRE-OUTFITTING AREAS
1 0 . P A I N TC E L L 2 1 . O U T F I T T I NP
GI E R S
1 1 . C U T T I N GS H O P S 22. RESERVEMARSHALLING. ETC..AREAS
ments, along with the boiler works, are sup- ways for transporters and other vehicles,
plied by the panel line, which is also a sepa- such as forklifts, mobile cranes, and center
rate department. lift carriers. Personneltraffrc should be sepa-
rated from industrial traffic and provision
2.1. GeneralYard Layout made for personnel transport from parking
The guiding principle is logical material flow. areas located away from the industrial part
This is facilitated by allowing adequateroad- of the yard. The perimeter of the shipyard
SHIPYARDLAYOUT 171
should be reservedfor rail, barge, and truck shipyards was specialization.When the de-
delivery of raw materials and interim prod- mand for their highly specialized product
ucts that were built at other shipyard facili- collapsed,the lack of flexibility made switch-
ties or by subcontractors.Parking and admin- ing to other markets diffrcult. Repair and
istration buildings should also be located on overhaul provide a somewhat stable sourceof
the perimeter to avoid interference with ma- work for shipyards,and thus the capability of
terial delivery. performing this type of work can add to long-
Larson proposes a newbuilding yard, term profitability. Consequently, repair and
shown in Figure 5-9.t41This is an idealized overhaulcapabilitiesare likely to be included
fourbh-generationshipyard. Many of the prin- in the fourth-generationshipyard. Addition-
ciples are the same as for a product-oriented ally, diversification and the ability to adapt
shipyard. In the idealized newbuilding yard, to different product lines when the demand
shopsare placed around the building dock in for ships is slack is inherent in group technol-
a U shape,with pre-outfitting areasimmedi- ory shipbuilding. In its planning, one U.S.
ately adjacentto the building dock.This is an shipyard carries the philosophy of diversifi-
example of a basic difference in philosophy cation further. Its long-range plan calls for:
between the third-generation process type (1) subcontractingpipe and heavy steel con-
shipyard and a yard fully applying group struction for petrochemical,power plant, and
technology. In the former, pre-out{itting is other similar industries; and (2) other mari-
treated more as the exception, and special time construction,such as drilling rigs. [5J
provisions are made for it. In the latter, zone
outfrtting is the standard, and the total yard 2.2.BuildingPositions
layout is based on integrated hull block con- The traditional building positionfor ships are
struction, zoneoutfitting, and zonepainting. longitudinal sloped building ways or ship-
In the yard shown in Figure 5-8, approxi- ways (seeFigure 5-10).The vesselis built on
mately 50 percentof outfitting is on-unit and blocksand other supports.Just prior to laun-
another 30 percent on-block. Outfrtting on- ching, support is shifted to stationary ground
unit is accomplishedin the shops and on- ways and sliding ways positioned abovethe
block outfitting is integral to block assembly. ground ways. Additional temporary support-
Coveredblock assembly areas are located ad- ing structures, called cradles and poppets,
jacent to the erection area (assemblyyards are also installed. At launching, releasemech-
Nos. 2, 3, and 4). Typically, storagespacefor anisms are used,permitting the vesselto slide
60 percent of the blocks that composea ship
commonly built at a shipyard is required
closeto or around the building position.Proc-
ess lanes employing actual or virtual work
flow are used to organize the work at each
manufacturing level. Specifrc geographical
locations in the shipyard, including plat-
ens, shops,and other work areas,composethe
various processlanes. Processlanes will be
discussedin more detail later in this chapter.
For clarity, the proposednewbuilding yard
shown in Figure 5-9 doesnot include a repair
facility. One of the factors contributing to Fig. 5-10. Longitudinal-slopedbuilding ways
the failure of many modern third-generation (courtesyTacomaBoatbuilding).
172 SHIPPRODUCTION
down the ways into the water. Ships are com- of the dock independent of the remainder.
monly launched stern first on longitudinal These gates are positionedby crane and, as
shipways. Detailed arrangements and compu- the name implies, are dropped into slots in
tations are required to assure launches do the sidesand bottom ofthe dock.
not damagethe new vessel.The disadvantages Graving docks have many advantages.
of conventional sloped shipways, primarily in One, of course,is size,which is nearly unlim-
terms of aligning blocks, were discussedpre- ited. Another is the level building position.
viously. Alternatives include graving docks, However, they are subject to stringent envi-
side-launchshipways,or erectingthe ship on ronmental controls becauseof the extensive
land-level building ways and moving it to a earth removal required during construction
floating dry dock or ship lift for launch. ofthe dock and the danger ofwater pollution
Graving docksare permanent structures during its operation.They are alsoexpensive;
totally excavated from existing land or built cost is highly dependenton the local bottom
up by dredging and depositingmaterial (sand, composition.Additional disadvantagesare:
rock, and concrete)along the sides ofthe dock
area (seeFigure 5-11). End gates are either . during flooding, all material and
hinged or floating. The former are hinged at equipment must be removed
the bottom and usually have a buoyant cham- r moving material, equipment, and work-
ber at the top to facilitate opening and clos- ers in and out is significantly more
ing. When a ship is being launched,the dock expensivethan with land-level building
is flooded and the end gate is opened.The ways
buoyant chamber is also flooded,enabling it . the dock cannot be marketed indepen-
to sink to the bottom in the open position to dently of the shipyard, should demand
permit the vesselto float out of the dock.The decreaseor not meet expectations
floating or caissonend gate is buoyant.As the . docking and undocking are relatively
dockis floodedduring launching,the end gate slow, comparedto other systems
is disconnected,deballasted,and floated free,
permitting the vesselto depart from the dock. Side-launch systems are particularly well
The proceduresare reversedfor securingthe suited where conventional stern-launching
end gate prior to dewatering a graving dock. shipwayswould be very steepor where there
Guillotine gates are generally used for inter- is insufficient openwater for stern launching
mediate positions to permit flooding of part (seeFigure 5-12).Side-launchways have the
advantage of the ship's being level during
erection.As in longitudinal shipways,vessels
are built on blocks and the weight shifted to
gr:oundways and sliding ways just prior to
launch. The ground ways consist of a fixed
portion and a tilting portion, which permits
the vessel to tilt sideways and slide into
the water. Mechanicaltriggers are common-
ly used to begin a side launch.
Someyards use a system of building ships
on level ground and transporting them on
rails to a dry dock for launching. The same
Fig. 5-11. Graving dock (courtesyNational Steel dry dock can be used for docking after test
and Shipbuilding). and trials. Where the dock is parallel to the
SHIPYARDLAYOUT 173
Fig. 5-12. Side-launch ways (courtesy Avondale Fig. 5-13.Floating dry dock with removablewing
Shipyards). wall (courtesyIngalls Shipbuilding).
erection area, the landward wing wall is re- shipyards. The device, called a ship lift or
moved and the dock is supported by a gr"id synchrolift, is usedin conjunctionwith a trans-
adjacent to the pier while the ship is being fer systemwhich canmovethe ship to and from
movedonto it. The wing wall is then replaced a land-level work area servicedby jib cranes
and the dock moved away from land to clear (seeFigure 5-15).The lift itself is a vertical
the grid for launching. A system like this elevator.It consistsof a platform, on which a
(seeFigure 5-13)is employedat the shipyard cradle is mounted, and either chain or cable
shown in Figures 5-4 and 5-5. lifting deviceswhich raise or lower the plat-
A similar dry dock (or a launch pontoon, form vertically. Ship lifts are relatively new
as it is commonly called) could also be nosed and have in the past been used only for
into the pier, particularly in an area where smaller vessels.Ship lifts capableof launch-
space and currents are not limiting factors. ing large commercialships are a recentdevel-
This confrguration is shown in Figure 5-14. opment. A similar approach,with or without
As with the parallel launch pontoon,the end the transfer capability, is used for construc-
ofthe floating dry dock could be rested on an tion and launching of submarines(seeFigure
underwater sill or grid for stability while the 5-16a) and smaller vesselsbuilt entirely in
ship is moved on or off. One distinct advan- enclosedshops(seeFigure 5-16b).
tage ofa floating dry dock is that it is consid-
ered to be a ship by most port managersand
can operate outside the shipyard area. 2.3. MaterialHandllng
A similar concept but with a different The adoptionby many yards of heary-lift sur-
launch./dockingdevicehas beenusedby some face transporters representsa major change
174 SHIPPRODUCTION
in material-handling equipment over the past their low profile, transporters are well suited
two decades.This followed the introduction for the movement of completed blocks and
and growth in size of modules. Becauseof deckhousesto enclosedblast and paint facili-
ties. They are also used to move blocks be-
tween platen areas, where the blocks are
assembledand outfitted, to block storagear-
eas,located
closeto theerection
berths.
Large-capacity gantry cranes are com-
monly used to load outfrtted blocks into the
building berths. In addition to the use of
gantry cranes over building berths, gantry
and bridge cranes are used extensively in
steel stock areas,prefabrication and fabrica-
tion shops,and assemblyplatens.Steel stock
yards are normally served by a wide-span
gantry crane fitted with a magnetic fixture
Fig. 5-15.Synchrolift (courtesyTodd Pacific Ship-
yards, Los AngelesDivision). for moving the material to storage or to a
conveyorsystem.The conveyorsystemmoves
steel through the panel line. A blast and
primer system is usually incorporated into
the conveyor system. This conveyor system
will then deliver material to the feed rolls of
the primary cutting machines.The material
will then progress through the cutting,
forming, and subassemblyareas of the shop,
emerging from the building onto the panel
line or main assemblyplatens.
The yard shown in Figure 5-8 has a simi-
Fig.5-16(a) Iar arrangement ofgantry cranes and a con-
veyor feeding into the blast primer facility
and then into the parts fabrication shop.Gan-
try and bridge cranes, besidesbeing able to
move loads transversely as well as longitudi-
nally along a processline, are particularly
weII suited for coveredwork areas.The per-
centageof coveredarea for each production
stageat this yard is shown in Table 5-1. t3l A
high percentageofcoveredarea even in tem-
perate climatesis an apparent trend for mod-
ern shipyards,both in the United States and
F i g .5 - 1 6 ( b ) abroad.
Steelstorage 0
Partsfabrication 100
Assembly 65
Outfitting 35
Warehousing 65
Launchways 0
Totalexcludingsteel
storageand launchways 62
. NCLNE ilAFKIG
r METAI TAPE
. FAPFFTAPE
J
SHIPYARDLAYOUT 177
Manual&
semi- Butt Manual o
automalic
machine SlotHolo:Somi-auto
machine
Curysd Curusd NCGasCuttsr NC Marking-- NC Gas Cuttr o l. Bscauseoltw
Plates Plates manhours.
Semi-automatic ManualMalking-- Semi-automadline X
machino
Floor& Lono'l NC Gas Cutter NC Marking-- NC Gas Cutter o ln Jaoan.O andX are
Bhd wih sdie revsrs.
Butin U.S..NC
prepaftltron -- GasCutteris betterdue
Semi-automatic EPM-Mad<ing Semi-automachine X
machine --
Photo-Marking Semi-aulomachine toawlsardmanual
Manual.Marking-- SsmFautomachins cutting
& lessinveslnent
Smallpieces OpticalTracer o
which ars
usuallycut NCPlasma
out from
Cunsr Smallpiecosars put in botweonbio Dieces.
scrap Afterbig piecej are cut.Theyare ;anualy
NCGasCutter 0r automa0catry cut. o
Ssmi-ado --
Manual-Marking Somi-automachin X
machine
i pLrrE- I
i STAGING
i AREA'A' - - - iI
ilia
i STAGING
: I U
A'B'
t 4LE4'!' z>
2 t6
t l
:>
6e I 5(
3
FORCURVED
STORAGE PLATE
I
I
PLATE
STOMGEFORSHOP ROLLS
& PRESSES rtXT,t*n
STOMGEFORSUB.ASSEMBLY
1
oZ
bi
6?
AREAFOR
STAGING SUB.ASSEMBLY STIFFE\R& LOADOUT
o
=
E
F
f
o
a
=
6
PLATESTORAGE PLATEFITTING
& MARKING
& FITTING
STIFFENER WELDING
STIFFENER
ONESIDEWELDING FINALEDGECUTTING
=
Fig. 5-19. Typical layout ofa steel curved panel shop and panel line.
tioned. These are fitted together into lifting pads, anodes,stabbing guides,
egg-boxassembliesusing an arrange- etc., are installed and welded at this
ment of lugs and jigs ready for posi- point. Painting is also carried out
tioning onto the panels by crane. here and the finished block is then
. Stiffener Setting: The normal flow of transferred directly to a block storage
panels is a straight line through the area or to erection.A specialrepair
shop.Panels receivestiffeners which area could be incorporatedinto a prior
are set into place manually using a stage.The area designatedfor repair
crane as they proceeddown the may be recessedbelow the adjoining
conveyor. flooring to provide room for making
. Stiffener and Egg Bor: The stiffeners repairs from the underside ofthe
and egg-boxblock assembliesare panel. This eliminates the need to
welded using gravity or automatic turn the panel over.
methods.Figure 5-20 is an automated
stiffener welder used at a U.S. ship- There are many variations to the description
yard. Ifrequired, the block is turned provided above. Specifrc layouts and work
over at this stage and any remaining organization depend on the particulars of
welding is completed. the shipyard,includingmarkets, productmix,
. Repair: Welding checksare made at existing equipment, worker skill, and other
the exit end of the shop,and any final factors. The general principles, however,are
repairs are performed here. In addition, similar. Figures 5-21 and 5-22 show sche-
outfrtting work such as pipes,ladders, matics and photographsof two different panel
and grating, as well as scaffoldbrackets, lines.
1
SHIPYARDLAYOUT 179
Fig. 5-20. Automatic stiffener welding (courtesy Fig. 5-21(a).Large shipyard steel panel line in op-
Total Transportation Systems). eration (courtesyTotal Tlansportation Systems).
Fig. 5-21(b). Larger shipyard steel panel line schematic(courtesyTotal Tlansportation Systems).
,, ,*,11i'-
:'
t _
iN:i
!---1
N
t
I r.
' . i j i ' 1 r ) t
'q
:l --
li s
F, 1=:
: +
i
i
i
--- -3dt
fi--iifr
:'' ' r '
,"..,'.. ,, , '-.'-,1-
1. HEATEDA I RU N I T 6, USEDSANDHOPPER
2. DUSTCOLLECTOR 7. HEATEDAIR DUCT
3. CLEANSANDHOPPER 8. EXHAUSTDUCT
4. CLEANSANDCONVEYOR 9. HEATEDAIR UNIT
5, SANDCOLLECTION PIT
=f
G;;;I
&;>=t
MATERIAL
W E D G ED E V I C E S
s WELD-ONSADDLE,alsoknownas "U'-dogyokeand
hairpin,a "U"or "L" shapedmetaldeviceusedin con-
junctionwitha wedgeto straddleand holdone partto
another.Shipyardusesincludeatlachment
ersto platematerial.
of stiflen-
T G E A R . P U L L EDYE V I C E S
THREADEDEVICES
2
./)
JACKINGCLAMP,any numberof deviceswhichare
hookedor weldedhavinga screwat one endto apply
forceforaligningandlairing.Shipyard
usesincludef air-
ing and aligningplateand occasionally
usedto clamp
downsliffeners.
H Y D R A U L ID
CE V I C E
Fig.5-2e(b)
186 SHIPPRODUCTION
P N E U M A T IDCE V I C E
V A C U U MS A D D L Ea, l s ok n o w na s v a c u u mj a c k i n g
clamp,an air operateddevicehavingsuctionpadslor
grippingrelatively smoothsurfacesand a "U" or "L"
shapedmetalstruclure for straddling andholdingparts
logether.Thisdeviceisusedinconiunction witha screw
andthreador hydraulic ramlor applying pushingforce.
Shipyard usesincludestiflener-to-plate attachment.
PADEYES,
STAYSANDCABLES
malerialusedto hold,prop
SIAY a stripof stiflening
and/orsupporlparts.This devicecan be weldedor
mechanicallylastened. Shipyardusesincludesupport
andbracingof bulkheads andotherassembliesto other
udt t5.
Fig.5-2s(c)
SHIPYARD
LAYOUT 187
STRONGBACKS
M O C K SA N DF I X T U R E S
Fig.s-2s(d)
188 sHrPPRoDUcloN
Fig. 5-30.Adjustablemobilescaffolding.
Fig. 5-31.Erectionwork unit.
2.5.6. Platensand Jigs. Steel platens are used
throughout a shipyard. These are situated 2.5.7. ProductionSeruices.Production services
according to the process lane plan for the include peoplemovers,utilities, small tool and
yard. Many jigs and frxtures have also been consumablesstorage,and staging. In addition,
developed.The pin jig is perhaps one of the shipyards engagedin the overhaul and con-
simplest but most effective pieces of equip- version of U.S. Navy ships must provide shore-
ment to be invented by modern shipbuilders. side berthing and messingfacilities.
A pin jig, shown in Figure 5-28, is simply a Bus transport from parking areashas been
series of vertical screwjacks which support mentioned. Other common people movers in-
curved blocks during fabrication. The jacks clude bicycles and two- and three-wheeled,
can be adjusted to attain the desired curva- motorized vehicles.Someyards have escala-
ture. Prior to the invention and use of the pin tors or elevatorsat outfitting piers and build-
jig, solid-weldedsteel jigs were manufactured ing docks.
for eachcurvature neededand scrappedafter Dockside and pierside utilities include
final use. The pin jig is an excellentexample electricity, potable water, fire main and raw
of a way to attain efficient production of indi- coolingwater, sewer service,compressedair,
vidual ships. With weldedjigs, efficiencyis in- argon, oxygen,natural gas, and steam. Ide-
creasedby series production, which increases ally all utilities are routed underground.
utilization of eachjig. Small tool and stores such as electrodes,
Figure 5-29 shows someof the many jigs wire spools,etc., should be located for maxi-
and fixtures which have been developedor mum conveniencefor the production groups
are used by shipbuilders. [7] consistent with security. Responsibility for
SHIPYARDLAYOUT 189
3. ProcessLanes
Group technology shipbuilding systems are flow, both for an individual shipbuilding proj-
based on the organization of work into dis- ect and for multiple projects. This uniform
tinct problem areas,using a product-oriented work flow produces the least disruption of
work breakdown structure. The shipyard fa- work and shouldresult in a highly productive
cility should reflect this organization. The work station. Although the goal of uniform
process lane concept marries the work or- work flow at eachprocesslane is not likely to
ganization and the physical plant. It also be achieved,a number of strategies may be
contains aspectsof planning and scheduling, employed to increase the benefits obtained
design, material control, and personnel or- from the process lane organization. These
ganization. This section will concentrateon will be discussedsubsequently.
the reflection ofthe organization ofwork on
the facility. 3.1. PhysicalProcessLanes
The processlane conceptcan be defrned The choice of specific interim products and
as "the categorizationand separationof simi- work centers to produce them is highly de-
lar types ofwork, and the subsequentdevel- pendent on the characteristicsofa particular
opment of work centers specificallydesigned shipyard. Included in these considerations
to efficiently perform that kind ofwork." Chap- are the product mix, existing facilities and
ter III presenteda work categorizationscheme capital equipment,and size,flexibility, skills,
for shipbuilding (PWBS).Basedon thosecon- and training of the work force. The following
cepts,work centers can be establishedto fa- example shall be used to describea possible
cilitate efficient production ofthe interim prod- choiceofphysical processlanes.
ucts. Keys to effective processlanes are plan- Figure 5-32 presentsthe layout of a U.S.
ning, scheduling, and material flow. The goal shipyard that adopted a processlane work
ofthe system is to establish individual process organization.l8] This existing shipyard was
lanes,eachproducingrepeatableinterim pro- reorganizedto apply this concept.Six major
ducts, and each of which has a uniform work block categorieswere chosen.Upon comple-
190 SHIP PRODUCTION
z
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zQ
9Y
z
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5
Y
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SHIPYARDLAYOUT 191
I N o . 1I DOUBLEBOTTOM
S I D ES H E L L
FLATPANELBLOCKS
LONG BHDS
t 24' ,
@
( N o . 2)
\,/
AFT AND
FORE PART
SIDE SHELLS
ra q,
CURVED SHELL BLOCKS
OECK 8 )
( N o . 3l
FLATS
BULKHEADS
SUPERSTRUCTURE HOUSES.ETC,
@ ( s )
\--,/ /z\
( 1 1)
BLOCKS \ _./
lNo.a)
LARGEAND
HEAVY
6;)
( 1 6) t 1 3)
3 DIMENSION
FORE PEAK BLOCKS \--'11
AFT PEAK (307'
SPECIALBLOCKS
S K E G S ,R U D O E R S
CASTINGS
( 1 6)
@
Fig. 5-33.Platen/block
categories.
tion of the blocks contained within each of The facility layout (seeFigure 5-32)iden-
these categories,the blocks are transported tifies the physical processlanes used to as-
to the building position for erection.The six semblethe six categoriesof blocks.Category
categoriesare (seeFigure 5-33): (1), flat panel blocks, comprisesthe largest
number of blocks. These blocks are assem-
. flat panel blocks bled on platen 20 (seeFigure 5-34).The basic
. curved shell blocks flow pattern ofsteel for flat blocks begins at
. superstructure blocks the steel storagearea, where steel plate and
. fore and aft peak blocks structural sectionsare held following deliv-
. engine room innerbottoms ery to the shipyard. Next, steel goes to the
. specialblocks plate shop (location 907) for initial surface
preparation and coating,followedby cutting
Theseblock categoriesare supportedby vari- of parts. These parts may then go directly
ous subassembly and parbs manufacturing through the panel line in the plate shop,or be
categories.Additionally, outfitting on-unit, palletizedfor subassemblyon platen 23 or 24.
on-block,and on-boardcategoriesand similar The subassembliesbuilt on platen 23 or 24,
blast and paint categoriesare integrated into subassembliesfrom the panel line and other
the system. pallets of parts, are then moved to platen 20
192 SHIPPRODUCTION
Fig.5-34(a) Fig.5-3a(b)
for block assembly. Building 930, used for are large, flat blocks, outfrtted primarily on-
t-beam fabrication, and platen 15, a beam block.They are alsocommonlybuilt in layers.
line subassemblylocation,also supply subas- Since they are in the processlane for long
semblies for platen 20. Actual flow of these periodsof time and are large and heavy upon
blockson platen 20 includesstagesfor assem- completion,these blocks are assembledclose
bly upside down and right side up, and out- to the building position. Subassembliesfor
fitting on-block.Following completion of the these blocks are also built on platen 16.
blocks on platen 20, they are moved to the Large, heavy, three-dimensionalblocks,
blast and paint building to receive surface such as the fore peak and aft peak, are cate-
preparation and primer coating.Theseblocks gory (4) blocksand are built on platens 7, 10,
are then moved to the area just outside the and 13. Platen 16 supplies fabricated parts
blast and paint building for additional on- for these blocks, but only a small number of
block outfitting and then directly to the build- subassembliesare used, since these compli-
ing position. Category (1) blocks are char- cated blocks are primarily built piecemeal.
acterizedby relatively high-volume,easy as- These three platens are used due to large
sembly work, accomplishedwith actual flow. crane capacityand proximity to the building
Curved shell blocks, category(2), are as- positions.This processlane is characterized
sembled on platen 17. This platen has pin by diflicult, intricate work, requiring the most
jigs, and work on this processlane involves qualified mechanics.
virtual flow. Parts are manufactured in the Platen 14 is the location of the process
plate shop and subassembledon platen 16. lane for assembling engine room innerbot-
An on-block outfitting stage is part of the toms, category (5). This location is in close
platen 17 processlane. Theseblocksare then proximity to the plate shop and panel line,
sent through the blast and paint facility and and to platen 16, which provides fabricated
delivered to the building position. The work parts and beamline subassemblies. Although
content and the amount oftime curvedblocks these blocks are flat blocks, they are con-
are in this processlane are both considerably tained in a separate category and process
greater than for flat blocks in platen 20. lane becausethey are more complex,requrre
Superstructure blocks, category (3), are closer tolerances,and have more outfrtting
assembledon platens8, 9, and 11.Theseblocks than category (1) flat blocks. These blocks
SHIPYABDLAYOUT 193
will stay in the processlane longer than cate- duction manufacturing processescan be ex-
gory (1) blocks and, like category(4) blocks, pectedto completely achievethis goal. Con-
require the most qualifred mechanics. sequently, processlane loading involves at-
The final block processlane, for category tempts to achieve uniform work flow in as
(6) blocks, is platen 19. These blocks include much of the shipbuilding system as is possi-
skegs,rudders, bilge keels, hatch coamings, ble. The practical approachto loadingprocess
bulwarks, and other specialblocks.Fixedjigs lanes thereforeentails the establishmentof a
are employed on platen 19 to aid in the as- hierarchy. This hierarchy is used to select
sembly of category(6) blocks.Following com- processlanes to be level loadedon a priority
pletion, these blocks are transported to the basis. The hierarchy initially follows the hi-
blast and coat facility and then to the build- erarchy ofthe overall building process.Con-
ing position. sequently,the erection processlane, i.e., the
In addition to the block and steel subas- work at the building position, is the first
sembly processlanes, outfit material manu- processlane to be level loaded. The estab-
facture and installation are organizedusing lishment of the master erection scheduleis
outfit processlanes. Outfrt parts are manu- usedto perform this level loading.This sched-
factured in shops, including the pipe shop, ule will be discussedin detail in Chapter VII.
machine shop,sheet metal shop,and electric The next processlanes to be loadedare at
shop. Each of these shops is treated as a the block assemblylevel. Here, shipyard-spe-
separateprocesslane for parts manufacture. cific information must be used to establish
These parts are then palletized for assembly priorities within this manufacturing level. In
on-unit, on-block,or on-board.On-unit outfit- the example described above, flat blocks or
ting takes place on platen 21, in the area category(1) blockswere chosenas the top pri-
adjacent to the pipe shop, or occasionallyin ority for level loading. These are the most
one of the shops.These outfit units, assem- numerous and most easily built blocks.Conse-
bled on one of these processlanes, are then quently,level loadingthis processlane, platen
moved to the area adjacent to the blast and 20 in the example, is a high priority in or-
paint facility for erection on-block,or to the der to achievea high degreeoflevel loading
building position for erection on-blockor on- throughout the shipyard. Processlanes that
board. support platen 20 also receiveconsiderableat-
This facility layout, although far from tention in order to provide uniform work flows.
the optimal U shape of the proposedfourth- The secondprocesslane priority for level
generation,group technologyshipyard, indi- loading is for categoryQ) blocks, platen 12.
catesthe approachexisting shipyards must The concept is to first load platen 20 uni-
employ in adopting group technology.The de- formly at or near capacity.Next platen 1Z is
tails of the existing facility must be taken loaded as uniformly and as closeto capacity
into account in reorganizing work locations. as possible. The processthen continues to
Comparatively little capital investment is lower-priority process lanes, attempting to
required to alter an existing facility to adopt provide the maximum overall uniformity of
the processlane approachto shipbuilding. work levels, subject to not disturbing uni-
formity achieved at higher-priority process
3.2. ProcessLane Loading
lanes. Work loading proceedsdown the hier-
The goal of uniform work flow, either actual archy, both at the b\ock assembly manufac-
or virtual, throughout the shipyard should be turing level and at lower (subassembly,outfit
sought Onlynasspr,o-
at eachworkstation. unit, and parts fabrication) manufacturing
194 SHIPPRODUCTION
levels.The loading ofprocesslanes is contin- tionally, design and engineering must re-
uously changing, responding to actual work spond to work load leveling requirements.
progress,disruption, rework requirements,the For example,if platen 20 is underutilized at
incorporation of new work, and any other a particular time, blocks may be designedor
factors that affect the flow of work. block breakdownsaltered to permit their con-
The establishment of workstation pro- struction as flat blocks. Coordinating plan-
ductivity indices is essential for the plan- ning, scheduling, design, and material
ning, scheduling,and control of work loadsat controlto achieveuniform loading ofprocess
process lanes. Productivity indices will be lanes is a key to successfulgroup technol-
discussedin more detail in Chapter VII. Addi- ogy shipbuilding.
References
1. McNeill, D.C., "Shipyard Layout-Lecture 5 . Gatlin, O.H.,, and R.A. Price,Auondale
Notes," University of Strathclyde,Glasgow, Shipyards, Inc., Long Range Facility Plan,
1980. Maritime Administration in cooperation
2. Marsh, A.J., "The Constraints Imposedon with AvondaleShipyards,Inc., February
Design and Technical Activities by Ship- 1983.
building ProductionTechnology,"Interna- b - Price, R.A., Semi-AutomaticPipe Handling
tional Conferenceon Structural Design and Systemand Fabrication Facility, Phase II-
Fabrication in Shipbuilding, Royal Institute I mplementatloz, Maritime Administration
ofNaval Architects, London, 1976. in cooperationwith Avondale Shipyards,
3. Facilities and.Industrial Engirwering, Inc., March 1983.
Volume 1-Report, The Shipbuilding 7 . Maciel, J.P., R.K. Richies,R. Klaar, C.A.
Technology Transfer Program, Maritime O'Harro, and R.K. Nordeen,Study of Fitting
Administration, in cooperationwith Leving- and Fairing Aids of U.S. Shipyards, Mari-
ston Shipbuilding Company and Ishikawa- time Administration in cooperationwith
jima-Harima Heavy Industries, April 1981. Newport News Shipbuilding, August 1984.
4. Larson, B., "Aspectsof Different Shipyard Price, R.A.,ProcessLanes and DesignEngi-
Layouts," Key Topics in Ship Production, neering for Zone Outfitting, Manufacturing
University of Strathclyde, Glasgow,Septem- Technologyfor Shipbuilding, Shipbuilding
ber 1980. TechnologyTransfer, Maritime Administra-
tion in cooperationwith Avondale Shipyards,
Inc., June 1984.
CHAPTER VI
1. Introduction
Precedingchaptershave discussedthe theory consistent with the management and build
of shipbuilding based on the application of strategy ofthe yard. Figure 3-2 (Chapter III)
group technology in shipyards. Application of shows the management cycle undergoing
these principles requires an alteration in the transitions from system to zone and back to
ship design and engineering process.This system orientation. Design and engineering
chapter will provide a description of the de- follow a similar pattern. The stagesof design
sign and engineeringprocessassociatedwith and engineering, while similar to the tradi-
group technology shipbuilding, rather than tional stages of concept, preliminary, con-
the specificsof ship design, which are ade- tract, and detail design, produce consider-
quately covered in other texts. Information ably different outputs. The design stagesem-
will also be provided concerningtechniques ployed by shipyards using group technology
not commonly applied in traditional ship de- can be categorizedas basicdesign,functional
sign that have applicationsfor shipyardsem- design, transition design, and work instruc-
ployinggroup technology.Finally, designand tion design (seeFigure 6-1). t1l
engineeringfor production is discussed. The design process,as it was commonly
practiced in the United States, involved the
1 . 1 .D e s i g nC y c l e use of design agents not specifically associ-
ated with the shipyard. [2] The designagents,
The outputs ofthe designcyclerequired by a rather than a shipyard-centereddesign and
group technology shipbuilder are different engineering group, performed most of the
from those of conventional shipbuilders. work prior to detail design,and in many cases
Rather than a set of detailed plans suitable including detail design. The adoption of the
for use by any shipyard, the group technology principles ofgroup technology requires a dif-
shipbuilder requires work instruction pack- ferent approachto this designprocess.It also
agesthat provide specifrcinformation for con- necessitatesmuch closercoordinationbetween
struction organized by the problem areas de- the designer(whether an outside design agent
fined for the individual shipyard. Addition- or a shipyard design organization) and the
ally, the design cycle must permit timely other departments within the shipyard, in-
identification of material and production re- cluding production, material control, purchas-
quirements to enablethe shipyard to proceed ing, and planning and scheduling.Significant
with procurement,planning, and scheduling differences from conventional design are the
195
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SECTION ' l--j
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MACHINERY
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I J SUPERSTRUCTURE
t-H
-lffiffFl""l
J|Llfl-r",*llffi-Hi] ,8,
ec -1*;*;'-Lffir-Er@
PRELIMINARY
ELOCK z
PUN F
tr
etc F
l
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S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G 197
PLANNING DESIGNSUPPLIESINFORMATION
:
SUPPLIES
DATES& CODES WORK INSTRUCTIONDRAWINGS
DETAILDESIGN
NO.6-20-rU
SUBASSEMBLY
J
NO.6-20-tu Or
tr irr
I Y
SUBASSEMBLY <o
()co
(/)
(/) NO.6-20-tu
iE H
F
q IJJ u)
F J
< J
I J'
a)
4J
SUBASSEMBLY> t r
t/@
w PRODUCTION
a)
BUCKET
THEORY RECEIVES
THE BUCKETAT THE
OFPALLETIZING PROPERTIME,
SUPPLIESLABOR
AND FACILIW
tion, including work instructions, schedules, Simultaneously with pallet definition and
work locations, and material lists, and re- design scheduling, outfrt designersadvise the
sources,including materials, tools, facilities, hull structural group of outfit requirements
and manpower. Each pallet is defined (the for penetrations and reinforcements in struc-
empty bucket is identifred), filled with the ture. Similarly, outfit production engineers
necessaryinformation and resources,and de- communicate with hull construction produc-
livered to the proper work site at the proper tion engineers concerning requirements for
time. The work is then performed and the outfitting on-blockand on-board.Meanwhile,
resulting interim product produced. Pallets outfit designersdefine outfrt componentsand
therefore represent work packages that are raw material requirements as production en-
identifred by zonelproblemarea/stageand pro- gineers determine need dates by pallet. These
vide production with all the information and are conveyedto procurement peopleby req-
resourcesneededfor executing a unit ofwork. uisitions in advance of the lead times pro-
Various pallet coding systemshave been de- vided by the procurement people.Tlpical infor-
velopedto facilitate the use ofthe pallet con- mation paths for this interchange of informa-
cept by design, material control, and pro- tion necessaryfor integrated hull construc-
duction. tion, outfitting, and painting are illustrated
I
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G 199
HULL SIRUCTURAL
DNAWINGWITH ALOCX
DEFINIIION
MATERIALLIST
W I T H P U R C H A S EO F D E A
.OUTFINING S P E C I F I C A T I O NO F
BEOUIAEMENT DBAWING
(REINFORCEMEN]
AND HOLE)
PBOCUFEMENT
LEAD DAY
OUTFITTING
PALIET
DEPARTMENT
DEFINITION
HULL ELOCK
NEED DATE
in Figure 6-3. Throughout, pallets serve as ment. Also, the designmust take into consid-
essential communicationlinks. eration additional factors.Theseinclude:
1.3.GT Shipbuilding
lmpacton Design/ . assemblysequences
Engineering . welding sequences
In addition to the altered designcycleand the o tolerances,excess,and edgeprepara-
differences between GT shipbuilding design tion by stage
and conventional design described earlier, . coating requirementsby stage
other major characteristics of group technol- . subassembly,unit, and block interfaces
ogy design are: . tools ofproduction
r work sites
. work instmction design(formerly detail o structural integrity of subassemblies,
design)organizedby zone,problem units, and blocks upright and upside
area, and stageinstead ofby system down
o greater detail required . support and pick points for moving
. design and engineeringcompleted and turning subassemblies,units, and
earlier blocks
o material defrnition completed much o minimization of distortion of subas-
earlier semblies,units, and blocks during
. greater coordination with production moving and turning
required
. design and assemblydetails standard- Someof this information may have been pro-
ized. vided by other shipyard groups, such as the
mold loft, planning, or production,but greater
Additional information must be provided as detail and better documentation than has
apartofthewolkoflheengineering
depart- beertcorttrtton
practice
is required.
2OO SHIPPRoDUcTIoN
Conventional GroupTechnology
Construction Construction
TotalEngineering
Man-hours 350,000 500,000
PercentCompleteat Construction
Startup 60 80
Monthsfrom Contractto Construction
Startuo 14 12
Man-hoursper MonthPriorto Construction
Startup 15,000 33,000
The overall result of these requirements plifies this. The frgure showsthe percentage
is an intensification of the engineeringeffort. of the engineering effort that must be com-
Table 6-1 summarizesthis effectfor a typical pleted as a function of time after the contract
large commercialvesselconstructionproject. is signed.The start ofthe engineeringproc_
[3] As can be seenin this table, the intensity ess must be coordinatedin order to permit
of the engineering efforb more than doubles the higher intensity of effort to be effective.
with the application of group technology Means of achievingthis goalwill be discussed
shipbuilding methods.Figure 6-4 further am- in conjunctionwith basic design.
2. DesignStages
As previously described,the shipbuilding overview of the ship to be built and conse_
design cyclecan be subdividedinto four stages: quently represent a total ship system orien-
basic design, functional design, transition tation. Among the plans developedas part of
design, and work instruction design.Each of basic design are:
these design stages is directly related to
stagesofthe shipbuilding process.In describ- .general arrangement
ing the four design stages,the achievement .lines
of specific,predeterminedmilestonesrelated .midship section
to each must be kept in mind. Figure 6-5 .machinery arrangement
shows a breakdown of the complete design .cabin plans
cycle,indicating milestonesto be achievedat .diagrammatics of major outfit
the end of each stage. The use of formal systems
meetings with set agendasat the conclusion o electric one line diagram
of design stages can be a means of verifying r contract specifications
progressand communicating the results not
only within the design group but also to all As a part of the basic design process,nor-
affectedshipyard organizations. mal naval architectural calculationsare per-
formed. Among these are:
2.1.BasicDesign
. weight estimate
Contract plans are producedduring the basic . longitudinal strength
design stage. These plans provide a general . hydrostatics
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G 201
MONTHSAFTERCONTRACT
Fig. 6-4. Intensity ofgroup technology engineering effort.
PREPARATION STAGE
(8I - FAIREDLINESI8Y STATIONS) F A I B E D L I N E S( B Y F R A M E S I - .
- LASOR AND MATERIAL ESTIMATE
_ PURCHASE REOUEST FOR MAJOR ITEMS
- BUDGET
_ ADJUSTMENT OF SPECIFICATIONAND DRAWINGS
_ B A S I CU N I T A R R A N G E M E N T
_ DRAWING ISSUESCHEOUL
- SEA CHEST OESIGN ILOCATIONS ANO NOZZEL LOCATIONS)
- OUTFITPALLET LIST IPRELIMINARY}
3 MONTHS - J
_ P R O P E L L E RD E S I G N
- FINALIZEO APPLICATION OF PACKAGE UNITS.
ENGINEERING
PROCEDURE
AT ASI
4 MONTHS
E N G I N E E R I N GD R A W I N G SS T A G E S
_ S T R U C T U R ED E T A I L I N G S
- PENETRATION CUT.OUT
_ P I E C EN A M E
_ STEEL PLATE TAKE.OF F
_ UNIT PARTS LIST
_ D E F I N I T I O NO F E D G EP R E P A R A T I O N
ANO EXCESS
- SET UP OF PARTS OATA EASE
_ S U B . U N I TB R E A K D O W N
_ HULL CASTING
- R U D D E RS U P P O R T
S Y S T E MA N D R U O O E R
_ CLOSURES(DOOR ANO WINDOW LIST)
_ ANCHOR HANDLING SYSTM
_ M O O f i I N GA R R A N G E M E N T
- CARGO HANDLING SYSTEM
- SEA CHEST
_ CARGO CONTAINMENT
_ U N I T O U T F I T D R A W I N G SO E V E L O P M E N T
ANO PALLETL/M
_ S T A R T W E E K L YO U T F I T M E E T I N G S_ E N G I N E E R T N G
AND PROOUCTION
E N G I N E E R I N GP R O C E D U R EA T A S I
\ I S S U O F E N G I N E E B I ND
GR A W I N G S T o M o L D
LoFT
3 MONTHS 4 MONTHS
MOLD LOFT STAGE
- P A R TP R O G R A M M I N G
. NESTING
F O RN / C E U R N I N G
TEMPLATE 1 MONTH
UNIT CONTNOLMANUAL ISSUEWORX
_ J I GD R A W I N G S A N D M A T E R I A LT O
F A B .S H O P
S C H E D U L EI S
SSUEO
ONTHS
PRE_FAB &
U N I TO U T F I TM A T E R I A I - 1 MONTH ASSEMBLE
1 MONTH 1 MONTH
FAB
F A BW O R KO R D E R
T 3 MONTHS
S T A R TO N U N I T
OUTFIT
Y L EO F D R A W I N G : ISSUEON EOARO
STAGEAY STAGE& WORKAY WORK O U T F I TS C H E D
INCLUDING PKG.
UNITS
G R A P f lI I O , P T - ] O OUTFIT DRAWINGS COMPI EIE
Fig. 6-5(e). The design and engineering cycle, ML meeting to keel laying.
Fig. 6-6.Preliminaryblockplan.
<-
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S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G 207
'tii{llt,|
f'\
UPPERDECK
5 1 ' 9 "S I E P
43'6" FLAT
DETAIL66_4
TRANSV
WEBFR10LKGFWD
Fig. 6-9. Structural key plan. scALE1/4'=1 0"
210 SHIPPRoDUcTIoN
i.
t 2 )
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t ' l
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rir
SHIPDESIGNAND ENGINEERING 211
2_35O0ROLLERFAIRLEADER
5 O O. 2 5 0 P A N A M AC H O C K
-
ruo"o"oro""o[*%r...
noo, _ l
/o B,-F<"-,\-
---f-tl/
4 . 3 5 O 0R O L L E RF A I R L E A O E R , , -----J
' :.:.1.
2 35OOROLLERFAIFLEADER
7-
r lxlutsE
r{o{ sLrP cBrPS r_-i)
w
CHAIN COI{TROLLER
500d aoLLARo
t
2 F.P.
II
I
\J
/,'\
\:i/
--1-ri
I
to improve control of material and man-hour sure that material descriptions include spec-
costs and to begin the major outfit material ifications and drawings as necessaryfor both
procurement effort as early as possible. in-house manufacture and outside procure-
MLSs are delivered to the material con- ment. Such descriptions are in accordance
trol department, where they are screenedto with material requisition and control classi-
identify common and long-lead-timemateri- fications as well as material codes.The full
als, sequencedin accordancewith dates as- description for each material item listed in
signed by material-orderingzones,and checked MLS includes:
against the shipyard's inventory. Immediately
thereafter, the material-requisitioning pro- . material code
isbogun.
coss I piece
number
Since MLSs initiate a massive procure- r material cost classification number
ment effort, functional designers must en- o material listing classification
212 SHIP PRODUCTIOI..
r parenVchild sign, where an item to Concerning the parenVchild sign, both are
be manufactured is called a parent listed on MLS so they may be screenedfor
and the parts and raw materials are commonand long-lead-timematerials by ma_
called children terial controllers.The parent sign is needed
o material requisition classifrcation for production, budget, and cost control as
o material control classifrcation well as for procurement. The child sign is
o material purchasing classification neededfor procurement only. Figure 6-lb is
. wbight an exampleof a material list by system(MLS).
r quantity Material defrnition imposesa significant
o material-ordering zone workload on functional designers. Employ_
000180876 43 S L E E V ES T L W E L D E OS L I P O N T Y P EA S I M E C I
STO NO 10 I 1i2
000180877 30 S L E V E S T L W E L D E OS L I P O N T Y P E A S I M E C H
sTo No 10 2
000180879 42 S L E E V ES T ! W E L D E OS L I P O N T Y P E A S I M E C H
sTo No 10 3
000180881 2 S L E E V ES T L W E L D E DS L I P O N T Y P EA S I M E C H
STD NO 10 4
0 0 0 1 8 11 5 9 V E N T A N T I S I P H O N I CP V C B O O Y M O N E L S C R E E N
M I N V A C U U MT O V E N T I " W A T E R
M I N P F E S S U R ET O S E A L 1 ' W A T E R
3/4 FPT
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asTM 4307 ANS| 818 2 2 t8 |uNc 28
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coDE0613 NO OF VESSELS 2 O A T E2 , 1 7 / 8 1
ment of standard materials as much as pos- the way production work is organized.Thus,
sible is essential. If all parties concerned, yard plans must be based on a preconceived
including potential suppliers, maintain up-to- pallet list (outfrtting strategy).
date files of standard material descriptions, The flow of transition design responsi-
material codesare sufficient for describing such bilities is shown in Figure 6-16. During tran-
materials on MLS. Thus, the effectivenessof sition design,work is by zonerather than by
functional designers is directly related to the system. The yard plans are used to develop
effectivenessof a standards program. the actual proceduresto be followed in build-
A nonstandard item requires additional ing the ship, using the work instructions. Since
attention from the functional designer.These production is controlled by the pallet concept,
items can be manufactured in-house or out- transition design is based on the establish-
side in accordancewith a shipyard drawing or ment of a pallet list. Yard plans generally take
they can be supplied by a vendor, basedon the the form of composites.
vendor's drawing. The former require func-
tional designers to prepare a drawing and a 2.3.1. PalletDefinition.Pallet definition that fa-
material list for components(MLC). The lat- cilitates integrated hull construction, outfitting,
ter require review oftechnical aspectsofven- and painting (IHOP) is required for transition
dor proposals in response to specifications design.Thus, an early aspect of transition
prepared by the functional designer. The ma- designis the creation and refining ofa pallet
terial defrnition outputs of functional design, list in terms of zonelproblem area/stage.
which are sent to the material control group Coordination betweenhull structural design-
for procurement, are MLS, shipyard draw- ers and designers from the outfrt specialty
ings with MLC, and approvedvendor draw- groups is essential.A meeting between repre-
ings and specifications. sentatives ofthese design groups plus plan-
Functional designersmust be very know- ners and production engineers can facilitate
ledgeable of the material definition system this coordination. Inputs include predefini-
and must be aware of the need for just-in-time tion for both blocks and pallets represented
material procurement anticipating a zone-by- by hull construction and outfitting planning
zone outfitting strategy. This means judi- groups, respectively.
cious sequencingof material definition to ex- The hull construction and outfitting pro-
pedite the defrnition of long-lead-time and duction plans are explained by the respec-
vendor-designedmaterials, while deferring tive planning groups.Designersdescribeblock
defrnition of other material. Otherwise there weight, fitting positions,and material volume
can be no rapid start-up, which is extremely (weight and quantity) of outfit components,etc.
important. As numerous materials are re- As a consequenceof such discussion,block
quired and various categories of information definition maybe adjusted.Thus, the outputs
are necessaryfor each item, computer pro- ofthis coordination are final block definition
cessingis essential. and an original pallet list.
With designers participating, decisions
2.3.TransitionDesign are made concerning:
Transition design is basically the processof .loading methodsfor major machinery,
transforming system-orientedinformation in- such as main engines,boilers, and
to zone-orientedinformation. The end products generators
are yard plans, so named becausethey repre- o fitting methodsfor auxiliary machinery
sent the frrst grouping of information to suit and other components
214 SHIPPRODUCTION
xlrigsPls=8.
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S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G 215
-9ai-'
t
{
NERT AAS
t
ayt-
Fig. 6-17. Compositedraft of an engineroom.
216 SHIPPRODUCTION
-funnel CABLECONDUIT l
WIREWAY.SUPPORT
ANDSEAT a (E) o (E) a (E)
. superstructure group
ELECTRIC
EOUIPMENT a (E) a (E) a (E)
-A-deck (upper deck)
-B-deck
-C-deck Fig. 6-18. Separationof types of outfitting ma-
-D-deck terials on compositearrangements.
218 SHIPPBODUCTION
i i
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a*na a f6
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220 SHIPPRODUCTION
//
MA-I I
sK-rOOo es-tv 2
NRG EELLMOUTH
si-looe BS-2v z
GLGE '
ALLM@TH loo0 as-2P I
t ofi-BLocK
OUTFITTING
STAGE
-------.T-
|
Il K )
\___j
2.4.3. Manufacturing Work lnstruction Draw-
rngs.Items listed on MLF which must be cus-
tom manufactured are described in manu-
I
facturing work instructions in sufficient detail
ON SOARO OU t | T t *
to permit either in-house or outside manufac-
ture. Major items, such as masts, booms,and
Fig.6-22.Stagesfor outfittingcomponents. unique tanks, which require long lead times
for procurement of raw materials or for man-
. material code ufacture, are identified during the functional
o piecenumber design processand treated as exceptions.
o material cost classificationnumber In addition to the major items, each pal-
. material listing classification let generally containsvarious pieceparts, in-
. material requisition classification cluding pipe pieces,ventilation duct pieces,
. material control classification ladders, accessway pieces,handrail pieces,
o material purchasing classification and supports. Manufacturing drawings are
. parenVchild sign prepared for eachcomponentby pallet by kind
. weight of item, in accordancewith the grouping of
o quantity componentsin pallets on fitting drawings.
. MLF zone Thus, all of the manufacturing drawings for
. drawing number correspondingto componentsof one kind within a pallet are
procurement and fitting work grouped so that they can be assigned for
manufacture by pallet regardless of where
With respect to a specific zonelproblem area./ they are to be manufactured.
stage,eachMLF is usedfor collection(pallet- Components,other than pipe pieces,of
izing) of outfit componentsin anticipation of one kind are almost always of the sameman-
fitting work, recording the weight of outfrt ufacturing family and require the same lead
components to be used for calculating the times. Thus, all such componentscan be in-
pallet's fitting work content and contribution cluded in a single manufacturing drawing.
to ship's outfit weight, and updating the ma- Drawings by kind of item by pallet facilitate
terial identification status. issuing work orders and just-in-time manu-
Material defrnition is the key to efficient facture of the required items.
production.Therefore,providing information Usually, the pipe pieceswithin a pallet
for each fitting is an important and extensive represent different manufacturing families
tesk.Thoso
MLFdateerocomperod
within. lordtimos.Thus,pipo
rndhrvcdifforont
222 SHIPPRoDUcTIoN
pieces by pallet are further grouped by function of the loft may be considerably ex-
pipe piece family. This permits sorting, ide- panded from traditional lofting. The com-
ally by computer, so that the starts of man- puter capability available in the mold loft
ufacture of the pipe pieces requiring the makes it an obvious location for the produc-
long lead times are commensurately earlier tion of work instructions, material lists, pal-
to ensure that all pipe pieces required for a let lists, schedules,etc.Theseresponsibilities
pallet are available at the same time for fit- are in addition to the standard loft work of
ting work. steel parts programming, development of N/C
burning data, and development of templates.
2.4.4. Material Lists for Manufacturing (MLP Many of these are based on information gen-
and MLC). Upon completion of each manufac- erated elsewhere and simply provided in hard
turing instruction drawing, all raw materials copy by the mold loft computer. The outputs
are listed on MLP and MLC for manufacture of the mold loft may include:
of pipe pieces and components other than
pipes, respectively.The rather extensivede- . key plans (seeFigure 6-23)
scriptions presentedin Subsection2.4.2 arc o yard plans (seeFigure 6-24)
employed but are relatively easy to incorpo- . work instructions (seeFigures 6-2b and
rate through standardization and computer 6-26)
programs. Similarly. the data on MLP and . material lists (seeFigure 6-27)
MLC, both for parent and child, are again o material lists by pallet (seeFigure 6-28)
compared to MLS, inventory, and the requi- . schedules(seeFigure 6-29)
sition status and are employed to refine out-
Additionally, the mold loft may produce
frt weights and the predicted amounts of fit-
templates for line heating (Chapter fV), pin
ting work. These data are used to predict the jig settings (ChapterV), and accuracycontrol
amounts of manufacturing work required.
check sheets(Chapter VIII). In general, this
information should be provided in the form
2.5. Mold Loft Interface
of booklets or manuals that permit routing
Mold loft work is commonly begun during of pertinent pages only to the workstation
transition or work instruction design. The where it is needed(seeFigure G-80).
3. DesignandEngineering
for Production
The inputs of engineers to the ship produc- the production techniques, this goal has often
tion process take many forms. Perhaps the been inadequatelyaddressed.Consequently,
simplest way to subdivide these are in terms some general principles can be developedto
of design and engineering. Design includes improve the consideration of production effi-
the system-oriented outputs of the basic and ciency in the design process.The goal ofde-
functional design stages.Engineering is then sign and engineering is the reduction ofthe
the detailed breakdown of the design into cost of production to the minimum possible,
product-oriented yard plans and work in- subject to satisfying design performance and
structions,or the descriptionof preciselyhow quality requirements. The use of concurrent
the ship will be built. In either application, or simultaneous design principles, in which
the principles of desigrr/engineeringfor pro- teams of specialistswork togetherto continu-
duction are similar. Although gooddesign/en- ously consider design, production, purchas-
gineering should always take into account ing, performance, and other factors. is an
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G 223
ItY ro ott.tr^.
t - D E YJ O D T I ' ? A '
, 1
tfo I lrl tNDs
Itv to Dft.?^'
;ro 1 lft tf,0s (rrPl
ASI DvA NO
T ?
P A R T SL I S I
A ?ttcf r0 illtt I rt iarDl
t- t -Po-t I tt-J
-t- t- | a0-al
II II
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l-r-lo-at
H
{-Ji
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I
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II II
I
;
;
i
I
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t
D. UNIT #105
WORK CENTER _ PLATEN #20 _ PRE OUTFIT STAGE
PRE_OUTFIT TF REQ'D THEN MOVE TT TO PLATEN #20 FINAL ASSEMBLY
STAGE
E. UNIT #105
WORK CENTER , PLATEN #20 _ FINAL ASSEMBLY STAGE
CALL OUT FOR A.S.I. O W N E R S T R U C T U R A LT N S P E C T I O N , C O M P L E T E P I C K U P
WORK, THEN SEND TO BLAST AND PAINT.
P I P E S H O P R O U TI N G
DESCRIPTION H O R KS T A T I O N
PLANNED/NTXT
0005rdt3 "
CLI=5.6775 lt t/2")
0 0 06 2 2 0 6 c L 2 = 5 . 6 7 7 "5 tt t/?")
C L T A NT X T T R N A L CLl.l7L5{57 " 14")
C L T A NI N T T R N A L D R Y H T = 2 1 6 . 2I 0 6
?.? t7.c lltT llT = 109.0618
0 00 62 2 0 6
sl 0Nt sAlt - I " 4 . 1
0006r1r3
sar cuI 2" 8-R
90'
0 0 0 7 0| r 3
I
00074608
00t27604
00rJ02t3 t5 5/6"
C LI . C L ?
SU8 ASSTHELY 9.5
GALVANIZIN6 16.2
1 0 0 0 l6l l l
PALLETIZING r 3 .I
SIORACE t t _I booe
aa o e
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p 0 0 7 0| r l
looorreoo
t 0 0r 2 7 5 0 4
r l
C. MK. I QTY. I DESCRIPTION
1
006131 38' P|PE STL SMLS SCH 40 (STD)ASTM A s3
GRB
APPLIESTO HULL 1 ONLY''*"
PALLETCODE FOR THIS ITEM = 0611 901 1
AVONDALESHIPYARDS,INC. EXXONINT CO
P.O.BOXs0280 NEWORLEANS.
I.A71050
I TITLE | ,togtto. c1-oo1s
I
I
MV.DK.
RACKPIPING
STBD.
SIDE
I
FR.7r73 PACKAGE
UNITUtvt :I DWG,NO
91618 016
I
M A T E R I A LL I S T( Q U A N T I T I EFSO R O N E S H I P )
TEM OUANTITY DESCRIPTION |\/ATERIAL SPEC ORD UNIT WEIGHT ASI SYD REMARKS
NA DATA PT NO.
2? rC4?t 9 ' 24 "
(1ip HosE^oRrsERl 67 tTP sa a MSED P A T T E R NF I O O R P L f f i R S O N OB tO
8a B O L T . H E X H D 3 4 . 1 O U N C . 2 A 2 1 1 4 'I G
@m&107
t3 /t TeaD, 9 t/t il 1/2 HosfNoRtstR ASTM A.S I7 ftPs.ft
BOLT HEXHD3/4'. 1OUNC.2A2'L B STN STI O 3377 PER ONE 0l m-52-69
5iF Atqn /b e. 2 t +P9.fr L/iR / Pq1.'! ?7,./l-.,e- : Z 1'
/t Lf t{y 4D,,. DtA-zLuqza /OtAtt ZAA
/7 /8 ,Jt u*.. 2t' - a utc 28 a a7 Pe aL/f 1-47F/2 4PP
tn
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il6 ryPt M& 45TM
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le\
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AVONDALE
AsrroBNo
SHIPYARDSINC
P O BOX 50280
cl -l5
| .!\t I
lr.-\' I NEw onLEANS, LA
70150
EXXON COMPANY, USA
L:J
DRAWN BY OATE
42,OOO DWT MUTTI.PRODUCTS
CARRTERS
P , <P l/.?-e
CHECXEDBY OATE nil. DK. ftAcK PtPnJ, sTBo. srD
Fn 70-V3 Plie(n6 ul,ttr ,
APVO
i
^[1'**,iEt27' i
li'a t*.tJW
A C l - f5
scAl,E I
1t- atB-ott
lsd6t,
approach to design for production that offers prove consideration of production factors. [4]
great promise for future application. In each designstage,an appraisal technique
can be applied to determine if the proposed
3.1.GeneralPrinciples
design has satisfactorily accounted for oper-
The general principles of design for produc- ating and productionfactors in addition to per-
tion can be summarized in the following five formance requirements and technical criteria.
points: This appraisal technique must include spe-
. use commonsense cific consideration of the production costs of
. plan and define various designalternatives. Consequently,it
. base design on available facilities and is most likely to be effective if applied to spe-
cific blocks and outfit units for which estimates
tools ofproduction
. simplify of construction times and costscan be readily
o standardize made. As shipyards develop experience in
productive construction techniques by prob-
In applying these principles, the systemout- lem area (such as double bottoms, slow-speed
lined in Figure 6-31 has been proposedto im- dieselenginerooms,etc.),engineerswill be di-
228 SHIPPRODUCTION
Fig. 6-31.Improveddesigrrapproach.
rected toward more productive designs,begrn- -need for jigs and fixtures
ning with basic design. Figure 6-32 indicates -work position
typical design and production information -number of physical turns/moves
used to improve design at each design stage. before completion
For new or unusual designs,or for ship- -aids in dimensional control
yards without suffrcient information to for- -space accessand staging
mulate and analyze designsusing a formal, -standardization
quantitative model for comparison,the quali- -number of compartmentsto be
tative principles provided above form a basis entered to completework
for evaluating designand engineering.In ap- 2. Examine alternative design in the
plnng these principles, the following steps same manner.
may be taken: [5]
3.2. Standardization
1. Examine existing design. Standardizationis the principle ofdesign for
o Count the number of unique parts productionthat is likely to lead to signifrcant
r Count the total number of parts improvements in productivity. Throughout
o Count the number, type, and position the discussionof group technologyand pWBS,
ofjoints the conceptoforganization ofwork by prob-
o Evaluate the complexity of the design lem area is developed.In essence,the goal is
-simple measuring to achieve repeatability in a manufacturing
-simple manual layout situation characterizedby one-of-a-kindprod-
-complicated manual layout ucts. The same considerationapplies to de-
- CAD/CAM applicability sign. The goal is to developa group ofstand-
-required manual processing ard building blocks that can be combinedto
-required machine processing produce very different final products.
r Producibility aspects Standardization in shipbuilding is applied
- self-aligning and supporting in several steps, beginning with elementary
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G 229
PBODUCTION DESIGN
INFORMATION INFORMATION
ESTIMATES
BASED
ONPASTDATA
Fig. 6-32. Design and production information useful for improving design at various stages. I
RAWMATERIAL
BASICCOMPONENTS
STANDARD
FITTINGS
STANDARD
UNITS
DESIGNSTANDARDS
PRODUCTION
ENGINEERING
STANDARDS
SHIPBUILDING
STANDARDS INSPECTION
STANDARDS
lz-\
tv s ] s tv 1 0 . ) P
l i /)''
\ o /
UPPERLAYER
LEVEL
LOWERLAYER
LEVEL I
3 )P
---
/ l
I i I
FLA' NAI D 1V I S I O N
MAIN FLOOR FL2- 4J
GRIASI EXIRACIM
NO 2 ORAIN PUMP
, lI l l
-fl NO 2 MAIN COND PUMP
:-----.] NO I DRAIN PUMP
}|i
rl rl
l NO I MAIN CO.D PUMP
-qI NO 2 L.O.PUMP
-.1: NO I L_O.PUr'rP
)rrl
*11 42 44
|
-tl (A) BASE MODULE
FLAT NAI' DIV ISION
MAIN FLOOR F 42- L7 GREASEEXIRACIOR
DRA]N
NO 2 DRAIN PUMP
lTr NO 2 MAIN CONO PUMP
NO I ORAIN PUMP
NO I MAIN CCT.]DPUMP
NO 2 L.O.PUMP
l l | l | | l l NO ] L.O.PUMP
l l l
42 44
( B ) I . 4 O D I F I E DM O D U L E
all aspectsexist for defining a pallet by zonel the fittings exactly as shown on the drawing.
problem area./stage.This entails grouping in- Well-planned piece numbers can sometimes
formation by pallet on a set of documents as convey a required or recommendedfrtting
follows: sequence(seeFigure 6-38).With such plan-
ning performed for them, workers are then
o fitting instruction, a compositearrange- able to concentrateon understanding the work
ment indicating the locationsof frttings processesso that they may better participate
o material list for frtting (MLF), identi- in efforts to constantly improve productivity
fying the fittings necessaryto perform and quality.
the work specifiedby the pallet
o manufacturing instructions and their
3.3.2.DesignDevelopmentby Zones.The same
material lists (MLP and MLC), which principle which governs grouping material
are necessaryto custom manufacture by zone leads to development of the por-
certain frttings that are listed in the tions of all systemsin a zoneat the sametime.
MLF, such as pipe pieces,ladders, or In contrast, conventional design progresses
drain collectingtanks systemby system,ignoring zone-by-zone hull
construction,which is universal for construc-
On such documents, material is attributed ting weldedhulls. Thus conflictsare inherent
only to location. Manufacturing and fitting in any outfit stratery which is not zone ori-
workers are not encumbered with material ented. Due to different priorities, valuable
assignedby function. For example,a stopvalve time is used at the beginning of a system-by-
for a fuel oil transfer pump is codedas a com- system detail design effort developing por-
ponent for a specific zonelproblem area./stage tions of systems that will not be neededfor
by a piece number and pallet number. Des- sometime.
ignating the valve as one of the valves in the Scheduling of design developmentwork
fuel oil piping system is extraneous and re- must be done so that information is grouped
quires more understanding than is neces- by zone.For example,pipe runs in the same
sary for manufacturing and fitting work. Thus, zone,regardlessoftheir system affrliations,
piece and pallet numbers are used for iden- are developed at the same time and are ar-
tiffing materials on work instructions, on ma- ranged parallel to eachother wherever possi-
terial lists, during palletizing, and during outfit ble. This is an essential means for shifting
work on-unit, on-block,and on-board. much fitting work from inefficient piece-by-
Following such fitting work, there is pieceoutfrtting on-board to outfitting on-unit
often need for function identifrcation. such as in a shop where safety, quality, and pro-
for marking and testing work. Thus, the em- ductivity are enhanced.Thus, planning pipe
ployment of piece numbers codedto identify routes, pipe piecetypes, and locationsofpipe
functional as well as geographical attributes supports on fitting instructions is a very im-
is prudent. portant function. Such concerns must be re-
Material assigned geographically frees flected in contract drawings, such as general
manufacturing and frtting workers from the and machinery arrangements, after careful
need to comprehendrelatively complexknowl- and comprehensiveplanning. Approachesfor
edge of the purposes of fittings. They need achievingzoneorientation include:
only understand the associationof piecenum-
bers with fittings illustrated on a drawing . showing pipe passagesreservedfor
to match the numbers to those on fittings in multiple pipe runs on contract arrange-
a provided material kit (pallet) and install ments, parbicularlyin congestedzones
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G 233
I
sw.roa['l
h
--\
fl
PIPE PASSAGE
PIPE PASSAGE
. aligrung pipes on their outside diameters All machinery, equipment, and pipes are
instead of their centerlines(seeFigure arranged to ensure minimum production costs
6-43), to simplify supports with specialemphasison man-hours required.
This objectiveis achievedby applying the prin-
3.3.3. Product Orientation.Group technolory ciple that performing outfrt work at the ear-
shipbuilding is product oriented. Items such liest stage, on-unit, costs less, whereas per-
as pipe pieces and outfit units are regarded forming outfrt work on-board is harder and
as interim goals or interim products and are most expensive. The following are some
manufacturedor assembledon real or virtual outfitmeasures
applied gqptls
to reduce nnd
production lines (processlanes). make work easier:
SHIPDESIGNAND ENGINEERING 235
IMPROVED
IMPROVEO
. machinery and equipment which are . commonfoundations are used for such
functionally affiliated are, when practi- machinery, and immedi ately adjacent
cal, arranged closetogether (seeFigure walkways and piping share common
6-44),to fan\itateparkagrng
in urrits suppofts
236 SHIP PRODUCTIOI..
CONVENTIONAL IMPROVED
I
I
II
---t
I
I
J
I
I
II
II
I
I
II
I
I
I
I
ting, and painting. No one type of work pro- adjacentto blockjoints for accessdur-
ceedswithout an evaluation of its cost impact ing erectionwelding (seeFigure 6-47)
on another. Sometimes additional structural . as much as practical, blocks, particu-
weight or hull construction man-hours can Iarly for engine room flats, are defined
result in outfrt savings which more than off- to be stable when upside down and
set the additional costs.Consequently,many when right side up (seeFigure 6-48),
hull features and block boundaries may be in order to facilitate downhand outfit-
determined in consideration of outfrt conven- ting on ceilings and decks
ience.For example: o to facilitate fitting pipe penetrations
on-block,shelf plates (portions of bulk-
. blockjoints for engine room doublebot- heads or decks) are provided (see
tom blocks are locatedabovethe grat- Figure 6-49)
ing level, so that fitting can progress . beamswith less depth are used to
in this normally congestedregion to the facilitate frtting pipe runs (see Figure
fullest extent before hull erection, and 6-46),sincethe man-hours savedmore
spacedoesnot have to be reserved than compensatefor the thicker beam
plates required, as compared to those stage should be completed before the next
for beams designedonly from a strength stagecommences. As apractical measure,over-
viewpoint lapping the various stagesis essential.Succes-
o trunks are provided in deckhousesfor sor stagesnecessarily start before all prereq-
vertical pipe and electric cable runs, uisites are completed.The following approach
even at the expenseofincreased weight may be employed to permit this shortening of
(seeFigure 6-40) the total time to completethe design cycle.
As shown in Figure 6-50, a preliminary
3.3.5. Overlapping Design Stages. Theoreti- effort for transition and work instruction de-
cally, for design and production matters, each sign starts at C', employing incomplete infor-
POSITION FOfilUTFITTING
Fig. 6-48. Blocks are designed to be stable right side up and upside down.
mation from the functional design process.At ple, preparation of a mooring systemplan, as
C, the key plans from functional design are shown in Figure 6-13, requires some idea of
complete enough to undertake the major part how transverse and longitudinal strength
of transition and work instruction design, members will be arranged beneath the fore-
becausethe number and extent of omissions castle deck. At the same time, preparation
(reservations) are not great enough to pre- of the hull construction plan (fore body) re-
vent substantial progress. By C" the func- quires some knowledge of the major holes
tional design omissionsare frlled in, adjust- (penetrations) and reinforcements in deck
ments are made to adjacent concernsas nec- structure needed for the mooring system.
essary,and the frnal key plans are issued.At Application of overlapping logic is essential.
D', suffrcient transition and work instruction Individuals charged with preparing the per-
design is completed,and the overlapping logic tinent hull structural and outfrt key plans
is repeated.During overlap,there is constant meet for the purpose of reviewing drawings
communication of requirements and inter- for a previously built similar ship and./orde-
change of information, as represented in the sign module. Their objective is to preliminar-
figure by the two-headed arrows. Aithough ily locate outfrt components and structural
some rework results from the calculated risk members.Then, both plans are developedsep-
to overlap stages, the benefrt of shortening arately until enough progresshas been made
the period between contract award and deliv- to justify a secondcoordination meeting. At
ery more than compensatesfor the addedcost that meeting, arrangementsand dimensions
of the rework. are finalized.
The overlapping logic has wide-rangrng Vendor drawings, such as for boilers and
application in such areas as outfrtting and winches,are frequently delayed.Reasonsin-
structural design, delayedvendor drawings, clude the sometimesextensiveapproval pro-
material lists, and pallet defrnition. cessesrequired. Overlapping is appropriate and
Certain hull structural key plans are consequently design development continues.
required concurrently with some outfrt key Preliminary compositearrangements and fit-
plans.Cross relationships exist and there is ting drawings are produced using drawings of
need to progresssimultaneouslyto minimize similar vendor equipment. For this purpose,
the duration of functional design. For exam- classifying and filing information about pre-
B
MEETING
PRODUCTION
viously employed vendor equipment is very The greatest benefit is the contribution such
important. Accumulation of such knowledge formats make to widening the philosophy of
disclosessimilarities and the realization of standard material usage.
somestandardization.
Overlapping logic is inherent in the tech- 3.4.DesignChanges
niques for defining material in MLS and MLF,
Becauseeven seemingly conventional mer-
as describedin Parts 2.2.2.and2.4.2.,respec-
chant ships are relatively complex,designers
tively. Listing all required materials on MLS
during functiona] design by actual counts or
{requent\ye\co\\ter d,es\gn
rhanges.T\.rese
may be due to revised requirements or to
estimatesis a techniquefor quickly initiating
procurement.Later, as material defrnition is approval comments by an owner, classifica_
refined during work instruction design, the tion society,or other regulatory body, or due
to a revised build strategy or insufficient de-
defrnite quantities by pallet, obtained from
sign department study and developmentwork.
MLF, are substituted for those previously
The numbersof such changescan be reduced
obtained from MLS.
and the impact of the remainder can be
Overlapping logic is also inherent in the
minimized by specificallyorganized pre-
definition of pallets as describedin Part 2.8.1.
parations and countermeasures.Changes
Initial coordinationoutlines rough pallets, the
in naval ship constructionare also common,
seconddefines the pallets, and the third fi-
due to similar causesplus the desire to in-
nalizesthem.
corporate the latest technologyin combat sys-
3.3.6. Format Standardizationfor purchase Or- tems. In fact, an extensivesystemto deal with
der Specifications.Materials known by many changeorders is in existenceand is a major
names, such as raw materials, machinery, considerationin naval ship constructioncon-
equipment,tools, spareparts, and fabricated tracts.
components,can be conveniently ordered by
referenceto a national or manufacturer's stan- 3.4.1. Sources.Somecausesof designchanges
dard. In such cases a standard code readily are suggestedby the following:
substitutes for a technical description in a
purchase order specifrcation.However, for a . owner
particular item that will probablybe required - different thinking and preferences
-market changes
again, whether standard or not, it is often
-different practices
necessaryto specify optional features that
-specialty
are offered by the manufacturer. For such
items, a standard formal purchaseorder speci- r classificationsocietyand other regula-
fication should be prepared (seeFigure 6-51), tory bodies
-application of new rules and regula-
so that a designersimply fills in blank boxes.
The benefrtsare: tions
-application of recommendations
o unification of design philosophy -different interpretations of rules
. clear identification offeatures to be and regulations
checked o production department
o fast issue -revised fitting stages
o reduction in skill levels required to -revised pipe joint locations,etc.
prepare specifications -revised fitting positions of outfit
. ready understanding by manufacturers components
ofwhatis specified -revised manufacturing processes
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G 241
STEAM WINOLASS
HEC\Y
wceH
TYPE, (SYMM-
GAPACITYi T RI C }
ANO
OUANITY
x
a
z
9
F
o
F
a
z
c H A r Nr Y P E lf--luq dia- U-3 Kater shacl
srcwr L:6t | \, trt .r u. rq ^i _ dia. xl
dF q^wsEt | mo dia x mo lm
oFUM llmd(Crmcdlatc
TYPs lflanse- Y.' /N;l I }lff^" I ct',"o.
a I p--^'.
4 Opcntba, lMmul/Hvdro
Remore-lYc.Iol I Oomtron.
MHE PIITE E o g i i s hh ii .. |
J a o a o s e l ,,ll E | llMetrrc i. I Foot .pound
EGides rhe aoove. thc details of 9ar!iculars. Ertsials, acc6g rica , 3pare
pa(rs. tests. insoectrons, and oaiotinS accord !tth lhe provisim oa STAr\DA-
RDS OF \i.\Rl\E INDOSTRI9S and the folloriags :
I S P E C T F T C A T T O NF O R MATERIAL COO
362100000/362200000
STEAM W I NDLASS
l
242 SHIPPRODUCTION
(v
o FSEARCH
OF AUYERS
PNACTICES
t t ,
T.l
\,2
T,EGENDS
E :. . . . Bold Iine blocks are offi cial
the effects of the change, and sometimes re- bility. The consolidation phase includes re-
quest that other groups stop design work view ofthe concernedgroups'inputs, a deci-
wherever there is to be impact. sion to proceed,if possible,without other than
The study phase conductedby each con- shipyard approval, a decisionand submittal
cerned group typically includes preparation with cost adjustment as appropriate for owner
of sketches,examination of technical possi- and./orclassifrcationsociety approvals, and
bilities, preparation of a cost estimate, ascer- informing the concernedgroups when to in-
taining impact on the design schedule,and itiate revisions of plans. Changeswhich are
presentation of frndings to the engineer in small in scopemay require some or none of
charge ofthe group having lead responsi- the foregoing,dependingon their natures.
4. CAD/CAM
The use of computers in the shipbuilding . accuracy control
industry began in the early 1950s and has . quality assurance
progressedsteadily sincethat time. Used in- o inventory control
itially as accounting tools, computer applica- o evaluating
tions have expanded to include many of the
standard naval architectural computations. Additionally, the use of computer simulation
The many current or potential uses of the and virtual reality is becoming more common
computer in shipyards are not all strictly in design and manufacturing applications and
covered by the CAD/CAM terminolory. For may also find increasing use in the shipbuild-
example, a list of computer-aidedfunctions ing industry. Consequently, the term CAD/
could include: CAM must be expanded.The resulting pro-
cessis oft,enreferred to as computer-integrated
. computer-aideddesign (CAD)
manufacturinC (CIM).
. computer-aided drafting
ACAD/CAM orCIM systemis a combina-
. computer-aided engineering (CAE )
tion of hardware and software. The ultimate
. computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) goalof sucha systemis depictedin Figure 6-53.
o computer-aided material definition
[7] The user interacts with the computer via
o computer-aidedprocessplanning
a graphicsterminal, designingand manufac-
(CAPP)
turing a part from start to finish, while coor-
dinating with the complete shipbuilding sys-
Applications of the computer in shipbuilding
tem. Information from the design and manu-
include:
facturing functions is available and transmit-
o estimating ted via a common central data base. which
. design may include a complete 3-D product model.
. engineering Applying the CAD features, the designer
. drafting may construct a geometric model, perform
o planning required engineering analyses,perform kine-
o scheduling matic studies, and produce plans and work
o accounting instructions. Employing the CAM functions,
. purchasing the user creates N/C instructions, controls
. material control robots, performs process planning for the
. numerically controlled (N/C) operations entire construction process,and coordinates
r robotics with a shipyard management system. Pur-
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G 245
chasing and material control are also coordi- are no standard hardware requirements,
nated through the common data base.While but typical systemsmay include mainframe-
many systems have the CAD functions inter- based systems with terminals and/or inde-
faced, with the exception of some N/C pro- pendent workstations or personalcomputers
gramming capability, most systems do not (PC),often linked by local area networks G,AN.
have CAM interfaces.The major problemfac- In addition to plotter and printer outputs,
ing shipbuilders in the application of CIM is data outputs such as N/C tapes and direct ma-
the lack of a unified shipbuilding data base chine control information may be used. Con-
that provides the capability of interfacing siderableeffort has been expendedand pro-
with all the applicationsmentioned above. gress made toward the development of stan-
dards for the direct electronic interchange of
4.1. Hardwareand Software
data. The standards include the Initial
CAD/CAM systems have been developedin Graphics ExchangeSpecification(IGES) for
two ways: hardware alone or hardware/soft- the transfer of graphic data, and the Stan-
ware combinations.While numeroussystems dard for the ExchangeofProduct Data (STEp),
ofboth types are available,there is no indus- a more robust product data exchangestan-
try standard. Computer hardware changes dard. Programs in the United States and
rapidly and computer systems evolve based Europe are expanding data exchangestand-
on the latest hardware availability. There ards availability and application. [8, g, 10]
G E O M E T R IM
CO D E L I N G N U M E R I C ACLO N T R O L
AUTOMATED
FACTORY
P R O C E S SP L A N N I N G
AUTOMATED
DRAFTING F A C T O RM
Y ANAGEMENT
There are many integrated ship design . numerical data on past designs
CAD/CAM programs. The most commonly o geometric data on past designs, .g.,
used are AutoSHIP (Canada),FORAN (Spainl, hull forms
HICADEC(Japan and Denmark), HULLTECH . weight and space scaling laws
(England),NAVSEA CAD-2 (U.S.A.), NAPA . systems and equipment
(Finland), and TRIBON (Swedenand Ger- . structural design data
many). AutoSHIP, developedby Coastdesign, . resistance and propulsion data
is aimed at small and medium-sized ship- . engine performance data
yards. FORAN is licensed for use by more . sea spectra
than 100 shipyards in 19 countries. It is de- o cost data
veloped by Senemar. HICADEC was origi- . typical block plans
nally developedin Japan by Hitachi Zosen. . typical outfit units
Additional development,including production . shipyard (or national) standards
management and robotic programming has r material lists (MLS, MLF, MLC, MLP)
been added to the system by OdenseSteel
Shipyard of Denmark. HULLTECH is the 4.2. CADOutouts
follow-on product to the BRITSHIPS system, The eventual outputs of a CAD system that
currently developedby the BMT Group. NAV- is part of an integrated CAD/CAM system
SEA CAD-2is an integratedsystemdeveloped will be both hard copy materials, including
by Intergraph initially to support design, con- plans, lists, and work instructions, and com-
struction, maintenance, overhaul, and re- puter data transmitted to workstations, such
pair of U.S. Navy ships. NAPA is the latest as N/C burners, pipe-bendingmachines,and
version of the system developedinitially by robots. Systems that completely bypass the
the Wartsila Corporation, now updated and hard copy stage and simply transmit data to
maintained by a separate company. TRI- be stored and retrieved by computerson the
BON is the result of the integration of three ship, in the owner'soffice,at the classifrcation
other pnrgrams,AUTOKON, STEERBEARand societyand regulatory body offices,and at the
SCHIFFKO. It is developedand maintained machines or workstations within the ship-
by KockumsComputer Systems(KCS) and is yard are under development. Current sys-
the most widely used system in large ship- tems employhard copyoutputs that are used
yards worldwide.[11] to perform the necessaryfunctions. As de-
These and other computer systems con- scribed in Section 2.5., many shipyards em-
tinue to progress.Most have direct NC links ploy the computer capability housed within
for functions such as lofting and cutting of the mold loft to producethe various types of
plate and stiffeners. Somealso provide addi- outputs required.
tional capabilities, such as pin jig setting, Application of a CAD/CAM system per-
N/C bendingof plate, stiffeners,and pipe,and mits the evaluationof additional designoptions
roboticprogramming.Most require the devel- as well as consideration of alternate build
opment of a 3-D product model, although strategies. Computer-generatedplans, lists,
basic design, especiallyas a part of market- and work instructions [12]|may be used for
ing, may still be doneusing simpler 2-D mod- the various designcyclestagesas well as ship-
els. Developmentof an integrated data base building managementfunctions, including:
remains a high priority for the eventual coor-
dinated application of CAD/CAM or CIM sys- . general arrangements;basic design
tems in shipbuilding. Information requiredin . key plans; functional design(seeFigure
the data baseincludes: 6-54)
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G 247
OENERAL IOTES
]]Fi
i
@l
i
( EY P r A N
Fig.6-54.CAD-generated
keyplan.
A . . . . a . . . a . ' a . . . . o o r . r . . . . . . . . . . . 8 .
C..4.......0
Te.Q(A-O)- T U S O= 60.5 I i.9l A s ] H A 1 0 6 G R A O EI - L : 15?6 Hr
rlnlz A C.H.
----aR---^"-- I ------------i
i-----0x---oy----oz--;;i;;;;;-:;-i.Ib
:18
lrir(
I .0 {5.0 910. 0. 0. t :
c ter.,.r qs.Q :QE ?5C. -2..c. 0 . ! -'.ANGIA :
0 .0 .0 :C,l J G r .l \r. Q. ;f 2t { q O 9 . t0 :
----IOY l!00. -2n0. 0
DlAG0rrrLl i A-8: 9r0/tl-C: J6r./C-O: -\C0/
l'lR.I(r--F)- TUEO: tir0.J X S.9r ASTX A l0o GRAoEI - t- : t95 Hrr
TUSOFLTI'O / ,,-e : r.50 Hy ./ l,.ra.F-a-3 :
-e---^i{----AP--:------Ox----Oy----Ol--:-----------^CCt--,SCnI_--_--__----; 90. 6pAoI
7 .0 .0 :Ss 0. 200. 0 . l F r A f r G l A2 r N q O ? . 1 0 :
OtAGONAI.I: E-F: 23O/
Fig. 6-55.CAD-generated
work instruction.
. the ability to transfer data in digital With these added capabilities, support for
form to shipyard design offrcesand production efforts by other shipyard organ-
manufacturing facilities izations, such as design, engineering, pur-
. the ability to establish and employ chasing, and material control, is enhanced
shipyard standards (see Figure 6-57). The coordinatedsystem
. the ability to assembleand "lock-in" will lead to simplification of all aspectsof
successfulbuild strategies and the design and production process(see Fig-
procedures ure 6-58).[121
5. Models
The designcycledescribedin Section2 has as improving transition and work instruction
a major feature the transition from systemto design. The models also provide significant
zone during transition design. The compos- benefrtsto production, planning, and sched-
ites produced during this design stage are uling personnel.
critically important. Since they reflect the Design models,formerly done as full-scale
way the ship will be built, the composites mock-upsor as scaledplasticmodels,[13]per-
directly affect the productivity of the ship- mit design to be done in three dimensions,
building project.They also are the basisupon rather than on the more traditional two-di-
which engineersperforming work instruction mensional drawings. The benefrtsof visuali-
design do their work. The use of designmod- zation of the space and the items to be in-
els has provento be an effectivetechniquefor cluded within the spaceare apparent. Mod-
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G 249
SCHEEIJLE
REVIEW
FEPORT
WEEKTYHRS. EOUlV, WEEKLYO.T, EOUIV. O,T, WEEKLYH8S, EQUIV, WEEKLYOJ, HRS. EQUIV.
O,T.
HRS,8/4 MAI,IWEEKS
8/4INITIAL
IgSUE MANWEEKSAFIERINIT1AL
ISSUE MAI.{IVEEKS
AFIEF INITIAL
ISSUEMANWEEKS
TOTAL
#OFDRAWINGS 8
TOTAT
f OFDflAWINGS
WNHNOHOUR$
SPENT
PRODUCTION
EFFORTS
PROCESSLANES
CONSTRUCTION
UNIT/ZONE
OUTFITTING
Fig. 6-57.CAD/CAMfuture.
ern computer systemsnow permit the use of The benefrts of design models may be
3-D solid computer modelsfor design.Design summarized as follows:
using inclusive virtual reality may also be
employedto improve both the designand the o An arrangement existing in three
pttrdu$tr\\ytrttht produr\\on
etfort. dimensions groupthinking
f aci\rtates
250 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
D E S I G NE N G I N E E R I N G
Design Resource
Analysis Requirement
' /
/
Process Manufacturing Numerical Tooling Fabrication Assembly Inspection
Planning Control Control
MANUFACTURING
ENGINEERING
and checking, thus minimizing errors in . A design model is a data bank, per-
design (interferences) and rework in mitting retrieval of prior practice and
production. use in negotiations with prospective
. Alternatives in design and production customers.
are more easily evaluated.
References
. The model permits better use of less
1. Chirillo, L.D., R.D. Chirillo and Y. Okayama,
well trained personnel in design,
Designfor Zone Outfitting, National Ship-
planning, and production.
building ResearchProgram, Maritime
. Build strategy communications Administration in cooperationwith Todd
between production, production PacifrcShipyards Corp., September1983.
engineers, and designers are 2. Evans,J.H., "BasicDesignConcepts,"ASNE
enhanced. J ournal, November1959.
. Problem resolution is enhanced. 3. Price, R.A., ProcessLanes and Design Engi-
. neering for Zone Outfitting, Manufacturing
Design progress is readily apparent.
Technologyfor Shipbuilding, Shipbuilding
. Communications with owners concern- TechnologyTransfer, Maritime Administra-
ing vessel operations, requirements for tion in cooperationwith Avondale Shipyards,
maintenance and overhaul, and other Inc.,June 1984.
matters are enhanced and are more 4. Kuo, C., K.J. MacKallum and R.A. Shenoi,
"An Effective Approach
timely. to Strrrctural Desigrr
. for Production,"Royal Institute of Naval
Communications with regulators are
Architects, London, Spring 1983.
similarly enhanced.
5. Lamb, T. Engineeringfor Ship Production,
r The model is an effective training tool National Shipbuilding ResearchProgram,
for people in design, planning, produc- Maritime Administration in cooperation
tion, and production control. with University of Michigan, 1985.Also
S H I PD E S I G NA N DE N G I N E E R I N G 251
"Lecture Notes,"University of Washington,
1 0 Lovdahl, R.H., et al, "The NIDDESC Ship
Ship Production TechnologySeminar, 1982 Product Model: The STEP Solution,"Jozr-
and 1983. nal of Ship Production, February, 1994.
Ichinose,Y., "Improving Shipyard Production 1 1 .Ross.Jonathan. "The Influence ofInte-
with Standard Componentsand Modules," grated CAD/CAM Systems on Engineering
SNAME STAR Symposium,1978. for ProductionMethodologiesin Shipbuild-
7 . Calkins, D.E., "CAD/CAM Technology- ing." 1995NSRP Ship Production Sympo-
Lecture Notes,"University of Washington, sium. Seattle.
September1983. 12. Waterbury, R., "ComputerAssistedProcess
8 . Murphy, James, "NIDDESC-Enabling Planning-Key to Cost Savings,"Assembly
Product Data Exchangesin Marine Indus- Engi neering. June t 980.
try," Journal of Ship Production,February, 1 3 . Volmer, W.B., Useof ScaleModels as a
1994. M anagement?ool, National Shipbuilding
Grischner,Burton, and GregoryMorea, ResearchProgram,Maritime Administra-
"NIDDESC-IGES Developments," tion in cooperationwith Todd Pacific Ship-
Jour-
nal of Ship Production, February, 1994. yards Corp.,May I974.
CHAPTER VII
P L A N N I N G , S C H E D U L I N G ,A N D
P R O D U C T I O NC O N T R O L
1. Introduction
The managementof any large industrial proj- duction control. It is often consideredto be
ect, such as new ship construction and ship the "underlying managerial function." Pro-
repair, overhaul, or conversion,requires the duction control occurs during the execution
use of the related techniques of planning, stage of the managementcycle.
scheduling,and production control. The pro-
ductivity ofthe project is dependenton the co- 1.1.Planning
and Production
Organizations
ordination of material, manpower, facilities,
The type, amount, and complexityof required
capital, and information. Managing these re-
planning is closelyrelated to the type ofpro-
sourcesis the key to effrcient production.
duction organization involved. Figure 5-1 (see
Figure 7-1 shows the basic management
ChapterV) showedsomegeneralrelationships
cycle.The planning phase ofa project is the
between production organizations and plan-
Iisting of all jobs that must be performed in
ning. The imporbanceof planning and sched-
order to completethe project.As part of plan-
uling to an industrial organization based on
ning, any required ordering of the jobs must
the principles of group technology was de-
be determined,as well as grossrequirements
scribed. In particular, planning and sched-
for material, manpower,and facilities. Addi-
uling are critical to a successfulgroup tech-
tionally, estimates of costs and job dura-
nology shipbuilding system. This highly de-
tions are developedas a part ofthe planning
tailed, complex planning and scheduling,
process.[1]
which is required to productivelymanagethe
Schedulingis the laying-out of the actual
shipbuilding process,is an overall coordinat-
time order in which jobs are to be performed
ing function and controlsthe system.
in order to completethe project.Material and
manpower requirements neededat each stage
1.2.Integration
withOtherShipbuilding
of production are determined, as well as start
Functions
and frnish times for eachjob.
Production control is the monitoring of Planning, scheduling,and productioncontrol
the differencebetween actual and scheduled must be totally integrated with other ship-
performance.The analysis of and responseto building functionsin order to take advantage
this difference is the primary aspect of pro- of the applicationof g'rouptechnolog-y,Since
252
PLANNING.
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL 253
1.3.Networks
Fig. 7-1. The management cycle. In defrning planning and scheduling,the need
to identify independentjobs or activities and
the product-orientedwork breakdown struc- an order of precedencefor these jobs was
ture is concernedwith work flow organizedto described.These data represent the prereq-
obtain the benefrtsof mass production,wher- uisites for employing the primary techniques
ever possible,planning becomesthe medium of the Critical Path Method (CPM) or the
through which this build strategy is adopted Program Evaluation and Review Technique
and transmitted to production. The build stra- (PERT).Both are basedon networks.Although
tegy considers the shipyard's capabilities, it is rare in shipbuilding to actually employ
standards, and preferences(seeFigure 7-2), formal CPM or PERT algorithms, network-
and combinesthose with the contract or cus- ing ofsubsetsofthe total projectis often used
tomer requirements. It is reflected in the to aid in planning and scheduling.
block plan and key date master schedule, Networks are formedby connectingevents,
including material requirement dates. The represented by nodes, with activities, nepr-
build strategy can involve preliminary and sented by arrows. Events occurat the star"tor
detailed stages. It provides input to design completionof an activity. Consequently,they
and includes strategic, tactical, and detailed involve no passageof time. Activities corre-
254 SHIPPRODUCTION
OPERATIONA
CLO N D I T I O N S
. R E S O U R CC EAPABILITY
. RESOURCEAVAILABILITY
. FACILITYCAPABILITY
. FACILITYUTILIZATION
. BUILDING PROGRAM
. WORKINGPRACTICES & SUBCONTRACT POLICY
. I N D U S T R I AELN V I B O N M E N&I I N F R A S T R U C T U R E
. CLIMATIC ENVIBONMENT
. OFGANIZATION STRUCTURE
. C O R P O R A TR EE O U I R E M E N T S
.I\.,|ATERIAL SUPPLY
. STANDAFDS
. RELATED EXPEBIENCE
CONTRACT
REQUIREMENTS
SPECIFICATION
PRODUCTION
PHASES
. QUALITY
. COMPONENT MANUFACTUFE
. QUANTITY
. FIRST.STAGE
ASSEMBLY
. MtssroN . SECOND.STAGEASSEMBLY
REQUIREMENTS . INTEGRATEDASSEMBLY
. STANDARDS .ON BLOCKINSTALLATION
CONTBACT . ON-BOAFDINSTALLATION
. T I M EC O N S T R A I N T S . COMPARTMENT COMPLETION
. CASHFLOW . PAINTING
. PENALTIES . ELECTRICCABLEINSTALLATION
DRAWINGS
. CONFIGURATION
. S Y S T E M SR E L A T I O N S H I P
STRATEGY
PRIMARL
YE V E L
7'
i
I
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL 255
F Mr\roNtsEDrREMEi.Ts
9.El!'r
I
s r e B uL o , r o" o r c v
iFar"l
1
PRELIMINARY BUILD STRATEGY
'^'JblF;;5:fi".L-+:" ::!xi\
()
lI " I- "
I+ II lI l
DETAILED
B U I L DS T R A T E G Y
I
,-*,
pE<cN_l
r l
I rI It
F.l^"^,
I
NIEFFEFENCE FFEE
ARFANGEMENTS
INTEFFEFENCE
F F E EA F F A N G E M E N I S
& FEGULATOFY
APPFOVAL
spond to the actual performanceof work and logical flow of the network, it is occasionally
thus have times or durations associatedwith necessaryto utilize one or more dummy ac-
them. Precedenceis expressedin terms of ac- tivities, shown in Figure 7-4 as Dr. Dummy
tivities that are immediate predecessorsor activities may be usedwhere different activi-
immediate successorsof other activities. An ties have the same immediate predecessor
activity that must occur immediately before and immediate successor.They are also re-
another activity is called an immediate prede- quired when the project contains groups of
cessorof the secondactivity. Similarly, an ac- two or morejobs which have some,but not all,
tivity that must occur immediately after an- of their immediate predecessorsin common.
other activity is called an immediate succes- With the duration of each activity known, it
sor ofthe secondactivity. is now possibleto determine the minimum
The following exampleof building a steel project duration by frnding the critical path.
block (block 1-2) which consistsof two sub- A path through a network is a set of nodes
assemblies(subassemblies 1 and 2), each of connectedby arrows which begin at the ini-
which is made up of steel parts fabricated tial node of a network and end at a terminal
from plate, will serve to illustrate the gen- node.The length of a path is the total time it
eration of a network. Table 7-l identifies the takes to traverse the path. A critical path is
activities and their precedencerelationships. the longest path in a project network. There
Basedon Table 7-l,it is now possibleto may be more than one critical path, and the
draw the network representing this project length of a critical path is the minimum pro-
(see Figure 7-4). In order to preserve the ject duration. In the example,the path a, b, e,
256 SHIPPRoDUcTIoN
b Shippingsteelplateto a shipyard a 10
PreparingN/Ctapesforcuttingplate
d parts
Cutting forsubassembly 1 b,c I
e parts
Cutting forsubassembly 2 b,c 1
f Assemblingsubassembly 1 d 6
g Assemblingsubassembly 2 A
5
h Transporting
subassembly 1 to block
assembly site t 1
Transporting
subassembly 2 to block
assembly site g 1
Assemblingblock1-2 h,i 3
E, i, D2, j, is the critical path, with a project Computer algorithms and effectiveman-
duration of23 days. agement information systemsare essential to
The use of networks, with variations on facilitate network creation, network updating,
job duration options, can provide planning and computations for complex projects like
and scheduling with quantitative decision- shipbuilding. Advanced stochastic network
making information. PERT is used to con- simulation management systemshave been
sider activity duration uncertainties and CPM developedto better managerisk and uncer-
is used to trade offtotal cost and the shorten- tainty. Theseare not generally usedthrough-
ing of individual activities. Further exten- out the industry, although they are being ap-
sions of these techniques exist to evaluate plied in some naval shipyards for complex
resource limitations, multiple shipbuilding overhauls. The use of computer-integrated
programs, etc. A primary weakness of net- manufacturing systemsis an effectiveway to
work managementsystemssuch as PERT and dealwith the computationalcomplexityasso-
CPM is the costin time and effort required to ciated with network data generation and feed-
maintain the network. Since resourceman- back. Considerableactivity to developand im-
agementis dynamic, the network must be kept plement suchsystemsis underway, and some
current in order to be effective.This requires shipyardshave parts ofsuch integrated com-
constant feedback. purerfiy,sf,emrs
in plA0e.
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL 257
2. Planning
Overview
Shipyard planning can be viewed from two in Figure 7-6, the planning function itself is
perspectives:the total yard overview and in- concernedwith different levels of detail to sup-
dividual constructionor repairjobs. The yard port the production process.At the top, plans
overview is essentially the sum of all indi- concernthemselveswith long-rangebusiness
vidual projects, but it involves longer-term considerations,suchas market analyses,facili-
considerations, including market forecast- ties, and financing, and contain a great deal of
ing, work load forecasting,employmentfore- uncertainty. Long-rangeplans create a frame-
casting, and facility improvement forecast- work for the developmentof near-term plans.
ing. Individual project planning begins with Theseconcernthemselvesmore with contracts
the developmentof a build strategy and then in hand and probable business. Short- and
proceedsto greater levels of detail for a spe- long-rangeplans are the basesfor assigning
cifrc project. the resourcesrequired to accomplishcurrent
Some degree of planning is inherently and anticipated work and provide manage-
incorporated in each shipyard function such ment with basic guidelines neededfor busi-
as design, material control, industrial rela- ness decisions.[3]
tions, and quality assurance.By organizing
some of these functions and subfunctionsin 2.1.ShipyardPlanning
Overview
terms of commonprocesses,the formal plan- Top-levelmanagementis generally responsi-
ning, which provides the framework for com- ble for developinga corporateplan. This plan
munication, can be simplified. As illustrated typically indicates company goals projected
258 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
MANPOWER
EXPENDITURE PRODUCTION
PROGRESS
INDEX PRODUCTIVIW
INDEX
INDEX
m
tr E
tr MHRS/UT FABRICATED
WT/UT MHRS/FAERICATED
WT
z
cou SUBASSEMBLY
WTruT MHRS/SUBASSEMBLY
WT
tr ) <1,
a@ SUBASSEMBLY
WofuT SUEASSEMBLY
Wo/MHR
f
-
(n
-o
z.
U
= U
a) ASSEMBLY
WT/UT MHRgASSEMBLY
WT
o U) g) ASSEMBLY
Wp/UT ASSEMBLY
Wo/MHR
.Jt
J
J
f r
= U ERECTED
WTruT MHRS/ERECTED
WT
Y
t
UJ ERECTED
WpfuT ERECTED
WO/MHR
t
3
r 6
r MANUFACTURED
WT/UT MHRSiI\,IANUFACTURED
WT
f c MANUFACTURED
PIECES/UT MHRS/MANUFACTURED
PIECES
U
c
- :a
o
U PARAMETRIC-COMPON
ENTWTruT MHRS/PAMMETRIC.COMPONENT
WT
PAMMETRIC-COMPONENT
WTruT MHRS/PARAMETRIC-COMPONENT
WT
z =
F
tr
F
U
g)
o
l @
PARAMETRIC-COMPON
ENTWTruT MHRS/PARAMETRIC.COMPONENT
WT
LAIDCABLE
LENGTH/UT MHRSAAID
CABLE
LENGTH
ru CONNECTED
CABLEPIECES/UT MHRS/CONNECTED
CABLE
PIECES
tr PARAMETRIC-COMPONENT
WT/UT MHRSiPARAMETRIC-COMPONENT
WT
F
z. U
at) I COATED
SQUARE
METERS/UT MHRS/COATED
s U) SOUARE
METER
MHR: man-hour; UT: unit time; WT: weight; Wp: a parametnclengthfor weldingwhichtakes into accountweld stze,type, and position
STRATEGIC
PLANNING:
_ PROFITPLAN
- SALESPLAN
_ KEYEVENTSSCHEDULE
TACTICAL
PLANNING:
_ PRINCIPAL
EVENTS
SCHEDULE
- BLOCK
ERECTION
SCHEDULE
- PRELIMINARY
PALLET
SCHEDULE
OPERATIONAL
PLANNING:
_ PALLET
SCHEDULE
_ DRAWINGSCHEDULE
IMPLEMENTATION
- SHOP
SCHEDULES
ance in terms of the need for biddine on new ceilings when performed downhand, is far
contracts.[41 more productive than outfitting on-board.
A long-range facility plan, based on the Whether such work is effectively planned
market analysis,might include consideration and finally incorporatedin zonelproblemarea/
of the needfor improved work performancein stageworkinstructionsdependson how well
particular areas,suchas blast and coat,panel designers and production engineers com-
line, material handling, etc. It should con- municate with eachother, beginningin basic
sider land area requirements,including stor- design and continuing throughout the entire
age and buffer areas, enclosedshop space, designprocess.
offrcespace,parking requirementsand mate- Where a transition is to be made to zone-
rial delivery, and receipt capability. oriented methods,there will be significant im-
pact on designers,becausethey will have to:
2.2.ProjectPlanningand Scheduling
Overview
The most important objectiveof planning is . acquire understanding of production
to simplify work as much as possible.In order processesin terms of zonelproblem
to increase productivity, every opportunity area/stage
needs to be exploited for shifting work to o participate in devisingbuild strategies
earlier manufacturing stages,where it is safer o reflect the build strategy for each ship
and easierto perform. Outfitting on-unit in a in contract,key, yard, and work instruc-
shop is more productive than outfitting on- tion plans, as well as in similarly
block. Outfitting on-block, particularly for structured material lists
260 SHIPPRODUCTION
TIME+
T|ME_>
r-
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL 261
shopand a formal, basic planning effort which . arrange deck machinery, mooring
is implemented simultaneously with basic frttings, etc.
design. Similarly, designers are required to r perform as much painting as possible
participate in planning new facilities, because beforehull erection
such installations, particularly for ships not
built before, can affect the build strategies Assessmentof the efficiencyof block assem-
which must be incorporated in design end bly processesin terms of durations, required
products. resources,required accuracy,and quality of
During basic planning, production engi- work circumstances requires the following
neers predefrneblocks. Guidance includes a to be evaluated collectively:
proposedgeneral arrangement,midship sec-
r determinations of outfitting on-block
tion, machinery arrangement,etc., for a con-
templated ship, as well as limitations or or on-grand block
. easeofoutfitting and painting processes
other conditions which relate to the effec-
. avoidanceof damageto painted surfaces
tiveness of a particular shipyard. Such con-
siderations include the need to: and to fittings when turning over or
otherwisehandling blocks
. define blocks of maximum size and
weight permitted by the shipyard's Inasmuch as an erection master schedule
assemblyand erection facilities must ultimately control sequenceddurations
. minimize the number of blocks,if for mold loft, parts fabrication, subassembly,
necessaryby joining blocks which are assembly,and erection work, an integrated
sizedto facilitate assemblyinto grand schedulemust control all of the foregoingplus
blocks in order to exploit a large- durations, appropriatelyinterspaced,for out-
capacity crane at an erection site fitting and painting stages.[51
. identify assemblyand erection pro-
cessesconsistent with safety and the 2.2.3. Design Scheduling.Scheduling objec-
need for block accuracyand rigidity tives for design and material definition, as
. minimize scaffolding,lifting, turn- shown in Figure 7-9, [6] are:
overs,etc.
e drawing issue timing commensurate
. identify blocks which can be used as
with material lead times and produc-
patterns for other blocks in parallel
tion schedules
midbody
. design man-hour control commensurate
. identify preliminary zone,problem
with a man-hour budget
area, and stage classifrcationsfor
. material quantity control commensu-
organizing work flows and, insofar
rate with a material budget
as possible,equalizing the content of
work packagesfor block assembly, A shipbuilding master scheduleprovidesdates
subassembly,and parts fabrication for fabrication start, keel laying, launching,
Additionally, block predefrnition should con- and delivery for all ships contracted and./or
sider how to: expectedto be built during somereasonable
period (seeFigure 7-10).t7l
o fit outfrt componentsin cargo compart- As shownin Figure 7-Il, adesigndepart-
ments ment master scheduleis derived from the ship-
. install machinery and fit other compo- building master scheduleand is the control
nents in the engine room mechanism for a sequenceof other desierl
SHIPPRODUCTION
CONTRACT D E S I G NA N D
SPECIFICATIONS N,4ATERID ALEFINITION
D E S I G N S C H E D U L I N GA N D C O N T R O L
MATEBIAL
LISTS
MAJOR 5.BASICDESIGN
MILESTONES N
?
HULL
CONSTRUCTION
A rrrullsrcrr
A trusr iln Eruc
OUTFITTING A ACTSSDG
MILESTONES A oogxrnns
A SEAIRIALS
B Y E A C H D E S I G NG R O U P
a
c
< ;
D E S I G ND E P A R I M E N T D E S I G NG R O U P
MASTER SCHEDULE M A S T E R S C H E D U L ES
o ( R EF E R E N C E )
z
F
SHIPDESIGN SHIPDESIGN
MASTER SCHEDULE GROUP SCHEDULE
G
P
schedules.These control the design work for can be undertaken and to predict the needfor
specific ships and the efforts of the outfit overtime and/or subcontractorman-hours.
specialty designgroups. To support preparation ofa useful design
Design Department Master Schedule.A department master schedule,historical data
useful format for a designdepartment mas- frles must be accurately maintained. These
ter scheduleis illustrated in Figure 7-12.Nl consist of design man-hours by typical ship,
ships in the order book are addressedplus by ship type/deadweight(design man-hours
those for which orders are expected.The for- by ship are adjusted to account for atypical
mat is a combination ofi features), and design man-hours available
by month.
o a Gantt chart representationofthe Design Group Master Schedules.Within
shipbuilding master scheduleshowing controls invoked by the design departrrent
keel laying, launching, and delivery master scheduleand using the samelogic and
dates for each ship format, each of the outfit specialty groups
. S-curves,each of which showsthe ac- prepares a design group master schedule.
cumulated designman-hoursestimated This presentation enables a group manager
for eachship (seeChapter II for discus- to predict manpower shortagesor surpluses.
sion of shipbuilding S-curves) With such guidance, plans are made for
. a plot of the total estimated design manpower transfers, overtime, and./orsub-
man-hours required by month contracting in order to level and balancethe
work load imposedon each group by the de-
The latter is guidancefor leveling and balanc- sign requirementsfor all ships.
ing the designwork load. It also servesto in- The design group master schedules,to-
dicate if and when additional design projects gether with the design department master
264 SHIPPRODUCTION
- L+/
14 O BULK CARR IER SHIP OESIGN GROUP SCHEOULE OF OECK FITTING GROUP IKEYPLANSECiON
19 8 2
D@UMENTS t ] t 2 1
] llunrruurresrc
I l l
- L
] = -; sYSTEMS olAG
I : y ANO PLAN. ANt
1 @"' TNCLUD|NG T
t u - I
";
I F spEci- cAr
: I' : APPROVAL FOR
VENDOR-5 DRAW
6r I
i D SPECIFICAT
z ] srEERlrc GEA
MMRING WINCH
S T A N D A t s CT E I J
L N O N S T A N D A A DP E F
l V E N O O FS D F A f I I N G
o
N O NS T A N D A F OP5F
o S B P Y A A DS D R A W N G
z
9 M6R NG ARRANGMENT f+
ACCESS PLAN
o
L HATCts COVR
;
A
l i
A
ings with other design sections and groups, . system diagrammatics and plans
MLS completions, and forwarding dates for which define special frttings such as
owner and regulatory body approvals. cargo oil piping diagrammatics and
Each ship design group schedule is based mooring arrangements
on given material lead times and production
schedules. Special emphasis is applied to early Drawing Issue Schedules. Each outfit
scheduling of prerequisites for long-lead-time specialty group makes a drawing issue sched-
items such as: ule in separate parts for key, yard, and work
instruction plans needed for a specific ship as
. purchase specifrcations for the main shown in Figure 7-15. Purchase specifica-
engine, auxiliary machinery, and other tions and vendor drawing receipts and re-
items that can be defrned from the turns (after approval) are included. The issue
contract specifications schedules are used by engineers in charge to
. system diagrammatics and plans which monitor and control design progress and com-
specify castings, such as anchors and pletions by ship, and for reporting to group
hawsepipes managers. A booklet made up of all drawing
r
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL 267
l \ , tL ( A )
Vantrlatron Draqram
K2E30l3r ( A c c o m .)
K 29 0 0 I 3 I P r p r n q D r a { r a m( A c c o m . )
K3500t31
K3a0033r
K3500332
Fig. 7-15.Drawingissueschedule.
Fig. 7-16.Designpersonnelschedule.
budget for allocating man-hours to eachoutfit significant departure or trend away from the
specialty group. Separately, each group man- S-curve is noted during monthly entries of
ager maintains a history of standard man- actual expenditures, as in Figure 7-17, the
hour costsin terms of pertinent indices,such causeis identified and manpower shifts are
as design man-hours per electric cable unit made accordingly.
length, per piping unit length, or per unit This type of tracking is not suffrcient for
area of decks in living areas. These indices assessment,becauseit yields only an indica-
are also used to estimate the work load im- tion ofapparent progress.Real progressis mon-
posed by a particular ship design require- itored by checkoffof completionson schedules,
ment. When these estimates differ from such as for drawing and purchase specifica-
the proposedbudget allocations,the depart- tion issuesand vendor drawing approvals.
ment and group managers reconcile the dif-
ferencesbefore the design man-hour budget 2.2.5. BudgetControlLr'sf.During basic design,
is issued. all material needs for each ship are exactly
Onceman-hourbudgets are assigned,each defined or estimated by total weight by ma-
group manager is responsiblefor controlling terial family or costcode.This compilationfor
the man-hour expenditure rate, in addition a ship is the original budget control list.
to progress.Before design work starts, each The list is employedas a budget in every
group manager plans expenditures relative sense of the word. It is used to control the
to time in accordancewith an S-curve. If a subsequentdesignefforts and the production
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL 269
/-='
$7
effort so that additional material require- substituted to produce the frrst revision to
ments cannot be added without justifrcation the budget control list.
and specificapproval.By employingparame- When material quantities exceedthe bud-
ters derived from past normal performances get control list prepared during basic design,
which relate fitting man-hours to weights, the reasonsfor the differencesare examined.
the list becomesa working budget for both When confrrmed,both increasesand decreases
material and man-hour expenditures.Thus are incorporatedin a first revision to the bud-
the budget control list is a signifrcantmecha- get control list. This list becomesthe mate-
nism for controlling the costofan entire ship- rial and man-hour budget for control of the
building project. remaining shipbuilding effort, as well as feed-
During key plan preparation, the bud- back which basic designers employ to im-
geted material is allocatedby system,through prove their material definition techniques.The
the preparation of material lists by system first revision to the budget control list isjust
(MLS), which more exactly define material as important as key plans for specifyingand
needs.Items which can be countedfrom sys- controlling the work instruction plan effort.
tem plans (suchas for a mooring system)and Material lists are prepared to match fit-
diagrammatics are indicated by weight and ting work instructions (MLF) and manufac-
piece. Items which cannot be counted are turing work instructions (MLP and MLC)
listed by total estimated weight by material during the preparation of work instruction
famiiy 0r cost code.This re{ined knowiedge is plans. Detailed quantities are indicated by
270 SHIPPRoDUcTIoN
piece and./or weight by material item for all resources, and sequencing are organized in
materials. Special effort is made to stay with- groups which match the outfit specialty or-
in the material quantity limits imposed by ganization. They, too, and for the same rea-
the first revision to the budget control list. sons as for long-range planners, are inescap-
Again, reasons for differences are examined, ably involved in scheduling. Their output is
and, when confrrmed, both increases and de- a refinement of the applicable framework
creases are incorporated in a second revision prepared by long-range planners. Schedules
to the budget control list. Thus, each revi- produced at this level include:
sion, along with progress of design develop-
ment, facilitates monitoring both material . budget decisions
and man-hour costs for a current shipbuild- o milestone schedules
ing project, and provides feedback to guide r outfit group master schedules
. monthly schedules
those responsible for work in earlier stages
on the next shipbuilding project. Upon com- o weekly schedules
pletion of the shipbuilding effort, the second o pallet requirement schedules for
revision is replaced by a list of actual costs, material
which is more accurate feedback. . work instruction drawings (MLF) issue
schedules
2.2.6. Basic Scheduling. While planning is
Production schedules form the framework
primarily involved with the definition of
which assists the flow of information be-
required tasks and resources, scheduling
tween the various shipyard functions. This
provides for the commitment of allocated
information flow is necessary to ensure com-
resources to specific times. Basic planning pletion of a ship in an efficient and timely
and scheduling are inseparable for overall
manner. Schedules are control mechanisms
shipyard planning. Planning, insofar as it
and are the means by which planned work
includes the allocation ofresources and the packages are conveyed to the work force. Sched-
sequencing of work packages, is meaningful
ules vary in detail according to the function
only in the context of a specific time period
they are intended to perform and are usually
for which top management, in considera-
organized in hierarchical fashion.
tion of the shipyard's entire work load,
Scheduling is simplified by the organiza-
authorizes sufficient resources. Thus ship-
tion of information to support zone outfrtting.
yard long-range planners are inescapably
Figure 7-18 illustrates how scheduling can be
involved in scheduling. Their mixed output,
organized in a hierarchy. A principal events
which is the framework for more detailed
schedule can serve as the basic schedule for
planning and scheduling, consists of:
operations by fixing about 30 events, such as
. ship construction principal events dates for main engine landing, stern tube
schedule boring, boiler light-off, and generator tests.
. allocations by weight, cutting length, This schedule is supported by the block as-
welding length, painting area, electric sembly schedule and erection schedule. The
cable length, etc. block assembly schedule specifies when and
. man-hour allocations where blocks will be assembled and serves as
. work load scheduling the basis for determining when on-block out-
o productivity measurement fitting will be performed. The erection sched-
ule specifies when blocks and units will be
At the next level, planners who are con- joined together at the erection site and is
cerned with production methods, allocating the basis for outfitting milestone schedules.
AN
P L A N N I N GS,C H E D U L I N G , D P R O D U C T I OC
NO N T R O L 271
BLOCKERECTION
MASTERSCHEDULE
ON-BOARDFITTING
MASTERSCHEDULE
These schedules serve as the bases for more the hull, machinery, and superstructure sec-
detailed schedules. tions and fabrication shops. This process is
Each milestone schedule is further sub- illustratedin Figures7-19and 7-20.In turn,
divided to provide implementation orders to these schedulesare used to support even
a particular group. However, since they are more detailed schedules,such as monthly
all derived from the same milestone sched- and weekly schedules,as illustrated in Fig-
ule, there is coordinated implementation for ures 7-21andT-22.
3 . P l a n ningand Scheduling
The specifics of the planning and scheduling zone orientation, which occurs in transition
functions are addressed in this section. The design, begins after working detail planning
planning and scheduling process is presented has begun. The end of transition design and
in stages directly related to the design cycle working detail planning correspond. The fr-
(see Figures 7-23 and 6-1). These stages in- nal stages of design and planning and work
clude basic planning, major detail planning, instruction design and planning occur simul-
working detail planning, and work instruc- taneously. These stages of planning will be
tion planning. Basic planning parallels basic discussedin detail in Sections3.2,3.3, and 3.4.
design. Major detail planning and part of Hull construction, even for outfit-inten-
working detail planning correspond to func- sive ships, including naval vessels, imposes
tional design. The transition from system to the primary physical restrictions on the ship-
|l
272 SHIPPRODUCTION
IN EACHOF THEOUTFITTINGSECTIONS
_ PLOTDATESOF KEEL,LAUNCH,
DELIVERY
- PLOTDELIVERYTIMEOF MAJORMACHINERY
& EQUIPMENT
_ PLOTDATESOF HULLERECTION
_ ARRANGEOTHERMILESTONES TAKINGINTO
CONSIDEMTION THESEOUENCE TOACHIEVE
MILESTONES
MILESTONE
SCHEDULE
MILESTONESCHEDULES
AREPREPARED BYA STAFF
ANDAPPROVED BYTHEMANAGER OF EACHSECTION (WHOLEOUTFITTING
DEPT.)
INTHEOUTFITTING
OEPT.
_ DISCUSS (EACHOUTFITTING
SECTION/
ANDADJUSTMILESTONESCHEDULE OF
EACHSECTION,
ANOFINALLYDETERMINE SHOP)
MITESTONE
SCHEDULEOFTHEOUTFITTINGDEPT,
IN SHIPYARD
_ THEMILESTONESCHEDULE PROPOSEDBYTHE
OUTFITTING
DEPT.IS DISCUSSED TO: HULLCONSTRUCTION
DEPT
ANDFINALLY
DETERi4tNED
By MANAGERS OF THEOUTF|TTING, PAINTING
DEPT,
HULLCONSTRUCTION. ANDPAINTING
DEPTS.,
AND OUTFITTINGDEPT.
MATERIALCONTROL
_ OUTFITTING
WEIGHTAND
SIMILARITIES
IO OTHERSHIPS
- STUDYOF DESIGNAND
EQUIPMENT
_ MANPOWER AVAILABLE
- STANOARDS
_ SETDATESOF MILESTONES
SECTIONMASTER SCHEDULE
ACCOROING TO
MILESTONELIST (oN-uNtT,
oN-BLOCK,
ON-BOARD
- ARRANGEDATESOF ALL MAJORACTIVITIES OUTFITTING)
REFERRINGTOTHESCHEOULES OF SIMILAR
SHIPS ERECTION OFSUPERSTRUCTURE
_ ADJUSTTHE DATESREFERRINGTO MANPO\I/ER
AVAILABLE,
IF NECESSARY
_ SECTIONMASTERSCHEDULEIS PBEPAREO BY
STAFFANDAPPROVEO BY EACHSECTION
MANAGER
Fig. 7-20.Outfittingmasterschedule.
- CHECKMONTHLYPROGRESS
OFWORKIN
THEPREVIOUS
MONTH
_ ARRANGE
ALLMAJORACTIVITIES
OF THE
TWOMONTHSACCORDING
SUBSEQUENT
TOTHERESULT
OFTHEREVIEW
- ASSIGNPALLETCODETO EACHACTIVITY
- MONTHLYSCHEDULE
IS PREPARED BY
STAFFANDTHEOPEMTIONANDCONTROL
OF MONTHLY
SCHEDULE IS PERFORMED
BYA FOREMAN
- DETERMINEACTIVITIES
TOBEWORKED DAILY
FROMTHEMONTHLY SCHEDULE
_ DESIGNATEPALLET
CODEFOREACHACTIVITY
_ DETERMINEWEIGHTOFMATERIALS
- ALLOCATEWORKTOTHEACTIVITIESANDASK
SUPPORT FROMOTHER IF
SECTIONS/SHOPS SECTION
/SHOPCONCERNED
NECESSARY SHOPMANAGER
- PREPARATIONOFTHEWEEKLYSCHEDULEIS BY STAFF
ANASSISTANTFOREMAN
FOREMEN
- ACTIVITIES
FORTWOWEEKS AREDEFINEDON
WEEKLYSCHEDULE WHICHIS UPDATED
WEEKLY
Ftg.7-22.Weeklyschedule.
fluence the planning of hull construction . how far the key plan subgroupextends
methods. They include timely completion of preparation ofkey plans beyond owner
key and yard plans, which implies timely and classificationsocietyapproval
transition from systemto zone(interim prod- requirements,such as with more-
uct) orientation. The speedwith which these detailed sectionsand profiles
processesare executeddepends,along with . how well designersare organizedand
other factors, on: disciplined to minimize the effect of
designchangesthrough standardiza-
. the degreeto which the hull constmc- tion of designmethods and schedule
tion planning group is organizedto adherence
communicate"how to build" to the . the effectivenessofthe file ofstandard
design peopleresponsiblefor describing material items (including vendor
"what to build" in key and yard plans
catalogitems declaredas shipyard
274 SHIPPRODUCTION
z
2
2 2
;
z
standards for which design data are that the structure of work packages is con-
already available) sistent for hull construction, outfitting, and
r the degree of standardization of painting. Forecasting work loads by stages
hull construction planning items ensures that the volumes of block assembly
(procedures, scheduling, feedback, work classifred by problem area/stage are de-
basic data) termined and leveled. Also, for each work pack-
. the degree ofstandardization ofwork age classifred by problem area./stage, checks
processes(Processlanes, jigs, and are made to confirm sufficiently available
data collection and classification) facilities and space and to determine the ef-
. adequacy of work instmction plans (for fect of previously scheduled work. In addition,
example, if all work instrrrctions were a schedule tracking system is necessary to
described only in plans, assembling create feedback needed to keep work flows
a small sub-block would require a leveled and to guide future production engi-
complex drawing beyond the compre- neering developments.
hension of all but a few skilled people)
. the effectiveness of accuracy control 3.1 .2. Process Lanes. Effective process lanes
measures (see Chapter VIII) must be organized independent ofhow a con-
. organization of hull construction templated hull is to be subdivided for desig-
schedules nation of blocks, subassemblies, outfit units,
. organization ofprocess lanes and parts. System and zone are characteri-
zations of a ship design. Problem area and
The organization ofhull construction sched- stage are categories of the work process. As
ules and process lanes are important factors much as possible, zones are contrived so that
and are discussed in more detail below. they require the right kinds and amounts of
work to match preferred problem area classi-
3.1.1. Hull Construction Schedules. The inte- frcations.
grated hull construction, outfitting, and Effective, integrated process flows require
painting preschedule is an erection master both flexibility and the balancing of consid-
schedule upon which outfrtting and painting erations of the facility, production organiza-
controls are interposed. This integrated tion, design, planning, and material control.
preschedule is the master schedule which The complete portion of a process flow within
governs its own subsequent refinement and a manufacturing level is dedicated to manu-
the development of detail schedules for out- facturing one family of interim products and
fitting and painting, as well as hull construc- is subdivided into stages, each of which is
tion. Because of this interlinking, changes in specialized for the performance of one or more
the master schedule can have an adverse tasks. For example, stages in a process flow
effect on detail schedules. Thus, creation of for assembling a large quantity of similarly
schedules requires particular attention to or- sized sub-blocks are laying out, fitting, weld-
ganizing integrated work processes and fore- ing, and distortion removal. The stages, in-
casting workloads by stages. Each proposed cluding outfrtting and painting stages, are
hull construction work package classified by arranged in accordance with a sequence by
ship zone /problem area./stageshould be care- process flow and to feed interim products
fully checked for duration and its status in a where they are needed next in another pro-
sequence of such work by people responsible cess flow. For example, egg-box framing for a
for design, outfrtting, and painting. Properly flat panel block is completed near the site
organized, integrated work processes ensure where flat panel blocks are assembled.
276 SHIPPRODUCTION
SHIPDESIGNDEPARTMENT
HULLSTRUCTURAL
DESGN GROUP
i
OUTFITTING
DEPABTMENI
framework on which to impose similar needs operation between design and freld engineers
for effective on-block and on-board outfitting. is required to achieve these goals.
Thus, it is natural for the hull construction Standards and modules of production plan-
planning group to have the lead responsibil- ning may be grouped into two categories,
ity for the organization ofan integrated infor- according to the impact of the plan and the
mation system. Such efforts are also most degree ofmanagerial control exercised. Those
effective when performed systematically in plans which affect a firm's shipbuilding
accordance with standard events. In addition, system and which are common for building
such efforts are facilitated by coordination of all ships regardless of design differences are
timing for all phases of design development categorized as long-term (controlled). Short-
between the hull structural and various out- term plans are not controlled and may be
fitting design groups, and standardization of adopted and changed at the discretion of
outfitting impositions on structure, such as the hull construction department to suit
penetrations and reinforcements. particular ships to be built. Safety at work
Discussions that evaluate the required di- sites is addressed in both categories.
mensional accuracy of blocks to facilitate The following are examples of eflective pro-
outfitting concentrate on minimizing on-board duction planning standards for shipbuilding:
outfitting work. Inaccurate blocks require
more work and greater access to butts and . designer's Epidelines for production
seams during the erection stage. Special ac- processes
cess is needed for scribing and trimming -block divisions
margins and installation of numerous fitting - capacities of production processes
devices. Further, a block panel that is not flat -parts fabrication and assembly
enough requires margins in auxiliary ma- processes
chinery foundations and in supports for outfit . design standards
units to be landed. The required marking and -structural design by zone by ship
trimming during outfitting on-block is rework. type
Blocks which are inaccurate also cause some -structural calculations
pipe pieces which could have been fitted on- - structural reinforcement
block to be deferred for less efficient fitting -vibration prevention design
on-board. Thus, the number of fittings and the -design details, such as for part
efficiency of outfrtting on-block are both af- ends. scarfs. and slots
fected by the dimensional accuracy achieved -configurations of bilge keel, round
by the hull construction processes. An accu- gunnel, etc.
racy control system is necessary to address . code for manual and computer-aided
these requirements (see Chapter VIII). preparation of design details and
work instructions
3.1.4. Production Planning Standards and Mod- -slots
u/es. The goals of standardized and modular- -scallops, drain holes, air holes,
ized planning for hull construction are to manholes, and lightening holes
increase the speed, accuracy, and consistency . symbolic parts code for workers to
of production data communications, improve readily determine required parts
productivity ofproduction planning, and con- fabrication and assembly work
trive interim products which better match stage routing
production facilities and work processes. Co- -parts identification
P L A N N I N GS,C H E D U L I N G
A ,N D P R O D U C T I OC
NO N T R O L 279
-designation of required interim -standard ranges and tolerance
product manufacturing levels limits (see Chapter VIII)
. work instruction symbols standard . process standards
for designers prepared by process -work procedures for each workstation
engineers in the hull construction -checklists for each workstation
department . safety standards
-block names -safety regulations for each work-
-edge preparations station
-amounts of excess -safety checklist for each workstation
-welding processes,etc.
. work instruction symbols standard for 3 . 2 . B a s i c P l a n n i n ga n d S c h e d u l i n g
shops prepared by process engineers
During negotiations with a prospective cus-
in the hull construction department
-work instruction plans tomer, the developing basic design is reviewed
-welding control parameters by hull construction department production
-mold loft data engineers. Incorporating feedback from pro-
o parts fabrication and assembly process duction engineers in contract plans before
award avoids disruptive changes and associ-
standards
-edge preparation for each welding ated negotiation and schedule adjustment
problems after contract award.
process
-conduct of each welding process During the period when the basic design
-conduct of each parts fabrication for a ship is being investigated, the develop-
ing midship section and general arrangement
and assembly process
-correction of parts fabrication and should be critiqued by the hull construction
planning group. Such review, always with
assembly errors
regard for the need to facilitate outfitting and
painting, addresses the following items:
The following are examples of controlled stan-
dards for planning and engineering hull con- o hull structure producible with mini-
struction:
mum man-hour cost
-longitudinal frame spacing and
. design standards
shell plate thickness
-shell plate widths and thicknesses
-transverse frame spacing and shell
to minimize the number of seams plate thickness
-type of shape for longitudinals, e.g.,
-range of high-tensile steel plates
built-up tees or unequal leg angles -type of longitudinals (built-up tee,
-open or tight fit type cutouts for
angle, etc.)
passage of longitudinals o minimal scrap ratio
. accuracy performance standards -summary of the variety of plate
-welding and distortion removal
thicknesses
shrinkage factors for parts fabri- . block definition
cation and assembly processes r plate straking
-locations of frnish cuts and margins
. block assembly processes
for erection seams and butts
-criteria for cutting and assembly This timely interchange of ideas is mutually
workmanship beneficial, as the alternative is to risk more
280 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
changes,which are disruptive in drawing of- launching, and delivery for each ship under
frcesas well as in shops.As a consequenceof construction.The chart enablesthe hull con-
such input to the basic design group, a build struction planning group to check for ade-
strategy featuring productive ideas basedon quate shipyard space,such as for the storage
the principles of group technology becomes of completedblocks and for the assemblyof
part ofthe initial contract. grand blocks,to fix the positions of tempo-
rary cranesfor on-unit, on-block,and on-board
3.2.1.BasicPlanning.When possible,the hull outfrtting, and to anticipate other problems
construction planning group performs basic causedby building ships simultaneously.
plarrning before contract award. This pre- Block predefrnition is performed by pro-
award planning provides feedback to basic duction engineersusing a midship section,a
designers and a build strategy which is re- general arrangement, and sometimesa ma-
flected in block predefinition and the inte- chinery arrangement. The objective is to
grated preschedule.Theseefforts enablerapid achievehigh productivity in the integration
startup on contract award. of hull construction,outfrtting, and painting.
A formal release of contract drawings, Major considerationsare special hull struc-
which marks the end of basic design,enables ture and other features, special owner re-
the hull constructionplanning group to frnal- quirements, and master plans for outfitting
ize basic planning. Specificplans and sched- and painting processes,such as for holds,
ules that are frnalized at this time include steel engine rooms, etc. The block predefinition
material procurementplans and the schedule plan is produced in two parts, a midship
for issuing key and yard plans. Thereafter, sectionblock predefinition plan and a general
the basic planning guides production tactics, arrangement block predefinition plan.
the flow of information from design,the sched- A productionengineerusesthe block pre-
ule for integrated design development,and definition plan to developa hull construction
the preparation of work instructions. During processesplan. This plan must be developed
these activities, the hull construction plan- to the satisfaction of the hull construction
ning group assumesleadership. department, shop,and sectionmanagersand
the senior production engineer. It includes
3.2.2. Basic Hull ConstructionProduction Plans the following sections:
and Schedules.Based on the formally re-
leased contract plans, the hull construction . block definition on a midship section
planning group preparesbasic hull construc- . size, weight, and quantity of blocks by
tion plans and schedules,including: each category(bottom, side, longitudi-
nal bulkhead, upper deck, etc.)
o hull erection layout plan ojoiningblocksto creategrand blocks
. block predefrnition plan r erection sequence,including se-
. hull constructionprocessesplan quencesby block categories
. hull erection master schedule . specificapplication of nesting, mark-
. budget control work volume ing, and cutting methods,and a scrap
o shipbuilding activity timing schedule ratio target
. block assemblyprocessesand differ-
The hull erection layout plan is prepared in ent aspectsofthe processesfor each
bar chart form. It is basedon the shipbuild- categoryofblocks representedin a
ing master schedule,which provides dates midship sectionwhich showsmain
for start fabrication, keel laying, shifting, and internal structure
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL 281
FLOOR
PLATES
Fig.7-27(a) Fig.7-27(bl
Fig.7-27(c) Fig.7-27(d)
I
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL 285
6 14 ia
ration of product-oriented work instruction wise, managers could not achieve effective
plans. This phased detail planning effort in- operation of integrated processlanes.
cludespreparation ofi Immediately after the contract drawings
are released,the hull construction planning
o detailed hull constructionproduction group starts detail planning of work pro-
plans (major and working) cessescommensuratewith the contractplans
. a schedulefor coordinatingthe efforts and the block predefinition plan. The effort is
ofthe hull structural design group divided into two phases,major and working.
(particularly for yard plan issue dates) It is characterizedby constantinterchangeof
and all shopsofthe hull construction information with the hull structural design
and outfrtting departments group to ensure that the contemplatedbuild
. man-hour budgetsbasedon parameters strategy is incorporatedin key and yard plans
that are peculiar to each shop'sinterim as they are being developed,and the build
product specialty strategy is adjusted,ifnecessary, as a con-
sequenceof owner and regulatory body ap-
The most essential aspect of the hull plan- proval commentson key plans.
ning group's efforts to facilitate integration of Figure 7-29 shows the production plan-
outfrtting and painting is introduction of a ning flow for hull constmction.The documents
product-oriented build strategy as early as prepared by the hull structural design group
possible.Thereafter, plans and schedulesare and the outfitting department are identified.
refined until there is defrnition of a number Figure 7-30 shows a production scheduling
of sequenced,short-rangeobjectives(blocks) flow for hull constructionwhich is organized
which are classifiedby problem area. Other- to facilitate comparison with the production
286 SHIPPRODUCTION
I
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I
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PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL 287
planning flow shown in Figure 7-29.Both re- . block weight and weld length rough
flect flows through four distinct stages:basic, calculations
major detail, working detail, and work instruc-
tion. Both provide for outfrtting deparbment Block predefinition is reexamined and final-
concernswhich include painting. ized on the detail block defrnition key plan. The
hull body parts, especially fore and aft, which
3.3.1. Major DetailPlanningand Scheduting. were not defined on contract plans are final-
Major Detail Planning. Among the items ad- ized in detail. The midship section straking
dressedin the first detail planning stage are is rechecked and extended into the fore
some which influence key plans that are de- and aft bodies. Seams are carefully located
velopedsimultaneously.These are: relative to decks and platforms to facilitate
on-block outfitting and painting. The refined
. detail block definition plan block defrnition and straking is provided as
r autowelding application plan feedback to the hull structural design group.
" work unit application plan The autowelding application plan ad-
. block assemblypreguidance dresses welding of erection butts and seams
. midship lifting master plan and is prepared in the context of the hull
. midship scaffoldingmaster plan construction processesplan. Specifrc welding
288 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
methods are designated for each butt and block from the more descriptivedesignbeing
seamand are confirmedby processengineers disclosedby the developingkey plans. Simi-
assigned to the erection shop. This plan is larly, block weights and parametric welding
alsopart ofthe feedbackfurnished to the hull lengths for the erection process are recal-
structural design group. culated. These more accurate lengths and
Work units may be employedto facilitate weights are substituted for those estimated
hull erection. Therefore, planning for their in basic planning in order to:
use and consequentlythe work unit applica-
tion plan follow the same pattern as the r update the budget control work vol-
autowelding application plan. ume prepared during basic planning
The block assembly preguidance plan . prepare the assemblymaster and
covers curved portions of the hull, such as other shop schedules
blocks that incorporate turn ofthe bilge and . update the hull steel weight in the
blocks of the fore and aft bodies. This pre- budget control list prepared during
guidance is prepared simultaneously with functional designby the hull struc-
key plans for panels and sections. tural design group
The midship lifting master plan contains r determine the sums of all lengths and
guidanceconcerningthe handling of midship all parametric lengths which are
blocks, large-size grand blocks, and blocks neededto calculateweldins rod re-
containing large quantities of outfit compo- quirements
nents. Necessarily,production engineersfor
outfitting and painting participate. All han- Major Scheduling.As shown in Figure 7-30,
dling requirements are addressed(transfer, the basic input to major scheduling is an
turnover, and erection alignment). Plans are erection scheduleby ship, which was pre-
prepared for shipwright and erection meth- pared before contract award from an erec-
ods, turnovers, locations of lifting pads, and tion master schedule.The erection schedule
permanent and temporary reinforcements. features:
Specific requirements for enhancing block
strength, particularly for lifting and turn- r the shortest practical erection period
over, are fed back to the hull structural de- o an erection sequencewhich is easiest
sign group. Man-hour budgets and material for shipwrights
costsfor lifting pads, receivingguides,stays, . durations required for aligning and
etc., are also determined from the midship fitting blocks,shifting work units,
lifting master plan. and removing scaffolding
The midship scaffoldingmaster plan ad- o the date for erecting eachblock
dresses all scaffolding requirements except . daily man-hour requirements for fitters
those for the engine room. The engine room and welders
design is not sufficiently developedduring
the major detail stageof productionplanning. At the start ofthe detail planning stage, an
The plan incorporates decisions regarding assemblymaster scheduleis derived from
types of scaffolding, avoidance of interfer- the erection schedule, the integrated pre-
ences with outfit components,and locating schedule,the shipbuilding activities timing
scaffoldingto commonly servehull construc- schedule,and the design master schedule.
tion, outfitting, and painting. On the assembly master schedule, fore-
Welding lengths for the subassemblyand casted work is leveled, together with that
assemblyprocessesare recalculatedblock by for other ships using welding lengths for as-
r
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL 289
semblythat were calculatedduring basic plan- tory bodies. The specifictest details are in-
ning. This scheduledisplays the duration re- cluded for pressurizing beneath frllet welds,
quired for assemblyof eachblock for all ships including positionsof air fittings and air stop
by each processflow. For example, flat- and welds. Thesetests are implementedon-block
curved-blockassembliesare shown separately. so as to eliminate the need to test the same
It is also a master schedulefor shopactivities fillet welds during hydrostatic or pneumatic
for subassembly,fabrication of parts, mate- tests on-board.
rial requisitioning, and mold loft activities. The work accessholes plan shows hoies
Next, with additional inputs from the allowed for temporary accesson a copyof the
outfitting department, specificallyoutfitting samekey plan used to developthe fillet weld
shop master schedulesand block need peri- on-block air test plan. Its preparation in-
odsfor on-blockoutfitting, an integrated sched- volves coordinationwith engineersassigned
ule is produced while small adjustments are to the outfrtting and painting shops as well
made in the various shop schedulesas neces- as the assemblyand erection shops.
sary to ensure their coordination.The shop The work instruction master plan is the
schedules,so refined, "look forward" for six means by which common work instructions
months and are updated every two months, for the various work stages are provided to
together with the assemblymaster schedule, the hull structural designgroup for inclusion
by substituting more accurately determined in the yard plans. A work instruction master
welding lengths for those estimated during plan addressessuch things as:
basic planning.
. block code
3.3.2. WorkingDetail Planningand Scheduling. . semiblockcode
Worhing Detail Planning. Plans which are o erection sequencemarks for the direc-
made after key plan approvals are: tion of blocks,the keel-laying block,
and insert blocks
. block assemblyguidance . hull parts assemblysequencefor the
o frllet weld on-blockair test subassemblyand assemblystages
. work accessholes . excessallowancesand edgeprepara-
. work instruction master tions
. frnish cut and marking process o parts-marking techniques,such as
. working piecetreatments electrophoto(EPM) or size lists
. accuracy control . vital dimensionsneededfor assembling
o parts fabrication processlanes blocks
. rough cutting and steel requisition
. block arrangement handbook The finish cut and marking processplan con-
. mold loft and work instruction guidance tains instructions for achieving the overall
. accuracycontrol check and layout dimensions for the panels on
which the blocks are assembled.It specifr-
The block assembly guidance plan is a hnali- cally addresses dimensions for cutting each
zation of block assembly preguidance, and panel to finish size,and layout dimensionsfor
takes into accountthe impact of the approval longitudinal and transversemembers.
comments. The working piece treatments plan pro-
The fillet weld on-block air test plan is vides instructions regarding disposition of
superimposedon a copy of a key plan pre- working pieces(padeyes,staginglugs, receiv-
paredfor approval
hytheownerandre,gula- inggiirle,s,
0[c,), isprocesscd
It norma]ly for
290 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
approval,asit designateswhich working pieces able. Because of this need to employ esti-
may remain as permanent frttings, which mates, the designationof standard sizesnor-
have to be removed,and what surfacetreat- mally favors oversizingsomehull construction
ments are required after removal. materials. Size standards are established
The accuracycontrol plan is developedas beforehand, and designers are urged to re-
a master for accuracycontrol considerations frain from designatingalternatives in order
that will be common to all work stages (see to minimize the percentageof scrap,maxi-
Chapter VIII). It provides general guidance mize interchangeabilityof materials, and mi-
to be included on yard plans, such as identi- nimize storagerequirements.
fying the hull blocks which will be the most The requisitions of lots required by month
difficult to assemble and the types which pertain to various materials needed for a
were inaccurately assembledin the past. number of blocksfor which there are different
Specifrcinstructions address: required dates.The requisitions are grouped
into lots per month, with prime considera-
r match lines neededon parts to flacilitate tion given to the parts fabrication sequence.
subassemblyand assembly This ensuressustainedwork flows without the
. referencelines neededfor assembly disruptive need to rearrange jigs or change
. specificlength of butts and seamsin machinery settings.Considerationis alsogiven
complicatedhull forms which justify to subassemblyand assemblyschedulesand
margins and the extents of such storage areas. Requisitions for steel materi-
margins als are made with referenceto rough cutting
. checkpointsand pertinent dimensions plans and stockson hand. Their issueauthor-
to verify alignment of large assemblies izes the purchasing section to combine re-
quirements and place orders with steel mills.
The parts fabrication processlanes plan indi- Further, the planning performed is used as
cates the types of markings to be used for guidance for all marking and cutting plans
internal structural parts, such as N/C, EPM, which are the basis for steel material alloca-
or a simple size list. It serves as input for tion sheets.Thesesheetsare commonlyused
computer-aidedprocessingby the hull struc- for steel material issue orders as well.
tural design group. This planning effort is The material in the block arrangement
performed simultaneously with preparation handbookis extracted from a number of key
of rough cutting plans. plans. It conveys the whole ship structure
The rough cutting and steel (plate and and block definition. Copies are distributed
shapes)requisition plans are neededfor or- mainly to managers and production engineers
ganizing the material requisitioning effort at in the erection shop.
an early stagecommensuratewith pertinent The mold loft and work instmction guid-
material lead times. Referencesinclude key ance plan is compiled by extracting infor-
plans for types, grades,sizes,and quantities mation from many documented plans and
of steel and the assemblymaster schedule instructions that are prepared by hull struc-
for required dates. Utilization of standard tural designersand production engineers.The
size materials and g::oupingof requisitions information is selectedand edited specifically
by lot by delivery date are primary consid- to serve the mold loft and the stage plan
erationsin preparing theseplans. Planning sectionfor their work instruction planning.
proceedsbased on some estimated quanti- Formal accuracycontrol checkand report
ties, becausedetailed plans are not yet avail- sheetsare preparedfor eachinterim product
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL 291
by block by the production engineers who ing how progressby the mold loft relates to
have been assignedaccuracycontrol respon- actual yard plan issues.Thesevisual pres-
sibilities (seeChapter VIII). Their objectiveis entations facilitate assessmentsof progress
to record variations in dimensionsachieved, and, if needed,expediting measures.Updat-
which, when analyzed statistically, advise ing the mold loft monthly scheduledepends
how the work processesare performing. Such on yard plan issues and progressofwork in
analysis creates the feedbackneededto ex- the mold loft.
actly compensatefor shrinkages,such as those The block storage plan allocatesspace
caused by gas cutting, welding, and distor- for storing completed blocks prior to their
tion removal. Production engineersalso use erection.This plan is prepared by a produc-
such data to control the amount of rework (gas tion engineer in accordancewith the inte-
cutting of margins and back strip welding) grated schedule.The plan is revised every
that will be encounteredduring hull erection. ten workdays and on eachlaunch day. When
all available spaceis allocated accordingto
Working Scheduling. Working schedules the block storageplan, the assemblymaster
include: schedulehas to be changedaccordingly.Be-
cause erection work proceedsfaster than as-
. assembly,subassembly,and parts semblywork, enough spaceis required near
fabrication monthly schedules the erection site to ensure an uninterrupted
. yard plan and mold loft issue curves supply of blocks for the erection shop. This
. block storageplan means,dependingon ship types,40 to 60 per-
. erection inspection scheduleand erec- cent of required blocks must be on hand be-
tion hull fitting and welding schedule fore keel laying.
As controlledby the erectionschedule,an
Each monthly schedulefor block assembly, erection inspection scheduleis made to en-
subassembly, and parts fabrication orders sure meeting start dates scheduledfor on-
covers the next six weeks and is updated board painting. This scheduleis updated in
every two weeks in order to substitute the the sameway as other monthly schedules.It
more accurate parameters produced during indicates dates for tank testing, cleaning,
transition design. The assembly monthly removal of scaffolding,etc. Next, the erection
scheduleis made in accordancewith the as- hull frtting and welding scheduleis prepared
sembly master schedule. The subassembly to fix a duration for fitting and welding be-
monthly scheduleis derived from the subas- tween the date each block is scheduledfor
sembly scheduleand the assemblymonthly erection and its scheduledtest date. The
schedule.The parts fabrication monthly sched- manning plan for erectionfitters and welders
ule is derived the same way. The impact of is made simultaneouslywith this schedulein
such updating requires adjustmentsin interim order to be sure that they are compatible.
product completion dates for work load
leveling, specifyingthe use of overtime, and./ 3.3.3. WorklnstructionPlanningand Scheduting.
or engaging subcontractors.Shop schedules Yard plans are product oriented and conform
affected by the revised parameters are up- with requirements for processlanes in ac-
dated every two months. cordancewith hull construction production
Curves for planned issuesofyard plans working plans preparedby the hull construc-
and mold loft data are preparedto be used as tion planning group. Yard plans are organ-
the basisfor checkingactual progress,includ- ized by zone,and their preparation marks
292 SHIPPRODUCTION
the end oftransition design.Further devel- be performed over a two-week period and is
opment of neededdocumentsis by stageand updated every week. Sometimes a weekly
is managed by the hull construction planning schedulecan be eliminated if the impact of
group during the work instruction planning changes is nominal and their effects can
stage. be controlled by annotations on a monthly
Worh Instruction Planning. Work instmc- schedule.Daily schedulesare prepared for
tions addressthe work for each stagewithin ordering work to be accomplishedthe next
a processlane. They are prepared both in day and, ofcourse, are updated daily. They
the mold loft and by the work instruction are prepared by immediate or intermediate
plan section in accordancewith require- supervisors and serve to inform workers of
ments established by the hull construction their work assignmentsfor the coming day.
planning group. Since computer terminals An integrated schedule-tracking meet-
are locatedin most mold lofts, someplanning ing is held each Friday afternoon to check
responsibilities that involve work instruc- progressof erection,assembly,subassembly,
tion preparation have been shifted from the parts fabrication, outfrtting, and painting by
hull structural design group to the mold loft. each processlane (work cell) and the progress
Theseinclude hull parts lists by stage,mark- of the mold loft. A representative from each
ing and cutting plans for parts fabrication, processlane and the loft is required to attend
bending plans, and height tables for setting to exchange information and to annotate
pin jigs. Erection work instructions prepared progress achieved on the integrated sched-
in the mold loft include shipwright dimen- ule. As it is very important for continuing inte-
sion plans and supporting block arrangement gration of the various types of work, feed-
plans. The work instruction plan sectionis a back from these meetings is used to make
companionorganization to the mold loft and adjustments in monthly, weekly, and daily
is responsiblefor such instructions as: schedules.
S H I P ' SP A R T I C U L A R S( A )
A r - S H t PT Y P E
42 - DEADWETGHT
4 3 - C L A S S ( A B Se, t c . )
44 _ HULL WEIGHT
S T R A T EG I C
C U R R E N TC O N T B O L P A R A M E T E R S H I S T O R I C A LC U R V E S H U L L W E I G H TC U R V E S
BY A,/A,/A,/A" (b ) OF MAN.HOUR/TON
n OF MAN.HOUR/TON
BY Ar /A2 (c) BY Ar /A2lA3
b l - A S S E M B L YW E L O L E N G T H {d}
TOTAL MAN.HOURSUSING
C U R R E N TC O N T R O L TOTAL MAN.HOURS
PARAMETERS TARGET(E)
B=XbnxEfficincyn
S H O PB U D G E T E D
M A N , H O U R(Sf n )
Fig. 7-31.Man-hourbudgetdetermination
system.
for each processlane are staggered,as their 3.4.3. Subassembly Section. Separation of sub-
rates of production are different and the assembly work from assembly work makes
parts neededfor assemblymust all be ready sense,because subassemblies and blocks have
at the same time. For example,marking and significantly different work contents. This
cutting of parts which require bending are makes process flows impractical. Addressing
scheduled to start earlier than those pro- subassemblies separately enables work to be
cessesfor straight parts. Particular care is considered in small increments that are very
given to fix the lead times for fore and aft effective for work load leveling (providing
body parts which are to have complexshapes. constant rates of work). Other benefits include:
Further, the shop production engineer
who preparesthe scheduleconsidersthe need . improved productivity, because laying-
to maintain uniform work flows. For exam- out, fitting, welding, and distortion
ple, relatively small parts or those which re- removal work is more accessible
quire a disproportionate amount of time for r better welding quality, because more
intricate cutting (also parts requiring spe- welding is performed downhand
cial beveling) are separated from the main .less material handling and adminis-
work flow. Another techniquefor maintain- trative work during assembly, as fewer
ing uniform work flow is to flame plane iden- material items and less scaffolding
tical parallel parts required for several dif- are then required
ferent blocks in successionrather than by . large facilities, such as heavy-capacity
block. This minimizes tooling changes,which cranes and buildings with high ceilings
is valuable sinceproductivity of a flame planer and large doors needed for assemblins
dependslargely on the number of times gas blocks, are not occupied with work
cutting tips are rearranged. that can be performed elsewhere
Material Control. The objectiveof in-pro- . more opportunity to apply labor-saving
cessmaterial control is to deliver all required devices (conveyors, automatic welders,
frnishedparts just in time for subassemblyor and robots)
assembly.Follow-up is facilitated by provid-
ing a column on eachhull parts list for check- As many different subassemblies are re-
off. This indicator of parts completion and quired in varying quantities, the application
sufficient material-handling resourcesis nec- of group technology provides the benefrt of
essary for collecting parts for one block that production line operations which are espe-
have been distributed in cutting plans for cially engineered for subassemblies. For ex-
several, in order to reduce scrap. In such ample, after flat subassemblies are sepa-
cases,additional time must be allocated for rated from curved subassemblies, their pri-
collecting all parts neededby block. mary grouping is not by similarities in de-
Progressand Productiuity.In addition to sign. Instead, it is by work content.
checking off completions on the hull parts When a group is large, it is scheduled for
list, annotations are entered on schedules. manufacture in a process flow. Groups which
The weights of parts completedare accumu- are small are jobbed, using resources that do
lated daily, and spent man-hours are accu- not diminish support of the process flows.
mulated biweekly. This information is plot- Examples of this are overtime, second shift,
ted on graphs for each ship as the weight of borrowing workers from the assembly section
completedparts versus time, for progressing. or erection shop. or the use ofsubcontractors.
a\ld spent man-hour-s\ersus \ieigh\ of com- A techn\que which further faci\itates
pleted parts, for assessingproductivity. work load leveling is production of relatively
296 SHIPPRODUCTION
small weldments (assembledparts) as prep- o extend the use of automatic and semi-
aration for subassembly.Assembled parts automatic methods,such as gravity
(typically one or two brackets welded to a feedweldingdevices
short L-shaped section) are manufactured . apply mechanicalaids, such as for
in a processlane which is dedicated to just turning over or transferring subas-
such work. semblies
Scheduling. A schedule is prepared for r increaseinterchangeability of workers
each processlane in accordancewith the as- among all subassemblytypes of work,
semblymaster schedule.Important consider- including material handling, fitting,
ations are separately addressingsubassem- welding, and fairing
blies of the same family (same problem area
and work content) for continuous process To monitor the rate of change in productiv-
flows,the time to be allocatedbetweensub- ity, performanceindicators are plotted and
assembly completion and block assembly postedat each subassemblyflow lane. These
and the limits of the subassemblystorage are man-hours/subassemblyweight and man-
areas,and work load leveling basedon man- hours/weldinglength.
hours per welding lengths.
Material Control.Material control at first 3.4.4. Block Assembly Section.Block assem-
addressesreceipt and organization of parts bly, the last processbefore hull erection, is
required for manufacturing subassemblies. initiated by material handlers who coordi-
Sufficient storage spaceis provided between nate their collection of subassemblieswith
the parts fabrication and subassemblyareas the arrival of parts for a panel on which a
for collectingand sequencingparts as required block is to be assembled.For organization of
by subassemblyschedules.As their efforts processflows,flat panelblocks,which require
directly affect productivity, material handlers flat platens for their assembly,are separated
and the information prepared for them have from curved panel blocks, which require pin
to be well organized.Specialprovision on the jigs. Separate processlanes are also organ-
hull parts lists facilitates annotations ofthe ized for each of the other type blocks which
status ofneeded parts. The lists are also an- impose di{ferent manufacturing problems and
notated to maintain the status of subassem- havewidely varying work contents.Typically
bly completions.The accuracyof such data is these include fore and aft body and engine
vital, as material handlers are required to room blocks.
collect,sort, and stow subassembliesfor mini- Scheduling.Separateschedulesare drawn
mal periods in relatively little space. for eachprocessbut are kept within restraints
Progress and Productiuity. The progress ordered by the assembly master schedule.
of each processlane is checkeddaily for re- The block assemblyguidance and plan pro-
ceipt on the parts list for each subassembly vide advanceinformation on required stagese-
and completionson the subassemblysched- quences,welding lengths, need periodsfor out-
ule. As welding comprises the major work fitting, and the time that a crane is required at
effort, a most useful productivity indicator for eachstage.Thus, the field engineersare able
subassemblywork is arc time per welder. to prepare a manning schedulefor welding
Thus, production engineersstrive to: and a crane schedulefor each assemblypro-
cesslane.
o increasewelding length,ihourlworkerby Block Storing. Productivity of the hull
enhancing worker skills and welding construction department is greatly depend-
equipment ent on planning for storing blocks.Theoreti-
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL 297
cally, the assembly of each block should be laying for the same ship, as well as for accu-
completedjust in time to meet its scheduled mulating blocks before keel laying of addi-
erection date. This would preclude need for tional ships. Other factors that production
large land areas and would minimize work engineersmust considerare the bulk of each
associatedwith transferring and supporting block and actual block assemblyprogressas
bulky and heavy blocks. It would also create related to assemblyschedules.
more pressureto improve assemblyprocesses Material Control. Most subassembliesare
until blocks were producedat the same rate of sufficient size to be readily located.How-
that they are needed by the erection shop. ever, becauseof their bulk, it is important
However, production engineersalso have to to ensure delivery of subassembliesto the
consider other factors and make tradeoffs. particular stages of the block assembly
Considerationsinclude: processlanesin plannedassemblysequences.
This transfer effort requires meticulous
. different quantities of required work crane schedules and skilled material han-
(typically for hull construction:parts dlers to ensure that the schedulesare faith-
fabrication 10 percent, subassembly fully implemented. Sufficient, not excessive,
and assembly50 percent, erection40 storageareas next to the stages where sub-
percentJ assembliesare neededenhanceefficiency.
. need to level load all shops Progressand Productiuity. Welding dom-
o authority to transfer workers between inates assemblyjust as it dominates sub-
shops,assign overtime, and employ assembly. Assessmentof the lengths to be
subcontractors welded is neededbeforehandto allocate the
o costsfor facilities (thosefor an erec- required number of weldersper day commen-
tion dock and cranesare usually the surate with scheduleadherence.Just enough
most expensive) material handlers, frtters, and crane opera-
tors are allocatedto avoid disruptinguniform
The tradeoffs typically result in: welding work flow. Thus, continuing to im-
prove block assemblyproductivity is depend-
. building docksin which ships are ent on continuous improvement of welding
rapidly erected productivity and on providing the necessary
. enough land to accumulate40 percent support services,while minimizing the num-
to 60 percent ofthe blocks required by ber of support workers.
ship, dependenton ship type and size Particularly regarding processflows or-
beforekeel laying ganized for flat and curved block assembly,
. enoughresourcesto completethe every effort is needed to avoid disrupting
remaining blocks in time to sustain a influences.Ifthe assemblyof oneblock stalls,
smooth work flow during short erection work for all succeedingblocks and possibly
periodsQ.5 to 4 months,dependenton for erection is adverselyaffected.Disruptive
ship type and size) influencesinclude:
4. Production
Control
Production control is responsible for moni- ing expendedman-hours, progress,and pro-
toring cost and schedule adherence while ductivity are sufficient.
work is in progress. The production control
organization is generally responsible for issu- 4.1.Man-hourExpenditures
ing man-hour budgets to be used to control
The character of the manpower index (man-
the shipbuilding process and upon which pro-
hours per unit time) is the samefor the vari-
gress will be judged. Progress relates actual
ous control groups of work packageswhich
work completed and actual man-hours spent.
apply to all work categories.Typical accumu-
Consequently, there is need for evaluation
lations of such data are shown in Figures
which involves sorting, analyzing, and reor-
7-32,7 -33,7-34, and 7-35.The plottedcurves
ganizing performance data. These data are
indicate actual manpower costsbut only ap-
collected by control groups in order to moni-
parent progress.
tor expended man-hours, production progress,
and productivity, and to feed back system-ori-
4.2. ProductionProgress
ented data for estimating future shipbuilding
projects. For these purposes, it is sufficient to As shown in Figure 7-5,the indices for produc-
address only manpower among the product tion progressuse different measures(weight,
resources. This is because material is identi- welding parameters, laid cable length, etc.)
fied both by system and zone, and facilities per unit time. Further, it is sometimesneces-
and expenses are charged as overhead on di- sary to apply more than one index for each
rect material and manpower accounts. Thus, control group of work packages.Accumula-
practical indices (see Figure 7-5) for monitor- tions of such data as illustrated in Figure
a
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL 299
-o
I
a
Fig. 7-32. Manpower expenditures for hull con- Fig. 7-33. Manpower expenditures for machinery
struction. outfitting.
tr
l
+
2
4.3. Productivity
Indices
Productivity indices (see Figure 7-5) utilize Fig. 7-36. Productionprogressfor hull con-
both man-hours expendedand the measures struction.
used for monitoring production progress
(weight, welding parameters, laid cable the latter is usually an averagebased upon
length, etc.). Typical plots of such data are the performance history associatedwith a
shown in Figures 7-38 throughT-42 relative specifrccontrol group ofwork packages.Any
to establishedstandardsofefficiency.Each of curve which appearsaboveits efficiencyref-
SHIPPRODUCTION
rano | {L$o!'
ORGANIZATION
COOE
FABRICATION
SHOP
OR ASSEMBLY
TEAM
REOUIRED
TRADES E PROCESS
STAGE
PBODUCTASPECTSiLEVEL
EREAKDOWN
AREA
SHIPBREAKDOWN
ZONE SYSIEM
HH
ORGANIZATION
COOE + PROOUCT
ASPeCT9LEVEL= COSTCENTER
PRODUCT-ORIENTEOWORKBREAKOOWNSTRUCTUBE
Fig. 7-37.Typicalcostcenters.
t-
SHIPPRODUCTION
I
YARD
WPE OF
WORK
WORKFR
ORGANIZATION
CODE
FABRICATION
SHOP
OR ASSEMBLY
TEAM
IDFNTIFICATION NIJMRFR
REOUIRED
TRADES H
I
PROCESS
STAGE
PROOUCT
AREAKDOWN
AREA
ASPECTS/LEVEL
SHIPBREAKDOWN
ZONE SYSTEM
HH
E
l
WEIGHT
EFFIC ENCY
OUTSTANOING cc
l
WELD]NG
(I I
l
2
+
z
PARAMETRIC.COMPONENT WEIGHT
by manufacturing level. The PCG conceptis parametric man-hours, the total man-hours
an exampleof the versatility of a product-ori- apportioned to a system can be expressed by
ented work breakdown structure. When un- the formulas:
usual problems occur, such as during break-
in of new facilities or overexpenditures of Ht =Hp +H.
manpower, more control is applied by using
where
the best-suited combination of product as-
pects.Conversely,during routine operations Ht = total man-hours
the simpler PCG approachis more practical. Hp = total parametric man-hours
H. = total nonparametric man-hours
4.4. Zone to SystemTransposition Hp = Ieivi = elvl + eZVz+
The productivity indices are useful for trans-
where
posing manpower expenditures for zone-
oriented work to the system-by-systemdata e = a productivity index for a control
neededfor estimating. In PWBS, man-hour group of work packages
expenditures can be collected by different v - pertinent description ofthat part
methods for grouping work packages,depend- ofa system included in a control
ing on the degree of control required. These group of work packages, e.g.,
vary from any combination of trade, manu- assembly weight, length of weld,
facturing level, system, zorre,problem area, manufactured pieces, parametric
and stage (see Figure 7-37) to a simple Pro- component weight, laid cable
ductivity Control Group (seeFigure 7-48). length, etc. (Svi describes the
Additionally, it is useful to scparatelyad- entire system)
dresseachmaterial item for which there is no i = the number of work package con-
correlation between its weight and required trol groups in which a system is
fitting man-hours(a main engine,boiler, hatch represented.
cover,etc.).The fitting ofeach such"nonpara- H c = I h j = h 1 + h z +
metric" item is the subjectof a separatework
where
package.This permits the collectionof man-
hour expenditures by component, which is h = man-hours for fitting a nonpara-
immediately identifiable with a system. metric component
Thus, in considerationof the two sources j = the number of nonparametric
of zone-orienteddata, parametric and non- components.
5. MaterialControl
The relationship between design, planning, data to procure material for and produce a
scheduling, and material control functions ship. The development of this framework in-
has beendiscussedpreviouslyin this chapter. escapably involves planning decisions, such
Also, Chapter VI indicated the need for and as definition of materials, construction oe-
requirements of material definition during tails for parts fabrication and assembly, iden-
the designstages.The information developed tification of zone boundaries, and designation
by designers provides the framework upon ofwork stages. The concept that design and
which other shipyard peoplebuild necessary material definition are aspects of planning
PLANNING, AND PRODUCTION
SCHEDULING, CONTROL 303
------l+
f PRODUCTIVITYINDEX
oN-B.O,aRD
I LtrvtrL | > PROGRESSINDEX
I I
| l+ MANPOWERINDEX
tr
t---l+ PRODUCTIVITYINDEX z
oN-BLOCK| > P R O G R E S SI N D E X
I I
I t+ MANPOWERINDEX
f----------l+ PRODUCTIVITYINDEX
I qY,u,l|rl_*
LtrVtrL I
P R O G R E S SI N D E X
l | - ' - > MANPOWERINDEX
ETFIC-COMPONENT WEIGHT
PARAN4
Fig. 7-43.Productivitycontrolgroup.
) a
F < . a
: d il?
t - < J
?3.i5 d"
;6!:: rB
"o" 59 3i
< U U : f U F O
> F F : O o z a
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Y O O
i c O O A
o J J . ) ) ) )
o < < c > : : >
P ,
H? j ?T p " : r
J O < < E > : : :
o
-
t
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o
I )
t <
6 l
o d
o
;I
7 o
o :r
o
6
o
9 :
F
I o
I a
I
z- z
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o r O li
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36 o
,l .o )
"1 9 o
z =l 9
6 i : a
I
o<
<o .l
.';
az
< )
$
s
tr-
nir
PLANNING, AND PRODUCTION
SCHEDULING, CONTROL 305
O u
O I
r O
G @
z
o
O
+
a
a
a
E
o
I
o
U
@
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r
l
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C I
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ac)
ss ;
a t
tr
tr
tr
O
(, F
z a
z>
Li< Eu 6
z A
5 93
a u a
U A < a o
L
ri
.+
t--
bb
r
I
PLANNING, AND PRODUCTION
SCHEDULING, CONTROL 307
BOO ES
o
ou
.6 i
,J d ?"ot -r:"i
;
-_---o
s=r
u -o-t/.i- -s"ndit , y ^ J -
'{ai
l _ 6 f .: ""c
MATERIAL
C L A S S IF I C A T I O N EXAMPLES STANOAROIZATION USAGE RATE O U A N T I T YT O 8 E O R D E R E D
is done by specifying, on the material lists unique size by sketch (sketch size),of
from design, the type of documents needed a standard size commonlyused within
to initiate specific procurements.The three a specifrcship (standard within a
types are: ship),or ofa standardsizegenerally
used in any type ship (standard)
r J - This designation indicates an
item which is a shipyard standard.As Regardingstandardization,any shipbuilding
the buyers and customary suppliers grade plate, angle, etc., for hull construction
maintain standard drawing files, no is suffrciently identifred for procurement by
additional descriptiveinformation is materiaVgrade/size.However, the same ap-
required. proachfor all other materials would lead to
o P - This designationidentifres an voluminous purchasespecifications.As shown
item for which a purchaseorder in Figure 7-48, for outfitting and painting,
specificationmust be prepared. materials designated"individual', are identi-
Approvals of vendors'drawings are fied one by one with an appropriate full de-
required.The P designatorshould be scription for each. They are materials gen-
used in place of T if there is an owner erally used in any type of ship. Other mate-
or regulator requirement for a specifi- rials designated"family" are groupedin order
cation, even though the item is a ship- to relate them by generalcharacteristics.Ex-
yard standard.Becausedesigners cept for two or three traits, a single descrip-
include the shipyard standard number tion identifies all materials within a family.
in their material lists, buyers are Materials classified as "individual" are
informed that T-item purchasing defrnedoneby onein purchasespecifications.
proceduresapply. Thoseclassifiedas "family" are defined fam-
. D- This designator identifies materi- ily by family, with unique traits separately
als to be manufactured in accordance defined. For example,certain valves are de-
with material detail design drawings fined by family, and their specificsizesand./or
prepared by the shipyard. design pressures are incorporated in pur-
chasespecifications.
Figure 7-48 shows how the foregoing mate- Designatingthe systemin eachoutfrtting
rial codes differ in their definition content and painting material code,as shown in Fig-
becauseof differencesin: ure 7-48,is useful becauseit facilitates stan-
dardization in material definition, cost classi-
. type of work: hull construction,out- fications,etc.As also shown,it remains blank
fitting, or painting for commonmaterials until their systemdes-
. usagefrequency:for hull construction, ignations are known.
shipbuilding grade versus special Part and component codes respectively
materials; for outfitting, materials identify hull and outfit assemblyzoneswhich
commonlyused in severalsystems, are not further subdivided.Thus, they apply
such as piping, access,ventilation, or to purchasedinterim products and those man-
raw materials versus materials used ufactured in-houseor by a subcontractor.
only in one system As shown in Figure Z-48,compositionof
. requisition classification:allocated, a ship piece number for hull construction is
stock, allocatedstock hierarchically confrguredas ship/blockcode,
o standardization:for hull construction. semiblock,or subblocVpart code.Whenever
shipbuilding grade material is of a specificmanufacturing level is bypassed,its
r
I
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL 309
codeis not included. Conversely,when a part products only) identified in a system diagram-
is added as an exception,a grand-blockjoin- matic. Actual positionsof piecesare as shown
ing codeis incorporated. in eachfrtting drawing by zonelproblemarea,/
The part codeshould contain, as a mini- stage.Thus, all questionspertaining to out-
mum, the parent block, system (bulkhead, deck, fitting are also anticipated by completelyde-
longitudinal, etc.),and unique serial number. fined product aspects.
As it facilitates parts fabrication shop plan- The identification codespresentedin Fig-
ning, it is advisableto also include raw mate- ure 7-48 and describedin the foregoing per-
rial type and part shape in the part code. mit eachmaterial item to be assignedto both
Each part code appears in a hull block part a system-orientedand a zone-orientedmate-
list, a cutting plan, and a subassemblyor rial control group.A work packagenumber is
assemblyplan as appropriate.Thus, all "what," used for zone-orientedmaterial control dur-
"where," "how,"
and "when" questionsare anti- ing planning, scheduling,execution,and eval-
cipated by completely defined product aspects uation. A material cost classification number
(system./zonelproblemarea./stage). controls the samematerial by system for eval-
The elements of the ship piece number uation, estimating, and planning. The com-
for outfitting are specified by ship/system/ bined use of material code and a ship piece
part no./componentcode (see Figure 7-48). number permits transformations from zone-
The combined system code and the compo- oriented to system-oriented data and vice
nent codecomposea material cost classifrca- versa.
tion, as illustrated in Figure 7-49.The system The major stepsin the developmentof re-
codecombinedwith a part number provides quisitions are shownin Figure 7-b0.The major
relative positions of pieces(finished interim goals ofthe requisitioning processare to:
M A ] E R I A LI D E N T I F I C A T I O N
M A T E R I A LI D E N T I F I C A T I OFNO R P R O C U R E M E N T
F O R D E S I G N&
PRODUCTION
WORK REQUISIION
COMMONNESS ;TANDARDIZATIOI' MATERIAL
CODE SHIP
TYPE ILASSIFICATIOI. PIECE NO
z S K E T C HS I Z E
ii< SHIPBUILDING
AS STANDARO
i5tr GRADE MATEBIA UG RAD9S IZE
W I T H I NA S H I P
l c P S H I B B L O C KS,E t \ r t B L O CO
K .R
- 6 <
STANDARO SUE-BLOCI(PART CODE
z2
OTHER SAMEAS OUTFITTING
o convert from design data to procure- ing the basicand functional design(pre-MLS
ment specifications and MLS) stages.
r convert from data by ship/system/stage It is alsovery important during the detail
to specifrcation by materiaVdelivery design (MLF) stage to watch for low-priced
date items that could precipitate high installation
. plan material procurement on schedule costs if they are not available for a planned
. minimize stocked material work zone and work stage. Generally, they
are short-lead-timematerials for which pur-
Purchasing effectiveness can be enhanced chasing is initiated after they appear on an
by the use of long-term agreements with MLF. The unit price alone does not fully
subcontractors. The rationalization consid- describe the importance of an item to the
ers the total cost of a particular component in assemblyprocess.
terms of quality, timely delivery, design stan- The use ofstandard componentsenhances
dardization, material storage, material han- the potential for overall shipyard savings.
dling, installation standardization, and testing. However, it is essential for the successful
Often a particular component is higher in application of standards that they apply to
price from one manufacturer than another, high-quality materials. This is particularly
but the total cost is reduced because of sav- true for machinery items from manufactur-
ings of man-hours, facilities, and elapsed time ers'catalogsthat are listed as shipyardstan-
required for manufacture or assembly. Ship- dards.Ownersneedguaranteesabout perfor-
builders are generally alert to this and ade- mance, parts availability, service,etc. Stan-
quately evaluate total costs associated with dards apply not only to raw materials and
high-priced items, such as a main engine, dur- items such as valves and fittings, but also to
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL 31 1
U
I ^
a ?
d a
o Y U O
* i-- g i
< 6 -
-- =g r , a
A +> > 9
> 5 6
T
= I
h
s:a I
":-
fr<r- * - Z
_ <ltY
6 >ii: a = !
Y r d < - <
; u cEAd
^ c A : ?
tr Y= P >
g t a;es;= i t - t r <
e
i
<
x
1 . ^ . d
=YU9<
A
a
-g P s 3
r
P
^ I
^
= : 5 v ? P > o ka < =F
[ - ooooo -
F
g I
U N
I> 5F0 = E E>
# s t.;
! n
, < +
:Y g?;3
<!O l
E O>- O
: Y =lo ;i
z _
= ; : < =? = : r
<
G
= *-,s 6<
<Y
- ;<<
u u ->> o-
< =i
> - -d
E < o
. r O I
d > a
z
n 9 ? 3
; j < o = , '
8 ' = - u"
= =
tr = i
o
_ o < Q ^ ; o 1 x : i
> 6 i: X > a
Q ; t = u <+ ; ^
_ ">
-o Y < <g
o
: >
o
>-
O0
L
J
g
u
Y
q : :
S.Xu< E
I
: = =
;u
; - ti
d Ed"ae I c o< u E f< < I
UAqTU C U U; > I
ts
l 3 ; p * ? lt" z E
>ooo> il o or
= ig ; u = d -
o o> o o
U ts FO F F
o B
tr
c-
312 S H I PP B O D U C T I O N
r-
P L A N N I N GS,C H E D U L I N G
A ,N D P R O D U C T I OCNO N T R O L 313
1 . O N B L O C KO U T F I T T I N G
F O FM A T E R I A L S
P R E - A S S E M B L EI N
D T OA U N I TA F T E RA
S T E E LB L O C KI S T U R N E DO V E R .
2, ON,ELOCKOUTFITTINGFOR MATERIALPRE
ASSEN,4BLED
INTOA UNIT.
3 . O N B O A R DO U T F I T T I N G
F O BN 4 A T E F I A L
PRE ASSEI,,4BLED INTOA UNIT.
4. ON.BLOCKOUTFITTINGFOF N4ATERIAL TC
B I I N S T A L L TPDI E C FB Y P I F C F
5.ON-BLOCK OUTFITTINF GO B M A T E F I A LT O
BEINSTALLED PIECE-BY,PIEC AE F T E FA
S T E E TB L O C KI S T U B N E DO V E F ,
6 . O N B O A R DO U T F I T T I N P
GR I O RT O A N A R E A
C L O S U R EB Y A N O V E R H E A D BLOCK.
7.ON,BOARD P R I O RT O
OUTFITTING
SYSTEMSTESTS(OR OTHERKEY EVENTS
ASStLtCltDr.
8 . O N B O A R DO U T F I T T I N G
P R I O RT O L A U N C H
9 . O N - B O A B DO U T F I T T I N A
GF T E RL A U N C H
ONEINTERIM
PRODUCT
O N E G R O U PO F R E Q U I R E D ONE WORKACTIVITY
MATERIALS I NS C H E D U L I N G
In order to release the materials at the may wish to adjust the applicable planning
proper time and deliver them to the appropri- and./orscheduleto compensate.
ate place, a pallet issue order must be made The palletizing flow is illustrated in Fig-
suffrciently in advance to allow enough time ure 7-57. Whatever numbering schemesor
for palletizing. Should quantities be insuffi- inventory methods are employed,resources,
cient to marshal all materials for a specific particularly people,for warehousingand pal-
MLF, the individual in charge must inform Ietizing must be enough to support the pro-
people
pr0cilrement thatexpediting is
action duction
effort.
Nominal
overcapacity
ofsuch
required and notify control people,sincethey resources mav be prudent.
316 SHIPPRODUCTION
ili'i'i's o
2
F
6
a
x
o
F
I
I z
;=
6 = '
3
e1
5
6l c Lzl
:l r:'
rt 3; d)11;
3l ;i: ;;5!
: l ;u fEc i : : F A
-;go
:l
jl ;Es il i6!i
<l = l : c l <
.;
, 9 a
a
z
s
:Hi6 i
: XXF F ;
!
F ) O
,;ii: il a
< q c
f sr; ! E 6
rlg i3:;: i
I90
G N
T ] O G L !
o < t 0 6 I
F] i F O
I
j
o
I o
Sl 1>r
trl az1
ri ::u = :<
0
> :<E
-:l Fco < i
z oEc o T U
>' 906 z
!
E 1 r r r
2 = =
t; si g E ;
5 U :
B
il
"11
: : f r 3 i ! B
o
s t ;=
!? 33 iEe ir :
;t z c + . <
1 e : : ; - 1 1
<l :
; i r ; 6
il .< J = _ P J
se =l =i it ts
;I F
;t
Gl =
< H i . ; : i
<l > i E s p ; <,
-l i
H : s ? H
; o 9 E r
rO
F-
6 Q = r O
Jt o
<l F F F F F F
ol
r-
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL 317
:Et:':I
Fig.7-55(a) Fis.7-55(b)
Fig.7-56
WAREHOUSE
,o,*,
TO PURCHASING
|
%d
N F O R M A TIONI O N AEOUT
M A T E R ] A L SHORTAGES
SH(
dd m W Z m w a
./ ---
,,r'"o
| t dd
. / \
,u"*,rr",
] I ad
L A D O E R .T A N K . H A N D R A ] L
MACHINERYSEAT. ETC
References
1. Okayama,Y., and L.D. Chirillo, Product 4 . Ruehsen,H.J., "Planning and Scheduling
Worh Breakdown Structure, National Hull ProductionOperations,"M arine
Shipbuilding ResearchProgram, Maritime Technology,Vol. 18, No. 1, April 1981.
Administration in cooperationwith Todd 5 . Chirillo, L.D., R.D. Chirillo, and Y. Okayama,
Pacific Shipyards Corp.,revised December Integrated Hull Construction,Outfitting and
1982. Painting, National Shipbuilding Research
2. Lamb, T., and A&P Appledore,Inc.,Build Program, Maritime Administration in
StrategyDeuelopment,National Shipbuilding cooperationwith Todd Pacific Shipyards
ResearchProgram, U.S. Department of the Corp.,May 1983.
Nary in cooperationwith Newport News 6 . Chirillo, L.D., R.D. Chirillo, and Y. Okayama,
Shipbuilding, February 1994. Designfor Zone Outfitting, National Ship-
3. Jonson,C.S.,and L.D. Chirillo, Outfit building ResearchProgram, Maritime
Planning, National Shipbuilding Research Administration in cooperationwith Todd
Program, Maritime Administration in PacifrcShipyards Corp., September1988.
cooperationwith Todd Pacific Shipyards 7 . Op. cit., Chirillo, et al. IntegratedHull Con-
Corp.,December1979. struction. . .
-
I
CHAPTER VIIl
A C C U R A C YC O N T R O L
1. Introduction
A shipbuilding system based on group tech- tails, planning, and work methods so as to
nology,using a product-orientedwork break- maximize productivity."
down structure and integrated hull construc- The use of statistical techniques is an
tion, outfitting, and painting, requires that essentialelement in an accuracycontrol sys-
accuracy be controlled. Otherwise, work in tem. These techniques were developeddur-
succeedingstagesof production is adversely ing the 1940sand are describedin the tech-
affectedby inaccurateinterim products.Con- nical literature as "statistical quality con-
sequently, a system is neededto control the trol." In the context ofshipbuilding, accuracy
accuracy of interim products. Although the control should not be confusedwith quality
justification for such a system may initially assurance(seeChapter IV, Section6). Accu-
be the need to monitor the construction of racy control is the regulation of accuracyin
interim products to minimize delays and re- order to maximize productivity. This regula-
work during erection, an accuracycontrol sys- tion involves a tradeoffbetween better accu-
tem is considerably more than this. When racy (and the subsequent improvement in
fully operational, accuracy control forms a succeedingassemblyand erection processes)
major part of the total shipbuilding system. and the cost to achievesuch accuracy.[1]
It involves the regulation of accuracy as a
managementtechnique for improving the pro- 1.1.Statistical
Princioles
ductivity of the entire shipbuilding system Statistical analysis as applied in accuracycon-
by focusing attention on individual areas trol is basedupon the observationthat there
where improvements offer significant bene- is no such thing as absolute accuracy(re-
fits. It also providesthe meansfor monitor- peatability). No matter how preciseworkers
ing work by individual work processor problem try to be during a specifrcwork process,vari-
area.Additionally, a fully implementedaccu- ations from specifieddimensionsare always
racy control system establishesa quantitative anticipated and measurable. Thus, accu-
feedback loop between production and plan- racy exists only in terms of usually achieved
ning, design,and engineering. ranges.Working with ranges of variations is
Accuracy control is defined as "the use of crucial for production control and for achiev-
statistical techniquesto monitor, control and ing specifiedend product accuracy.Note that
continuously improve shipbuilding design de- this discussionis primarily concernedwith
319
320 SHIPPRODUCTION
variations and not errors. Errors are acts describethe relative shapeof a normal distri-
that through ignorance, deficiency,or acci- bution (N). They are:
dent causedepartures from specifieddimen-
sions.They do not ordinarily occur.Accuracy . mean, i, the arithmetical average
control dealswith variations that occurin the of variations in a sample,which
courseof normal operations. describesthe central tendencyof
Variations in a work processare the re- the distribution
sult of the capability of the work process, o standard deviation, o, which classes
including workers, machinesand tools,ma- the sizesof variations from the mean
terials, and procedures.Dimensional varia- value by their frequenciesofoccur-
tions occur in any work processas a result of rence,and thus is a measureof the
common and special causes.Common cause relative scatter ofpoints around the
variation in a work process is the normal mean
chance or random variation common to the
process. It is the result of the production For a normal distribution, 67 percent of the
system, including raw materials, incoming values fall within one standard deviation of
parts or interim products,tools and machin- the mean, 95 percent fall within two stand-
ery, worker training, work environment, etc. ard deviations,99.7 percentfall within three
Variations due to common causescannot be standard deviations,and so on. Both para-
altered without altering the work processor meters are obtainable from mathematical
the system that controls the work process. formulas.
Reducing common causevariations thus be- Note that in the remainder of this chap-
comes the prerogative of management. In ter, discussioncenterson sampling from nor-
essence,common causes are common to a mal distributions. The normal distribution of
whole group of workers and belong to the samplesfrom a normally distributed popu-
system.Thesevariations are definedas being lation is describedby the sample mean, x,
the result of common causesor causescom- and the sample standard deviation, o, as de-
mon to the processcapability. [2] scribedabove.
Errors, as defined above,are the result Similar considerationscan be applied to
of specialcauses,or problemsnot commonto each work process.Thus, spacingsbetween
the process.Special causesof variation are longitudinals will vary, and another normal
causes specifrc to a certain worker or ma- distribution having its own mean value and
chine. They represent a departure from standard deviation applies (see Figure 8-2).
previous conditions and performance.These Whether the variations in both flat bar
causesshould be identified and removedas
a regular part of monitoring a work process.
Special causescan of;benbe correctedby the N(x',
work force.
Any repeatablework process(consistent
in facilities and worker skills) producesprod-
ucts that have variations in characteristics.
For example, fabricated flat bars will ex-
hibit variations from designdimensions.These
variations, when plotted by the number of
[tntgsthgy000u1,,
uppt,dxihta["
, rur*ul dir- Fig. 8-1. Normal distribution of variation from
tribution (see Figure 8-1). Two parameters designdimensionof cut flat bars.
ACCURACYCONTROL 321
N(iz, oz)
/\
then be monitored to detect changesin the cause.Data suchas thoseshownin Figure 8-b
performance of the process.Control charts are used to determine individual entries to
establish limits on the variation of the mean an i and an R chart.
and the range of these random samples.The The control charts provide information
limits are commonly set three standard de- about a particular work process.Since some
viations above and below the processmean dimensional variation is a regular result of
and the averagerange. Theselimits are used any work process,it is important to be able to
becausethey provide gg.7 percent assurance distinguish between expectedchanceor ran-
that exceedingthese limits is the result of a dom variations, and other variations. Thus
changein the normal distribution of the pro- the control charts are a tool to monitor work
cess and therefore the result of a special processesto assure that action need not be
taken to maintain the usually achievedaccu-
racy ofthe process.
Control charts are developedfor a work
processwhen the processis in a state of sta-
tistical control. Some understanding of the
meaning of statistical control is important in
using control charts. A state of statistical
control is a state of randomness. When a
processis in control and no specialcausesare
present,variations on the i and R charts are
due to commoncauses.Points plotted on the
i and R charts will fall within the control
limits. When points fall outside the control
Fig. 8-4. Normal distribution of random samples limits, they indicate the presenceof a special
taken from a normal population. cause of variation. The production worker
\,Z \,/\7-\
I
\,/
\nn ' -6 'Zl
: x , -d.3<
Xmax'+o.OG
rrmpl. rir.--______ N. 4:
FORMULAS: .v. v l r l a t l o n- - - - - - - A, -O A1
i . : xN rrngo___________ _R' A.Z7 u.
R ' X m r n- X m s x
Fig.8-5.Random
sample
datato beentered
0nant andR control
chart,
ACOURACYcoNTRoL 323
improving work environments, retraining o"'= or'+ or'+ 6r'f ...= ro,'
workers, or other similar approaches.This
by-product of the accuracycontrol system is where oi is the standard deviation ofearlier
called process or method analysis. process
processesand op is the standard deviation of
analysis involves a detailed review of a par-
a final process.[4]
ticular work process.The goal ofthis analysis
is to reducevariability, i.e.,to lower the mean
1.2.Overview
variation and,/orthe standard deviation of the
variations of the process.A similar approach A production line consistsofsequentially ar_
can be applied to investigate special causes ranged work processes;it is a preplanned
that are responsiblefor a processbeing out of entity. Effrciencyis dependentupon uniform
statistical control. work flow and coordination with other pro_
Independent normal distributions, such duction lines. Optimum accuracyis crucial to
as those representing performance of each avoid disruptive rework. Even nominal re_
work process,can be addedto determine the work can break down the economicadvan_
expectednormal performanceat succeeding tages of a production line. Thus, when
stages of construction. Additions of normal thinking about how a ship is to be assembled,
distributions apply both to work processes planners must addresstheir shipyard'saccu_
necessaryto ensure neededaccuraciesofin_ racy capabilities. Accuracy control planners
terim productsand to interim productsthem_ needgoodsystemsfor collectingand evaluat_
selvesto ensure required accuracyofa frnal ing accuracydata.
product, such as a ship's hull. For the latter, In the absenceof such measures,the fol_
the merged variation, Z, is expressedas: lowing typical questionsare disregarded:
ii
I
subassemblies ACCEPT/INVESTIGATE
I
I
I
_-/
326 SHIPPRODUCTION
2. Planning
Accuracycontrol planning is essentialto the neering, and planning. Figure 8-10 outlines
proper functioning of the system.The work is the accuracy control planning pro_essand
closely associatedwith regular design, engi- shows the natural relationship to d.esign,
ACCURACYCONTROL 327
EXECUTING EVALUATING
PRELIMINARY
PLANNING STANDARDIZING
q o
FOR VAFiATIONS TOLEBANCES
! O
l"-*.-*T
-fi
DESIGN
WORKINSTFUCTIONS
illl
MOLDLOFT NC DAIA, TEMPLATES PRODUCTION
,,PFODUCTION PROCESS
PLAN(FA8/SU8/ASSY/ERE)
E N G I NE E R I N G ' '
engineering, and planning. Since variations . decidewhere and how much margin is
will occur at each stage of production (see to be used and the specificstagesat
Figure 8-11), one aspect of accuracy control which margins should be cut neat
planning is to indicate when (at what stage . determine work processesduring which
of construction) action must be taken to mini- checkmeasurementswill be made
mize rework at erection. Figure 8-12 shows . fix the numbers of interim products
when A/C activities are applied. that should be measuredbasedupon
Basically, what is shown is the role of A/C random sampling
planning to: . incorporatetolerancelimits, excess
allowances,and margins in work
r pinpoint what vital points and dimen-
instructions
sions are critical to the dimensional
and geometrical accuracy of blocks A./Cplanning is best performedtogetherwith
. designate critical checkpoints and other planning elements,providedit receives
reference lines in blocks and in the at least the same emphasis. For effective-
subassemblies and parts from which ness, specificA./Cresponsibilities should be
blocks are assembled clearly defined and specifically assigned to
. specify locations for and amounts of individuals. As previously shownin Figure 8-9,
excess allowances A,/Cplanning can be divided as other major
328 SHIPPRODUCTION
5 T A { O A R OASG T I C Y
H U L LY I T A L P O I I T S / 8 A S I L I f l E 5
L o c A i l o n t A c c u Rc Y
S P T C I A L' U 5 I O T I R O R
O P i R AI' N
I GR I C U I R T H T N T :
T I I S T I N GP R O P R I E T A R Y
S T A I O A N DO5R T S I J T A I T S
x c t S sp L A N
A C A I A L T S I SO F I O R I A L L Y
A C H I T V IAOC C U M C Y
8 L 0 C KF A 8 . / t R t C T t o {
PRODUT'IIOfl PLAIiNIilG:
STRUCTURAL | O R K P R O C T SPSt A i l N I J { G
s E c rI o i l s
:l..#fl+++*r+*!!%P"
3i3 i?l;:
I O C A I I O NI A C C U R A C Y
I I I S T I N GP R O P R I T T A R Y
STAIIOAFOS CR tSIII{ATtS
gC ANALYSISOF NORMALLY
AJHIEVEOACCURACY
BLOCK FAB.,RECTION
P R O O U C T IP
OLi A f l I i I I G :
IORX PROCESS PLAIITIIIIG
ASSEFBI-Y STQUTIiCE PLANI.IIfl6
SUA-BLOCKVARIATIONMERGINGEON'S
SUBASSEMBLYVITAL PTS/BASEUNES II]5IIilG PROPRIEIARY
LOCATIONAND ACCURACY
STAilDAROS/E5I I IiATTS
E X C I S SD I5 T RI
P R O O U C T IP
OTI iA N N I N G
I O R KP R O C T SPSL A N I 1 I N G
ASSEI{BLY SEOUENCt PLATI
Fig.8-11.Sources
ofvariationby stageofconstruction.
. shapeblocks that are spaciousand then developkey plans, such as a shell ex-
open,to facilitate zoneoutfitting pansion, a block plan, and ultimately work
instructions, all of which containA./C-derived
To carry out such studies systematically, requirements.
planners must have accessto drawings, such
as a general arrangement, midship section 2.2. Delail Planning
and lines plan, and proposed schemes for Accuracycontrol considerationsin detail plan-
block divisions and shell straking. The plan- ning are really processanalyses from an A,/C
ners, who are assignedat the hull construc- viewpoint. Through such analyses,problems
tion department level and to the parts fa- which can be solved by regulating certain
brication shop, subassemblysection,block dimensionsare revealedin advance.In other
assemblysection,and erection section,are words, to obtain required accuracyfor a final
furnished these drawings by the design de- process,it is necessaryto identify the speci-
partment. As a routine matter, the same fic precedingprocessesthat are significantly
information is available to the planners contributing to a final or merged variation.
who have been assigned A/C responsi- Thus, A,/Canalysesidentify on a quantitative
bilities. They use the variation-merging basisboth the work processesand the design
equations, based upon statistically ob- details which should be improved.
tained assessmentsof normal performance Of course, such determinations are not
at workstations, and proposeoptimum de- made solely from an A./C viewpoint. Accu-
sign details, assembly and erection se- racy control techniques are analybicalman-
quences,tolerances,etc.,accordingly.The agement tools that contribute to processanal-
final schemeis fed back to designers,who yses.They are the means for a shipyard as an
330 SHIPPRODUCTION
M I N I M A LE R E C - T I OW
NO R K
BLOCKALIGNt\4ENT
IN S T R U C T I O N S
FOR SI-IIPWFIGHTS
B L O C K SW H I C H M I N l M I Z E
R E W O R K 8 Y G A S C U T T I N G&
B A C K . S T R l PW E L D l N G
D U R I N GE R E C T I O N
] N S T R U C T 1 O NT
SO
F I N I S HA B L O C K
O U R I N GA S S E M B L Y
AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE
T O L E R A N C EL I N 4 I T S
AJC PLANNING
VITAL POINTS
VITAL DIMENSIONS
BASE LINES
R E F E F E N C EL I N E S
S T A N D A H D SF O R :
WORK PROCESSES
ACCURACY J
STRAIGHTNESS o
W E L D I N GI N T E R N A L W E L D I N GI N T E F N A L
FLATNESS U
a It,4EMBERS MEMBEFS
PLUMB a
U
a
LEVEL o
Y P A N E LF I N I S H P A N E LF I N I S H
SQUARENESS (J
TOLERANCES CUTTING Y CUTTING
ETC. )
@ P A N E LM A R K I N G J P A N E LM A R K I N G
o o
U i
(r P A N E LA S S E M B L Y PANEL ASSEMBLY
J
l
T O L E R A N C EL I I t , 4 I T S
entity to capture and quantitatively derive and referencelines that must be included in
benefits from its accuracyexperiences.Ac- numerically controlled(N/C) data, templates,
curacy control methodsin detail planning are and field check sheets. Engineers who per-
significant becausethey inherently address form A"/Cplanning for construction of a ship
the entire hull construction processfor the recognizethat most accuracy variations in
purposeof reducing erectionwork. work processesare normal, and their impact
Planning proceedsby first assessingthe on an end product can be predicted through
accuracycharacteristicsfor an end product as statistical methods.
specifredby a regulatory society and ship- Simultaneously with the designation of
owner. Thinking of reverseprocessflow, A,/C required work proceduresfor a specific in-
planners identify vital points and dimensions terim product, tolerancesand amounts of ex-
that must be maintained during erection, cess are determined by taking into account
block assembly,and so on (seeFigure 8-13). the merging of variation. Variations gener-
In consideration of such vital aspects,A./C ated by each work processfollow a normal
planners ensure that, via work instructions distribution, N(xi, oi), and accumulateas an-
and other means,loftsmen and peoplehaving other normal distribution, Z{ir, op), at the
A/C field responsibilities are provided with last stage. In order to reduce the merged
necessaryinformation, such as checkpoints mean variation, Zr, it is necessaryto reduce
Major '1.
shellplaleotfsetsai butt 1. affectstrength,reworkrequirements,
structural 2 . chineotlsets detormationduringf abrication
intersections 3 . localionsof majorbulkheads 2. leedback to yard-AJC analysis
at butl jornts largestructuralfoundations-location, 3. leedback to standardsagency
tlatness 4. alfect labricationproductivity
't.
Outfil pipeends which mateto anothercomponent 1. alfeclproperoperationof machinery
component on adjoiningunit 2. atfecl productivityot zone outfitting
Interseclrons 2 . machinerycomponentsmatingto component 3. leedback to yard-tuC analysis
at butl joints on anotherunit 4. leedback to standardsagency
3 . pipe penetrationlocalions
the standard deviation, oi, and control the assembly, panel marking, panel frnish cut-
mean value, x,, of each process,considering ting, and internal member welding to pre-
their effectson current production methods. dict the normal distribution for blocks being
An exampleof howA/C planners can use planned.The sametechniqueis employedfor
variation-merging equations to predict subassemblyand for parts fabrication. This
merged variation in a bottom butt to be enablesA/C planners to advise designersof
joined during hull erectionis shownin Figure specificA/C matters that are to be included
8-14. Using these results, accuracy control in work instructions.
planners perform processanalysisto improve
design or to alter work sequencesto improve 2.3. Standardization
accuracyand productivity. Standardization is an important feature of
A/C planners also apply these tech- group technology shipbuilding, as was dis-
niques to predict merged variation within cussed in Chapters VI and VII. Standards
every manufacturing level. For example,for related to accuracycontrol can be discussed
block assemblythey use the normal distribu- in terms of work standards and accuracy
tions for each work process,such as panel standards.
Assembly Procedure:
1. Fit the flange on the web shifted by Sr 3mm excess allowance and finish cut the panel,s
(fwd end of longitudinal). forward edge.
2. Fit the flange on the web shifted by Sz 4. Fit the longitudinals to the bottom panel shifted
(aft end of penetrating piece). by Az where Az = the designed dimension +2mm.
3. After the plates are welded together to 5. Fit the penetrating piece to the transverse bulk-
create the bottom panel, incorporate a head at the distance A..
variation merging equations for thejoint gaps during hulr erection:
Z t = A z - ( A : +
E z )
Zz = Zt + [(Sr - 6r) - (Sz +62)]
ZB = lE2 - (Pz - Ar)l - [(Pr + Az) - (Ar + Er)]
Za = Zt + [(Sr' - 611)_ (S21 + &1)]
. A negative value for Z predicts overlaps, i.e., negative gap.
. The value for every A, E, etc., is dependent upon a similar lower_tier
equation which accumulates variations for marking, cutting, etc., as
measured from a reference line.
6i,6i
51 140 +1.1 0.61 Fittingpositionol bottomlongitudinalflange.
Si 140 +0.5 1.61 Shiftbetweenweb and flangeat the afterend of bottom
longitudinal.
52 50 4.4 0.81 Finingpositionof flangeof penetratingpiece.
52 50 +0.6 1.82 Shiftbetweenweb and flangeat the forwardend of
penetratingpiece.
A1 36 +2.9 1.38 Lengthol boftompanelafterfinishcut.
A2 83 +1.6 1.64 Fittingpositionof bottomlongitudinal.
A3 70 -O.8 2.02 Fittingpositionof penetratingpiece.
E1 42 4.4 2.43 Accuracyol gap betweenbottompanelsmeasuredbetween
referencelinesafterwelding.
E2 44 +1.9 4.60 Erectedpositionof TransverseBulkhead;Distancefrom buttof
bottomoanel.
EstimatedGap
Zj +0.5 8.26
Z? +2.0 10.70 ' 17"k
z3 + 1. 0 13.79 ' 14"k
z4 +1.0 18.22 ' 170/"
' Estimated
occurrenceof gaps which are 5 or more mm wide; back-stripweldingis required.
Fig.8-1a(b).
and supervision. Ifany are changed without is characterized by frnish cutting, based on a
regard forA/C analyses and approvals, biases high probability that no rework will be re-
that invalidate previous A,/C or process per- quired. To further eliminate rework, A,/C con-
formance data are introduced. tinues to impose the same questions when
Among the work standards required are this transition is achieved:
those for:
. Why is excess needed?
. excess . Where is excessneeded?
. shrinkage allowance r How much excess is necessary?
. baselines and match marks . Ifneeded, during what stage should
. checking procedures
rework take place?
r parts fabrication and assembly
schemes
This incessant questioning is motivation for
. A"/C information in work instructions
continuous improvements in work methods.
At the startup of A/C planning, the following The amount of shrinkage caused by weld-
questions are asked to determine standards ing will be different, depending upon mate-
for excess: rials, methods, and sequences.Thus, standards
for shrinkage allowances must be based upon
. Why are margins needed? recorded data for each set ofcircumstances.
. Where are margins required? Baselines and match marks are both
. How much margin is necessary? necessary and important to facilitate proper
. During what work process will margins data collection and to aid production, espe-
be finish cut? cially fitting. Standards are required to as-
sure that their locations and lengths are suffr-
Usually, a margin scheme for main strakes, cient to reflect production requirements.
such as shell plates, is created by production A written checking procedure assures spec-
planners. Margins shown are for ordering ified accuracy at each work process. Written
materials and./or fabricating parts. However, checking procedures (standards) are required
the amounts of margin are not prescribed by to ensure that measurements are recorded for
written standards that are backed up by re- analysis.
cords of measurement data. In this respect, The sequencesfor subassembly and block
margins differ from excess allowances. Mar- assembly are usually indicated by a number-
gins are used as a buffer to compensate for ing system, useful for computer processing,
accuracy variations in all hull constructron which is hierarchical in order to match as-
processes, including design. Therefore, the cending manufacturing levels. This system is
true causes of accuracy variations and ways good enough to indicate a simple sequence
to improve fabrication methods are difficult such as parts fabrication, subassembly, block
to detect. Where statistical analysis is not assembly, and erection. Standards for parts
applied, the large amounts of margin used fabrication and assembly schemes that ad-
are based on "rough check" data which char- dress vital points and dimensions are needed
acterize feedback from production. This cycle to achieve specified accuracy during each work
masks actual causes and reduces opportuni- process.
ties for improvements. Usual hull construction drawings show
A"/Cscrutinyshrinksmarginsuntil most structural details and sometimes include in-
of them becomejust the excessallowances structions for edge preparations. Specific ex-
neededto compensate for variations.Excess cess allowances are generally not included.
rI
I
I
I
i
ACCURACYCONTROL 335
Little other guidance is provided by de- applied to every work process. The more de-
signers to indicate fabrication methods and manding standard range is used as the accu-
vital points and dimensions needed to achieve racy standard for each particular work pro-
a specified degree of accuracy. Working draw- cess in order to ensure control of the merged
ings, provided to workers, are the only variation at erection. By definition, standard
widely distributed documents which can range is associatedwith high probability ri +
display total instructions for how to construct 2o or 95 percent).
a ship's hull. When design is recognized as Of the few remaining variations, those
an aspect of planning, working drawings will outside the standard range which do not re-
develop more as work instructions which quire rework during the next work stage, nor
facilitate employment of less skilled workers, spoil end product accuracy, are acceptable
adherence to work standards, A/C analyses, and are regarded as being within a tolerance
and continuous improvement in production limit. This is a tolerance limit because it
methods. applies to fewer cases and includes some
added allowance for acceptance. However,
2.3.2. Accuracy Standards. To control the ac- such limits must be achievable with normal
cumulation of variations or merged variation production capabilities and must not impair
at a final stage, accuracy standards are estab- structural integrity ofthe end product.
lished for preceding work processes. Figure This approach recognizes basic realities
8-15 shows the relationship among accuracy in any industrial enterprise. While more de-
standards by stage ofconstruction. Data ob- manding accuracy standards are applied to
tained during construction ofother ships are normal operations, some allowance is made
used to derive accuracy standards for a con- for the effect on accuracy ofon-the-job train-
templated ship. However, these are reviewed ees, newly developed machines, etc. The con-
by analyzing data recorded as production be- cept of a standard range with a tolerance
gins and progresses. Adjustments are made if limit encourages managers to react to trends
assumed accuracy standards are unrealistic. away from normally achieved accuracy before
The concept of a standard range with a rework is required.
tolerance limit, as shown in Figure 8-7, is
3. Executing
Accuracy control execution is concerned with and long terms. Production workers can moni-
two tasks: tor the work processeswith the aid of control
charts and make adjustments when neces-
. define when, what, and how to measure
sary to maintain the desired state of control.
. take measurements and record data
This has obvious short-term benefrts in de-
Before looking into the various aspects of the creasing product variability and hence im-
execution phase, it is useful to review the proving productivity. Maintaining processes
purpose of this effort. The objectives of an in control has the additional purpose of en-
accuracy control program are to determine suring the validity ofa statistical analysis of
that work processes are in a state of statisti- thoseprocesses.This processanalysisto con-
cal control, to maintain that state of control, tinuously improve productivity is the third
and to provide information to management to objective.It is this analysisthat providesthe
facilitate process analysis and improvement. principal motivation and benefit of an accu-
The frrst two are important both in the short racy control program.
336 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
<) fl:,
: 11()Nr
MA rr DeC-{-
-\
\,
c><' ,.,
o
uJ f<,t,s
Fig. 8-16.Accuracycontrolchecksheet.
ACCURACYCONTROL 339
*';rl
',1'1".,/
Fig. 8-17.Sight line templatesfor checkingcurved Fig. 8-18. Vital dimensions on a flat block which
plate accuracy. incorporates some cur-ved shell.
MEASUREMENT DATE
,,1
WxH N o v .1 8
BOTTOM N o v .17
Tlme 9 : 3 0a . m
Temp. 16"C
+ts)
200 mm betow
boltom line
4. Evaluating
SystematizedA/C analysis and feedbacken- . more detailed investigation of
sures that experiencesand lessonslearned the data
are acquired by the organization and trans- o investigation of instruments used
lated into improved productivity. As work for measuring
progresses,all results from checksheetsand . verification of alignment of facilities
reported accuracyproblemsare analyzedbe- such as platens for flat block assembly
fore they are sent to cognizantorganizational and cribbing for erection
divisions. The evaluations include analysis . review of work methods
and recommendationswhich, as shown in . study of specifiedamounts of excess
Figure 8-20, are performed on either a regu-
lar or an urgent basis. Workers perform self-checksdaily to ensure
compliancewith accuracy standards. These
4.'1.RegularAnalysis
are again checkedand reesrdedby their work
If an analysisdiscloses
an apparent
areafor leaders.
Propcrly
collcctod
drta,evonif all
improvement, an NC engineer pursues one measurements are within accuracy stand_
or more typical options as follows: ards, are used to identify the characteristrcs
ACCURACYCONTROL 341
CHECK
SHEET
VARTATION
REPORT
MAKE
SKETCH
C A L L U R G E N TM E T I N G O A T AA N A L Y S I S
I N V E S T I G A TC
EA U S E . M A K G R A P HF O R
OF VARIATION E A C HS H O P
. I S S U EA N A L Y S I SR P O R T :
PART FAB & SUB.BLK
ASSEM (MONTHLY);8LK
A S S E M & E R E C T( A T E N O )
METHOD MONTHLY
IMPROVE'T VARIATION
REPORT
D E C I D EC O U N I E R i , , I E A S U R E
F O R V A R I A T I O NA N D
I T ST F E N D
Fig. 8-20.Accuracycontrolinformationflows.
fer from variations becausetheir occurrences select personnel who are familiar with the
do not adhere to normal distributions. De- principles of A/C. This troubleshootingteam
spite their erratic nature, they too require ofspecialistsfor planning, executing,and eval-
organized responsesand analysesto identi$' uating meets where the inaccuracy exists to
short-term or temporary solutions which mini- examine the evidencefrrsthand. Their job is
mize disruptions, and to subsequentlyachieve to evaluate impact on work flow, recommend
permanent meansto prevent recurrence.The what, how, and when rework is to take place,
feedbackpath for these urgent considerations minimize disruption, and collectevidencefor
is included in Figure B-20. identifying the cause.After taking temporary
A possiblepreplannedresponseto a seri- countermeasuresfor quickly restoring work
ous inaccuracy is to immediately summon flow, investigationscontinue for the purpose
of devising permanent solutions.
LOWER UPPER
TOLERANCE
LIMIT
TOLERANCE
LIMIT
4.3.Control
Controls which assure that achieved accu-
racy conformswith an A/C plan for construc-
tion are important. They are classifiedas reg-
ular or special.
Becauseof the many different parts and
subassembliesrequired, regular controls are
XO X1 applied to repetitive work processes.Typical
to is the mean ol an original distribulion. regular control items in an ongoingA/C pro-
ir is lhe mean ol a DroDoseddistribution.
Obtaining a diflerent balance ol cuntnq vs. back striD
gram, including their measurementfrequen-
welding requtres reduciion In Ihe specllied amount ot excess
by lhe sme amount as lor the shitt in mean value_ cies, sample sizes, and standard deviations,
are listed in Figure 8-26. Control charts for
Fig. 8-23. Shifting an erectionjoint gap distribu- such regular usage were shown in Figure
tion to control the type ofrework required. 8-3. Such charts are maintained bv A/C
ANALYSIS
REPORTFORHULLERECTION
EreclionGap
Lenglh(M) "k
ry!94f/.)
1,548.2
3 1i
797.8
lo 32.1
324.0 5.2 54.8
431.8 4.0 103
1.453.7 7.O 30.7
4,883.7 j?6
5.5 ,
2 / o D e a dW e i g h t . . . . . . . . . 1. .6. 7 , 5 0T0o n s
rnorcators L a u n c nIn 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . .A. .p t n1 2 , 1 9 7 7
Fig. 8-24(a).Hull erectionrework analysis and report (continuedin Fig. 8-24(b)through (d))
ACCURACYCONTROL 345
BOTTOMAND SIDESHELL
rll
A9
a?
+6
le4
l=5
DOUBLEBOTTOM
t 3/
L
I
DC33
0s 32
DC32 o c3 l
D zE!
i,
a
{. P
*J
3
2/
r
a
z
A9
-+a .\ 0l
3\
0s3l l
\,1
tr'io R-94(ht
346 sHrPPRoDUCTToN
?. EG EG EG EG EG E6r
E9 r l r l r
t1 s5 s7 s9
+, +! rrt 0 a o o ?
I _ l f \ f \
t. F.g1 ", t : 6 1 V s G 6/ s / ( sG8 /' 3' ;.1i / o
-? +3
.+3
t.5
\
t23
i,', o,
P t 0 \ o or. +r
,:3
t 3 \ ,. {'
+5 2/ br{ 6 \ 7
t.2
t / \ttr d o/ o 6s' 5/
E
^" B C 6 1 BCt oro. o\a
/ B C or ' .
2 3\
P \ \ ' /o /2
1 T I q + 4 d +3
E2 d t.7 /
BC3 8C5 3.
tJVJ BC9
2 o ^ A o e 4 .
a a\ t ,o 3.' ^ 3 r
3 o' 2 +3 A +3
t.5 o/l t.3 t29 o
{rt
t.6
\ ( b ' l / d\s d
t.9 t.5
s4 s6 s8
EU
tru EG EG EG EG EG
o- o. { \o {
pf 2\ t r1 t\o. 't z\ I
) \ .o /l l. or
'----7-
i3
ttJ
i-z
V *,-.' \; t.l I v D 9 o ,
D3
I os
', , 2 q t\ ,a o.
Fig.8-24(c)
ACCURACYCONTROL 347
FSI5
gJ52F
t;l
sL52
35
a Y -+6
2 .j. u 6\ Pr L to ,r? q \
: -*'
DI5F
Al! \ f-2
Dl5A
oll 013
-?+16
0\ ) 2
Fig.8-24(d).
348 SHIPPRODUCTION
11 = 146
i = -0.33
o = 1.86
X a 20: -4.05- +3.39
4 2 0 N = 150
o i = -0.95
o = 2.19
I r n I a 20: -5.33-+3.43
Squareness .150
N =
I = 1.61
5 2 0 o = 1.09
, + 20:3.79
E
4
10
N = .150
i = 4.43
o = 3.05
i + 2o:10.53
engineers for production control purposes. each such control chart is postedat its respec-
Once peoplebecomeused to them, they pro- tive work station.
vide guidance to everyoneconcerrred,includ- Specialcontrolsare basedupon the accu-
ing workers and their supervisors.Therefore, racy conditionof a hull upon completion.Nec-
r
t
ACCURACYCONTROL 349
essary vital points are defrnedand included prepared for the same purpose (see Figure
in the A/C plan for a specified hull. When 8-29). Each P/D assumesthat the rectangu-
the hull is completed,members of the A/C larity and overall dimensions and shape of
group accumulate and analyze measurements the panel on which the block is assembled
that relate to predetermined vital dimen- are within specifiedtolerance limits. The
sions. They look for accuracy trends which validity of P/D's also depends on confor-
should be modifred for further productivity mance of control items such as those listed
improvements. in Figure 8-26.
Statistically derived data which predict Effectivecontrol ofaccuracyis dependent
variations in block edges are not sufficient on proper understanding of variation-merg-
for depicting the actual status ofeach block. ing equations such as those given in Figure
Erection planners are concernedwith how 8-14. Too much focus on a merged variation,
the exact dimensions and confrguration of Z, is not worthwhile. It is more important to
every block comparewith designdimensions. focuson each factor on the right side ofeach
A position-dimensiondiagram (P/D) satisfres equation.If thesefactorsare sufficiently con-
this need (seeFigure 8-27).This information trolled, nominal checkswill suffrceto confirm
is neededto developvariation tables, which each merged variation. Someof these nomi-
are usedto determine where gascutting and/or nal checks,usually random samples,are use-
back strip welding is required (see Figure ful for balancingalternatives suchas gas cut-
8-28). Similar information, for the end posi- ting versus back strip welding, as shown in
tions of girders and longitudinals, is also Figures 8-21 through 8-23.
5. Applications
5 . 1 .D e s i g n ances,excessesare adequatelyconsideredand
The hull block construction method devel- are consistentlyapplied,and the potential for
oped naturally following the introduction of human error is reduced.Loft, parts fabrica-
welding. Some shipbuilders changedtheir tion, and assemblyworkers no longer have
organizationofstructural drawings to suit. to refer to separately prepared A./Crequire-
Appropriate drawing titles evolved,such as ments or dependupon recollections.
block erectionplan, block assemblyplan, sub-
assemblyplan, and parts cutting plan. These 5.2. Mold Loft
are more than traditional detail designdraw- Strictly speaking, loft processesshould be
ings, becausethey associateclassifrcationsof subject to the same A,/Cscrutiny as marking
parts and assemblieswith specifrcmanufac- and cutting in a parts fabrication shop.How-
turing levelsin production.They are, to some ever, mold loft process variations are too
degree,work instruction drawings. small to significantly affect merged variation
Design and material defrnition should be during parts fabrication.But loft errors (mis-
regarded as aspectsof planning, and draw- takes, omissions,etc.) are ofconcernbecause
ings should be further developedas virtually they disrupt the A,/Ccycle.
complete work instructions, including A/C Errors cannot be treated with classical
work. Checking and recording should be A/C theory, since they do not enter into vari-
clearly delineatedas productionwork, just as ation-merging equations.Therefore,for A./C
much as marking, cutting, fitting, etc. By purposes,written proceduresshould be de-
including A"/Crequirements, particularly vi- velopedto addressthe classificationoferrors
tal points and dimensions and excessallow- and methodsfor checking,recording,and ana-
350 SHIPPRODUCTION
Conlrol llem
T e m pl at e
Production
Block
Assembly
I
ACCURACYCONTROL 351
P - DD I A G R A M
10
-2
-6
10
-2
-4
-6
,8
I
352 SHIPPRODUCTION
+5 +5
l,rSa
1 3S 4 r2s4 ils4
+f
P S.t 9 S.t
+2
8S4 7S4 6S4 5S4 II
15s4 +3 +J +2 r l t l l-
, 2 + ? {:
r 6s 4 -{ 13s3 1 2s 3 ils3 K)s3 953 853 7S3 6S3 5S3
r5s3 14s3
+ l +3 +2 +2 + l
+? +2 +f +f +? +3 + l +2 + 3
f 3 + 'f . + .a +: + E { + : 13 -0( +2 'rl
r652 t 5 s2 14S2 t 3 s2 t?s2 ils2 tos2
l
952
{
7 S2
-l "
4l o5s
8S2 652 z*'
+2 +! +? o o - l +3 + l +? {2 +3
+? o + l - l +6 +2 +a
t6sl rf,st KSI t 3 5| l2Sl n ilsl OSI +r 9Sl 7Sl 6Slo
8 Sl 3Sl+t
- t + t -2 - l +2 t - l +a
'a *t ., +z +e +l -? +l i l +2 +J +l
f J + l { +? 1 3 + -J i5 +a -l ogs tt
t 6s 2 t3S2 14s2 sse ,?s? il s? tos2 9S2 8S2 7S? 6S2 2
al + l +? + l +l +l + l * l +3 + l
+t " J + l +2 + J +J
l5s3 t.sl '.1 +i 4
t6sa *t 13sJ r2s3 l rs 3 rosl 953 833 7S3 5S3 3S 3
-
t5sa +3 +a +2
r3rl +J +2
13S4 t?54 il stl r0s4 9S. I S.l 7S4 654 5Sa |..
+6 +a t
s
M e a s u r e m e n tm a d e a l t e r b l o c k a s s e m b l y
F i g u r e s i n d l c a t e v a r i a t i o n sf r o m d e s i o n
#* r0
0l b '
i!: I
o2
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t
03
A
o
b
I F
04 I
I
0S
A
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b
0 F
06
A
o
b
I ?
0
9 o 0 0 o 0 0 + 2 + 2 0 o o o 0 0 0
Gif. 8 o o 0 + l - l - l o o o
0 o i 5 o 0 0
7 0 + l + l I o 0 0 0 + t 0 0 o 0 - 2 o +
6 + l + l 0 0 o I - l - l
0 o o +
3 0 + l | l r O o 0 + l t 5 0.5 - l
o o I +
6ir. 4 o + l o 0 o 0 o.l 0 + l 0 + l + l - l - l 0 f
3 o + t o 0 + l - l
0 0 - l 0 +
2 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 + l 0 0 0 - l
Gi?. I o f l + + l o 0 t l o 0 + 3
t l 0 0
tr - l 0 + l t 0 0 o + 2+ ? + l + l 0 ?
6ir. I -2 - l - 2
+ l - l - l 2 + l + l 0 o - l rr+
2 0 + l - l 0 + 2 + l - t r 0 0 o l o
3 n 0.5 0 - l - t ( + +
Gir. 4 o 0 r-0.5 '0. ? o 0 + l f l + l 0 r+2
5 + l + l - l
o 0 o I 0 0(+
6 0 0 0 + l - l - l o - 2 n ? l + l 0r+ I
7 o 0 ? l o o 0 o f + 3
Gir. I 0 0 + 2 +2 0 0 0 0 0 o
9 0 o 0i o O t + ? o 0 0 0
t0
oJr cmREcTr(/t
ffi[!t'+nl]8:"^-,
cndposition
Fig6 29.Longttudinrl ropoLt
t0bousud
i'plu'urec[io'.
r
ACCURACYCONTROL 353
--
a*
I
I
I
I
I
354 SHIPPRODUCTION
@
I
()
d
L
I
g
@
f
U
!
NO N,4ABKS
OF PAFTS
A C C U M U L A T EFDR E O U E N C Y
MONTHLY
FREQUENCY
..--'1"---y
14 tE t9 t6 26 1 9 1 1 2 8 3 t 6 ? 2
tu) (3t) (671 (93) (f 12) (t231 ltz7l fl l5) (t4ol (t561 (t,8t
"EGG-CRATE" .WELDLONGITUDINALS
WORKSEOUENCE TO PANELFIRST'WORKSEQUENCE
'1. Panel
Assembly(E) 1. PanelAssembly(E)
2. PanelMarking 2. PanelMarking
3. Egg-crateAssembly(a,b,e) 3. Longitudinalsto PanelWelding(A)
4. Egg-crateto PanelWelding(A) 4. Other-inlernalsWelding (A,a,b,e)
5. Line Heating(B) if necessary 5. Line Heating(B) if necessary
r-
II
t
I
I
358 SHIPPRODUCTION
S H I P C O N V E R S I O N .O V E R H A U L . A N D R E P A I R
1. Intr oduction
The ship conversion, overhaul, and repair The scopeof work and timing of each of
industry is concernedwith working on ships these actionsis determinedby one or more of
during their servicelives: the following: (1) rules of the classification
societiesand regulatory bodies, (2) mainte-
. changlngtheir configurationsso they nance philosophy of the owner, and (3) eco-
can do betterjobs or differentjobs nomic, market, and safety considerations.
(conversion/modernization) Planned Maintenance.This is a program-
. generally and extensivelybringing med cycleof regular, scheduledmaintenance
them back to an almost like-new and repair based both on direct inspection
condition (overhaul) and equipment failure history. It also in-
. maintaining the equipment and hull cludes periodic surveys by classification so-
integrity ofthe ship, repairing or cietiesand regulatoryagencies.
replacing damagedand worn parts . Non-dry dock - frequent (usually
(repair) annual) pierside inspection and repair
involving topside work where a dry dock
Also discussedin this chapter is what hap- is not neededfor access;also includes
pens at the end of a ship's servicelife-deac- underwaymaintenance
tivation or scrapping. The characteristicsof o Dry dock - periodic major mainte-
the various repair markets are presented, nance involving inspection and repair
along with recent innovations in ship main- of the underwater hull, propellersand
tenance and repair. shafts,mdder, thrusters,hull coatings,
cathodicprotection,sea chests,and
1 . 1 .L i f eC y c l eo f a S h i p other underwater items; usually also
A ship in serviceis subjectedto operation- includes all the work donein a non-dry
al wear, to deterioration from exposureto dock maintenrncerndsmall to medium-
harsh environments, and to damage from sized confrgurationchangesplanned
heavy weather and unplanned encounters for the ship (includesoverhauls)
with solid objects. The basic actionstaken to UnscheduledRepairs.This type of repair
counter these effects and maximize the op- becomesnecessarywhen there is an unex-
erational readiness of the ship during its pected equipment failure or fouling, storm
servicelife are illustrated in Figure 9-1. damage,collision damage,fire, or any other
359
rI
tI
II
i
360 SHIPPRODUCTION
Start
Service
LIFE OF A SHIP
Design/construction
Servicelife(17 to 25 yearsaverage)
Plannedmaintenance
(drydock)
Plannedmaintenance
(non-drydock)
Unscheduled
repairs(as needed)
Conversion/modernization
(optional)
Deactivation/scrao
event that compromisesthe safetyof the ship 1.2.Sizeand Scopeof the Industry
or its ability to perform its mission. It may Ship conversion,overhaul, and repair repre-
require dry-docking,dependingon the nature sents an important part of the U.S. shipyard
and extent of the damage. market in terms of volume, profitability, and
ConuersionI Modernization.Occasionally,as market stability. This market supported an
a ship grows older or market needschange,it employment level of almost 90,000peoplein
may make economicsense to the owner to the United States during the decadeof the
convert the ship for a different mission or to 1980s.[1]
modernizeit to extendits servicelife. Conver- In terms of dollar value, this work repre-
sion might involve lengthening a ship with a sented nearly 33 percent of all shipwork in
new midbody,changingthe bow, re-engining, 1987. A breakdown of the market between
changing the configuration to handle a dif- military and commercialand between conver-
ferent kind ofcargo, adding cranesfor self- sion and repair (including overhaul) is shown
loading, or even changing a cargo ship into in Figure 9-2.t21The conversion,overhaul,
a hospital ship. Modernization usually in- and repair market maintained a combined
volves upgrading most of the systems on a level of $3 to $+ billion in the United States
ship, including hull, propulsion, electronics, through the early 1990s.[2] Ofthe total, over
and habitability to significantly extend the 70 percent of this amount has been directly
life of the ship and meet the latest safety related to ships in servicefor the use of the
standards.. U.S. government (Navy or Military Sealift
DeactiuationlSuapping. At the end of the Command IMSCI). Current downsizing of
economicalservice life of a ship, the owner the U.S. Navy from 600 ships in 198bto 346
has to determine how to disposeof it. This ships by 1999 will have a significant impact
can sometimesoccur earlier in a ship's life if on the naval portion of the repair industry.
market conditionschangedrastically and the Virtually all the new-constructionyards
ship is highly specialized,such as a liquefied also convert, overhaul, and repair ships. As
natural gas carrier. Someships,especiallyin the ship constructionmarket has decreased,
the military, are deactivated and stored for conversion,overhaul, and repair have become
possiblelater use. Others are broken up for increasingly imporbant to most of these yards.
the scrap or resale value of their materials Many have had difficulty in adapting to
and equipment. the different requirementsof the repair mar-
SHIPCONVERSION,
OVERHAUL,
AND REPAIR 361
Planning Management
Size Complexitv Facilities Approach Approach
Repair& overhaul
Unscheduled repairs Zl za Varies Systo Zone Varies
Plannedmaintenance Z Z ShopVPier/DD Systo Zone Functionto Project
Overhaul Z z ShopVPier/DD Zone ProjecVMatrix
Conversiory'modernization
Z z FullServiceSY Zone ProjecVMatrix
Deactivation Z Z Sho/Pier Zone& Sys Project
Scrap Za Z' Pier/DD/Staging Zone Project
t--_
II
364 SHIPPRODUCTION
ltem 1 9 9 0( 1 ) 1 9 9 1( 1 ) 1 9 9 2( 1 ) 1 9 9 3( 1 ) 1 9 9 4e
S h i p b u i l d i n&
g
Conversion 11.541.2 8,751.2 6,713.2 5,853.2 4,294.7
S h i p R e p a i r&
Modernization 4,648.3 3,832.7 4,058.4 3,494.6 2,7g1.4
Total 16,189.5 12,583.9 10,771.7 9,347.8 7.086.1
(1) Appropriated.
(2) Requested.
S O U R C E : U . S . D e p a r t m e not f t h e N a v y ,b a s e do n F y 1 9 9 4
C o n g r e s s i o n aBl u d g e t .
/
SHIPCONVERSION,
OVERHAUL,
AND REPAIR 365
bhe previous year (see Figure 9-4.).t31This the accomplishmentof this work. Navy speci-
budgetrequestis about 30 percentlower than fications and contract language are exten-
the FY92 appropriation and about 40 percent sively standardized but are also very com-
lower than the FY90 appropriation. plicated due in part to heavy dependenceon
The size of the Navy repair and modern- standard references.
ization budget is driven primarily by exter- The innovative phased maintenance ap-
nal national security threats, potential war proachis basedon the developmentof a main-
or conflict scenarios, and fleet operating re- tenance plan for the needs of a class of ship
quirements. The budget is also influencedby over an extendedperiod in the life ofthe ship
political budget constraints and the rising (usually 48 to 54 months). The Navy then
cost of modernization,conversion,and repair evaluates proposalsfrom a group of partici-
efforts. pating shipyards and enters into a cost-
The U.S. Navy has a maintenance phi- plus contract with the successfulshipyard
losophy and strategy that are tailored to to identify, specify,plan, and execute these
each class of ship. These philosophieshave maintenance actions. The work scopeis not
evolvedover the years with engineeredmain- defined ahead of time by the Navy in order
tenance cycles for each class of ship appro- to prepare a bid specification.Since a long-
priate to its designcharacteristicsand opera- term contract exists, it is jointly developed
tional requirements. The cycles provide regu- by the Navy and the shipyard working to-
lar opportunities for modernization to meet gether, making compromisesas necessaryto
constantly changing external threats during meet both the maintenanceneedsof the ship
the life of the ship. Several classesof ships and the operating needs of the fleet. Some
within the U.S. Nary have adopteda phased work might be deferred until a later avail-
maintenance approach,whereas other classes ability to allow the ship to meet its operat-
of ships are maintained on a strict cycle of ing commitments. One ofthe unique features
regularly scheduledoverhauls and modern- of this approachis that it involves one ship-
ization periods. yard for an extended period in the life of a
The traditional maintenancecyclehas per- group of similar ships, allowing it to build
iodic depot-level maintenance periods where familiarity and expertise with those ships,
the ship is not available for operations for developlessonslearned in the maintenance
two to three months. A more extensiveover- of all the similar equipment, plan for the
haul and modernization period of 6 to 14 execution of the maintenanceactions during
months is usually scheduledseveraltimes in the most advantageous time for the ship
the ship's servicelife. The Navy identifresthe (not the shipyard),and maintain spare parts
work to be donebasedon establishedrequire- and material between availabilities for emer-
ments for each ship class and an extensive gencywork.
record-keeping,inspection, and engineering The U.S. Navy's primary resourcesfor
analysis program.All this information is pro- execution of ship repair and modernization
cessedand convertedto a set ofspecifications are 36 privately ownedshipyards(down from
in one of two standard formats, one for naval 45 in 1992),eight publicly ownednaval ship-
shipyards and one for the Supervisor of yards (three of which are scheduledto close
Ships to use for bidding and managing Navy by 1996), and two Navy-owned ship repair
repair work done by private shipyards. The facilities.
Navy then either assignsthe work to a naval Private shipyards must prequalify to do
shipyard or entersinto a contractualrelation- most Navy repair work. For work on larger,
ship with the selected private shipyard for more comllex ships, pnvate yard,smust qual-
JOO S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
ify for a Master Ship Repair Agreement standards. It plays a signifrcant role in the
(MSRA). The yard's facilities, planning ap- conversion,overhaul, and repair industry in
proach, and management must meet Navy the U.S., where many government agencies
requirements. Forwork on smaller, lesscom- own ships but contract with private compa-
plex ships and boats, a shipyard without wa- nies for their upkeep.
terfront facilities can qualify for an Agree- MarAd's National DefenseReserveFleet
ment for Boat Repair (ABR). The U.S. Coast (NDRF) and the Navy's Military Sealift Com-
Guard uses a similar system to prequalify mand (MSC)makeup the bulk ofthis market.
shipyards to work on its vesselsand it has a By 1999, MarAd's 96-ship Ready Reserve
small repair yard of its own. Force(RRF) is expectedto grow to 140 ships.
The Navy also relies on an extensivein- MSC currently has 152 ships.Other agencies
ternal infrastructure to conductmaintenance with their own ships include the Army Corps
outsideofthe shipyard environment during the of Engineers, the National Oceanicand At-
ship'soperatingcycle.Theseassetsinclude: mosphericAdministration (NOAA), and the
National ScienceFoundation.
e ship's crew
The main driver in this market, other
r tiger teams (similar to commercial
than the applicableclassificationand regula-
riding teams)
tory requirements, is government policy. The
. Intermediate maintenanceactivities
various agenciesestablish their own rules,
that perform maintenancemore
but Congresscontrolsmuch of what happens
demanding than ship's force level
through its power to set budgets and fund
but not as complexas the major
programs. Contracting is donein accordance
alterations and complexrepairs
with government regulations, which usually
assignedto shipyards
means that the low bid wins a fixed-price
1.4.3.Quasi-Commercial contract for a defined scopeof work. Mainte-
Market
nance providers are generally private full-
This is a market characterized by govern- serviceshipyards or topside ship repair com-
ment-owned ships that are built and main- panies. Naval shipyards have occasionally
tained to commercial rather than militarv done work on these ships.
2. Selectingan Approach
Ship repair is a classic example of the job- types of repair situations we will focus this
shop form ofproduction organization.It is a discussion on the followine factors:
highly labor-intensiveand skill-intensive ac-
tivity with only limited potential for automat- o size
ion. Much of the work is done aboard ship, . complexity
and consists of rip-out and refitting steel, . facility requirements
pipe, machinery, or wiring to existing sys- . planning approach
tems. The labor-intensivenature is also due . management approach
to many parts being manufactured or rebuilt
in-house,insteadof being purchasednew, as The combination of size and complexity of
in ship construction. any conversion, overhaul, or repairjob should
Uach job is unique, but to better under- dictate the approach taken by the contractor.
stand how to approach the many different Larger, more complex jobs tend to require
r _ /
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA.N D R E P A I R
Approach
stication
Greatest Greatest
Size Sophistication
Fig. 9-5.Approachselectioncriteria.
also used to keep many of the ship systems ern welding machines and robotics, diesel
on-line during the repair activity in support repair support equipment, and test sets for
of the ship's crew. sophisticatedweaponssystemswhen servic-
A full-service shipyard may include a ing naval warships.
range ofdry-docking capabilities,such as: A study published in 1993 by the World
Bank found approximately 80 shipyards
. Iarge graving dockscapableof serwicing
worldwide capable of handling the upgrade
VLCCs, ULCCs, aircraft carriers, and and conversion work on ships the size of
other large vessels high volume bulk carriers and larger.[4]
. medium-sizegraving docksfor dry-
Smaller shipyards, especiallythose spe-
docking medium and small ships, cializing in limited markets, may have only
sometimesmore than one at a time one dry dock, only small dry docks,only ma-
o floating dry docksfor smaller ships
rine railways, only piers, or any combination
and submarines,and to enhancethe of these. The combination of dry dock, pier,
capability for joining bows, sterns, and shop facilities will be based on the mar-
and midsectionson ships ket served and the capital investment that
can be economicallyjustifred.
Pier berthing should be equipped with
flexible crane serrriceand access,adjacent Various combinations of facilities were
examinedrecently for possibleways to reuse
staging areas,and convenientaccessto fabri-
the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard after it is
cation and inside repair shops.A full range of
pierside serviceswould also provide power, closedby the governmentin 1996. Excerpts
from this study showing representativelay-
high-pressureair, steam, fresh water, waste
outs for a small repair yard and a larger
handling, frre mains and pumps, oily water
repair/conversionshipyard are presented in
removal and reprocessing,and environmental
Figures 9-6 and 9-7 to illustrate how these
protection services.
enterprisesmight be arranged.
Shop capabilities and facilities would in-
So-called topside companies typically
clude:
have only shop facilities, with no waterfront
. pipe shop with pipe bending equipment facilities at all. Thesecompanieshave mobile
. steel fabrication shop with numerically teams with fleets of trucks equipped to do
controlled burning machines and with many types of repairs. They use sophisti-
plate bending capability cated portable communication systems and
o blasting and priming facility specializein rapid turnaround work on oper-
r sheet metal shop ating ships.Sometimesthey have facilities at
. electrical shop more than one port along a commonshipping
. machine shop with CNC capability route, allowing them to provide coordinated
o computer-aideddesign and manufac- service all along the route with equipment
turing (CAD/CAM) capability removal at one port and reinstallation at a
subsequent port. They may participate in
A full-service shipyard should also pos- larger jobs by teaming with other shipyards
sessa range ofspecializedtools,jigs, fixtures, or specialty subcontractors.
and test equipment. Selectionof this equip-
ment is based on the critical requirement to 2.2.Planning
Approach
accomplishthe project in a rapid turnaround Planning for conversion,overhaul,and repair
enyironment,
Examples
ofthistypeoftooling hastruditionally
bccnbasod
onshipsys[elrs.
would include portable machine tools, mod- However, as zone technology has been in-
SHIPCONVERSION,
OVERHAUL,
AND REPAIR 369
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O,V E R H A U LA,N D R E P A I R 371
tI
i
372 SHIPPRODUCTION
Modifyshipboard Installpumps
Undock
11t20 I ztJ
Figure 9-8 is a simple example of a net- nated with other trades for a project-wide
work based on system. Components(valves perspective.
and pumps) are to be removed and repaired, In the final analysis,these problems are
the pump foundations modified, electrical not related solely to computer-basedplan-
cabling ripped out and modified, and the sys- ning systemsand CPM theory. The real prob-
tem put back together and tested. Each of lems are identifrcation of resource require-
these operationsis assigneda target time and ments in terms of spaceand time, and dele-
resourcesfor completion.The circles specify gation of authority to a management level
events or milestonesthat must be realized pri- cognizantof both of these elements.
or to proceedingto the next set ofoperations.
This network, basedon one system,does 2.2.2 Zone-OrientedApproach.Zone-oriented
not show interdependencieswith work on conversion,overhaul, and repair does not
other systems.The network could be expand- necessarilyimply differencesin the order or
ed to include all work in a given space.How- methodsusedto accomplishthe work. In fact,
ever, the system overlaps into other spaces zone orientation is intended to facilitate the
and a problem arises with the delineation of planning, scheduling,executing,and testing
boundaries.Also, including all adjacent sys- of larger and more complexjobs in the man-
tems on the same network might make it ner in which they are actually performed
too large and complicatedto be a useful tool across system and trade boundaries, in a
to the craft foremen. It would be diffrcult and manner consistent with conceptspresented
expensiveto maintain becauseof the rapid- in ChapterslI and lII.
ly changingunderstandingofthe work scope.If Creating zones is simply a convenient
it were not maintained it would becomeout- devicefor aggregatingtasks in the most ap-
dated and completelyuselessfor the same propriate way for the tasks to be performed
reason. at any given stageof the job. Where the task
If management insists on the use of in- is simple and confinedto one system, a zone
appropriate planning tools, this becomesa could be created for that system, meaning
problem of the managementsystem,and the zonewould equal systemin that case. Where
tools will not be used.Rather, the trade fore- jobs are more complicated and work is fo-
men will generate their own ad hoc tools to cusedin specificareas like the engine room,
do their jobs, but these will seldombe coordi- the auxiliary machinery space,or the bridge,
SHIPCONVERSION,
OVERHAUL,
AND REPAIR 373
geographical areas might make more sense open and inspect, and rip-out wherever
as zones within a particular phase of the possibleto reducedowntime for the
entire job. ship during repairs.)
A zone can be a compartment on the ship, r prefabrication
only part of that compartment, a group of . disassembly(rip-out)
compartments, a system, part of a system, a . open and inspect (re-planning and
group of systems, or a prefabricated unit be- engineering)
ing built in a shop. It can be any collection of . repair or modifrcation
tasks grouped logically for efficient perform- o on-unit assembly
ance. As with product-oriented new construc- . on-blockassembly
tion, sequencing is done in terms of problem . on-boardassembly
areas and stages within a problem area. One r testing
component might even be part of different . trials
zones at various stages ofthe work.
The zone concept allows task grouping, A typical work flow through these stagesis
resource allocation, and interdependency de- illustrated in Figure 9-9.
cisions to be made earlier and from a project- In order to manage the work through
wide perspective, instead of in the heat of each of these stages while doing the initial
battle from the narrow perspective ofa single work definition, estimating, and early plan-
waterfront foreman. ning with a systemsorientation, then chang-
In general, the terminology of zone-ori- ing to zonesfor production planning, sched-
ented repair is the same as for zone-oriented uling, and execution (the way the work is
construction. Problem areas and pallets, for actually performed), and changing back to
instance, are defined exactly the same as for systemsfor testing, it is necessaryto be able
new construction. Zones are generally consid- to identify and describeeachitem that will be
ered to fall into the following three categories: worked in a zone during one or more of the
stages.A product-orientedwork breakdown
. geographic area--d;iscussed in Chapter 3
structure (PWBS)providesthe ability to sub-
o functional eorue-subdivision of the ship
divide the repair/overhaultasks in the man-
that includes all equipment associated ner in which they are actually conducted.
witha particular
system
0rcomponent, Figures9-9 and 9-10 providea guide {br
such as all piping and pumps associ- making PWBS decisionsin an overhaul envi-
ated with a particular tank, as well as ronment. They combine the ideas of timing
the tank itself (stage)with similar families of products(prob-
. uariable zone----combination
of functional lem areas). Horizontal combinations shown
zone and geographiczone that organ- in Figure 9-10 characterizethe types of work
izes the work by process,also known packagesneededfor work to be performedat
as a work zone each level. This structure allows the work to
A stageis a substepor a band of time during be subdividedcategoricallyby zone,problem
an overhaul in which specificproduction pro- area (specialty),and stage. Each categoryis
cessestake place.Examplesinclude: then examined in relation to the other two.
Using this techniqueit is possibleto create a
o pre-arrival planning, engineering,and virtual flow lane for the required work.
scheduling(Pre-arrival preparation is A virtual flow lane may be thought of as
being expandedby someowners and an assemblyline in which peopleflow by the
shipyards to include underway layout, work. The virtual flow lane optimizes use of
374 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
Known Uncgrtain
Workscope Workscope
Fig.9-9. Stages.
SHIP o I
=
O
OPERATION
& TEST event in the aggregateschedule.Figure 9-12
o
o = l
z ; lists operations from which the required re-
6 -z-
sourcesare determined.The scheduledevents
e=9 r4>
ON.BOARD
DIVISION BEASSEI\4BLY are correlatedto the work instruction docu-
=q#=93 >oo
a==
ments used by the waterfrontforeman(zone
F
z
z+l -i
manager).
BLOCK BEASSE[.4BLY
E3=
8Za
a<
Z-o
I
2.2.4 Product-OrientedOverhaul/RepairEx-
z
-
0
WELDiNG
ample.Followingisa simplifredexamplewhich
GRANDUNIT
o
E
5 UN]TJOINING illustrates the conceptspresentedabove.[11
a i
Figure 9-14 showsa plan view of a hypotheti-
WELDING
z z
UNIT cal ship to be overhauled.The forward two-
>l! ASSE[,4BLY
thirds of the ship represents a functional
zoneconsistingof the firemain system in the
COMPONENTS E : P
I
F
E forward portion of the ship. Figure 9-15 shows
0
=;a F
4
the frrst cut at geographic zoning which in-
5
g
z t s INSPECT/REPOBT cludes the port auxiliary machine room and
ON,BOARD
DIVISION
o 3Pi< one-half of the main machinery room. The
H=;A D SASSEMBTY
variablezone,or work zone,is shownin Figure
ON.BOABD
a zats
SORTING
(DEPALLETIZING 9-16.This work zonehas beendeterminedby
DrvtstoN o 3P< c
analyzing all work in the machinery space
>d
6A H3A F
4
OISASSEI./IBLY
PALLETIZlNG
using the PWBS system. The following spe-
UO
o
COMPONENTS
OD
t\4ANUFACTURING cifrcjobs are to be performed in the variable
+z tz
zc =<
o>
f
@
;v
EA MAT'LREOOEFINITION zone shown in Figure 9-16.
c PREABRIVAL
6 INSPECTION
REPOBT
SHIP I
=
o SHIPALTS Job Orders
o o o
o z d TECHWOHKDOC 1. Replace9'0" level grating.
2. Replacefiremain piping FR 100102.
Fig. 9-10. Classifrcationby product. 3. Replacedemineralizedwater pump
and motor.
tional requirement is that the planning and
4. Calibrate gaugessystem 1.
scheduling system must consider those sys-
5. Calibrate gaugessystem 2.
tems and subsystems that must be operation-
6. Calibrate gaugessystem 3.
al and on-line at each point in the overhaul.
7. Add light frame 103-104S/A 1000.
2.2.3 Sample Planning Documents for Zone- 8. Renew pipe and valve main feed
Oriented Conversion and Overhaul. Figure systemFR 100-102.
9-11(a) and (b) is an aggregate schedule, or 9. Add vent duct S/A 2000.
overall plan, for one zone in a major conver- 10. Open/inspect/repairvalves system 1.
sion as performed at a naval shipyard. It 11. Open/inspect/repairvalves system 2.
provides the overall game plan for fabrica- 12. Open/inspect/repairvalves system 3.
tion, outfitting, and installation of a modular 13. Open/inspect/repairvalves system 4.
system which is to be installed on the ship. 14. Open/inspect/repairvalves system 5.
376 SHIPPRODUCTION
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O,V E R H A U LA,N D R E P A I R
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N 377
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378 SHIPPRODUCTION
^-';-.-S;Au-'
PREFAB/IVFFI SHOPTEST S H I PI N S T U O U T F I T S H I PT E S T
W
WORKPACKAGETITLE
i,aa ra
rl -i - ,'F
litr
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-r:l! - a , i ] E , , F"
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:.i
L O N G E S TD U R A T I O N
REMARKS
It
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA,N D R E P A I R 379
-rl'qr rcvt
\ ltr a -o( alll
al'crtltat \ \ rl.lo .
rlr 5l(Fa, g-i'o.$ n r \ -ao oi 1.
,z .:l- \,iru1 \ l*ff;
.\- tI, tt ut S
I 7Sl-
1il l/i, LJ
g.u{!t
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-
l r
Lc{
l',1
r'. F
r
itl
itl !l!t I
r,. I
,"t (
alt tA t
?tt t
-:-:,/ r
,vara tLJ f.7 vaut
tlv, Cl?O xLD( tt, a _
rr[lg r rt.lE, llt
4rr*, uuu
<' l. vaul I
:t8'r- alt a
ltArJC'. gOt
irvr) Rer't
UCAIttrat--
trtTulE
(rY') RfJr 7
t,'-r^rosJl
(fY)\ IZJ t6 //
\-
LlFElll|.l. otc(
oYaatr u llF t?
d - l l t I '8
6l
ur I
II
i
II
I
ql
d
i
l TT
Fig. 9-14. Hypothetical ship with functional zone
Chor
A
\-/
l.'n I
L i
FR.\\ O FR.loO
-Procure
material and fabricate o Open and inspect
light assembly. -Open/inspect system I, 2, 3 valves,
o Rip-out flow path A.
-Remove insulation. -Open/inspect systemI, 2, 3 valves,
-Remove demineralized water pump flow path B.
and motor. -Open/inspect system l, 2, 3 valves,
-Remove main feed pipe assembly. flow path C.
-Remove 9'0" level glating and de- -Open/inspect system 4 and 5, flow
mineralized water pump foundation. path B.
-Remove auxiliary saltwater piping. -Open/inspect system 4 and 5, flow
-Remove fire main. path C.
-Remove gauges. . Secondaryprocurementand repair
-Remove 6" demineralized water -Procure material identifred by
pipe, FR 100-103. opening and inspecting stage.
-Install temporary staging, 9'0" level. . Repair/alteration
-Cut temporary access. -Perform all repairs and alteration
2/
LVL
: D E t v t t N ALIZED WATER
VENTDUCT
J6X15
W IRE WAY
.MAIN FEEDSYS i
i.<"X
t-
HE
^.F\ /A
\7
r \ t I,A
v" *t.*^ilr
/UDEMINERALIZED
;-R-ow
v PAiH
\r/
WAIER
i
;--l
-t-
-
L- ll-1|l----.-i.
I ,ilDrscxlrcE
:
! i l l r ' -t
! l - -
i l - _| l
| l
_ INNER
SOTTCM
Fig. 9-16.Variab\ezonerepresentation.
I
i
382 SHIPPFIoDUCTIoN
work aboard ship and off ship, such both public and private shipyards. Many of
as valve lapping, componentmain- the benefits realized in new construction are
tenance,etc. being observed in overhaul. These include
r On-unit reduction in delays caused by waiting for
-Assemble demineralizedwater material, rip-out and reinstallation of re-
pump unit. cently performed work, and day-to-daycom-
. On-board petition for work space.The effectson morale,
-ReassemblesystemI,2,3 valves, productivity, and cost are especially impor-
flow path A. tant in conversion,overhaul,and large repair
-Reassemble systeml, 2, 3 valves, jobs where work spaceis more restricted and
flow path B. the opportunity for physical separation of
-Reassemble system 1,2, 3 valves, work tasks is limited. Task separation and
flow path C. reduction of interference is accomplished
-Reassemble system4 and 5 valves, using PWBS by time-sequencingadjacent
flow path B. work. As with new construction,careful plan-
-Reassemble system4 and 5 valves, ning and scheduling,basedon a comprehen-
flow path C. sive classificationsystem,is essential.
-Reinstall system l gauge,flow
path A. 2.2.5AdvancedlndustrialManagementA sub-
-Reinstall system 1 gauge,flow stantial effort is now ongoingin certain ship-
path B. yards to further improve processesfor iden-
-Reinstall system l gauge,flow tifying, planning, scheduling,and managrng
path C. production work. This effort is a specificim-
-Install vent duct. plementationofthe conceptspresentedabove
-Install main feed pipe assembly. in the p-roduct-orientedoverhauVrepair ex-
-Install fire main piping assembly. ample. The ultimate goal of this advanced
-Reinstall auxiliary saltwater piping. industrial management(AIM) systemis im-
-Install demineralizedwater pump proved utilization of labor resourcesand in-
unit and connectpipe. creasedproductivity. The foundation of this
-Remove staging. Clean and paint work is an improved industrial language
bilge. (work breakdown structure) for defining
-Install 9'0" level grating. work. The program is sponsoredby the Naval
-Close accesscuts. Sea SystemsCommand (NAVSEA).
-Install light. The AIM language is a specifrcadapta-
-Relag main feed and demineralized tion of PWBS and GT conceptsto U.S. Navy
water piping above9'0" level. shipyardsand usesa component-based work
-Clean and paint 9'0" level to 22' level. breakdown structure that provides a stan-
dard set of rrrles,analogousto grammar rules,
Once the PWBS definition of the work to be for any industrial activity. The basic grammar
accomplishedby zonelproblem arealstage rules control how units of work are defrned
has been completed,a schedulenetwork for and organized(seeFigure 9-17).Component
the tasks is generated.The scheduleis then units (CUs) are physical items that will have
progressed,and, as work proceeds,tasks are work applied to them, e.g.,piecesof equip-
rescheduledas necessary. ment on the ship. The CUs are analogousto
The application of group technology "product"
in PWBS. Criteria are established
(PWBS) to major overhauls is underway in for identification of these CUs in order to
F
I
I
I
I
I
II
O.V E R H A U LA.N D R E P A I R
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N 383
AIM Grammar
AIM Vocabulary
FOR SHIPBUILDNGTNDUSTRY
COMPONENT COMPONENT WORK
UNITS UNIT PHASES PACKAGES
CU/CUPs
(y'Lr Design
,,__\ - ,l
,'r
Design
SysX
I
r
'i (,
Valve
Pump @ Purchase
Motor
Stiffner
Doubler
'@ Fabricnte \ / i
Ladder - '"itlJt.".t"*-l
Switch
@ Assemble
'@ Test
linZoneA I
(irouping
AIM
CU/CUPs
Continuous
Accountabilitv (i)nstruction bv Trne
ensure that work is planned and managedat and standardphasesof work (removal,repair,
an appropriate level ofdetail. After CU crite- testing, etc.) called componentunit phases.
ria have beenestablished,componentscan be Since the componentsof a ship can be easily
identified by phases (analogousto stages), determined and standard phasesreadily es-
e.g.,removal,repair, reinstall, test. [5] The tablished, this component-basedwork break-
CUs can be consideredas objectsor products down structure is particularly attractive
to be processed,and componentunit phases for planning and packagingwork. This work
(CUPs) are steps in the process.CUPs can breakdown structure also lends itself to re-
then be gathered into flexible work packages peatabilityand reuseofplanning products.
for effective execution or regroupedto meet After establishing a componentunit da-
changing work site conditions. Thus, the tabasethat representsall the componentson
basic grammar rules define the relation- a ship, the AIM processspecifiesthe creation
ships amongCUs, CUPs, and work packages. of a job summary. The job summary is a
This grammar is used with a vocabulary strategicgrouping of componentunits within
of component units and phases developed a specifrcsectionof the customer-authorized
for a particular industry (i.e. U.S. Navy work package.The job summary contains a
shipyards). The CUs for ship repair include brief descriptionof the work on each compo-
valves, pumps, motors, stiffeners, doublers, nent unit phasecontainedwithin the job sum-
and many other items. Appropriate CUPs mary boundary and estimates of both labor
are establishedby analysis of the industry, and material for eachcomponentunit phase.
and for ship repair, assembly,reinstallation, This document facilitates detailed planning
and testing, among others. Finally, the CUs on each componentunit, allows early pricing
and CUPs are grouped and regrouped like of work and accurate bench marking of the
words in sentencesand paragraphsby what- estimate, and permits the repair activity to
ever criteria are appropriate for performing begin schedulingand packagingthe work for
the work. effectiveexecutionvery early in the planning
This system,with its standard grammar process.
and vocabulary, provides continuous account- Detailed technical instructions are then
ability throughout even the most complex written for each component unit phase de-
process.As Figure 9-17 indicates, CU/CUPs scribedin the job summary.Thesedetailedin-
stay the same throughout the entire process structions are called task group instructions
and can be readily tracked and monitored via (TGI). Since they are written at a detailed
a relational database,eventhough groupings level they make possibleflexible work pack-
of CU/CUPschangeas the CUs movethrough ing and effectiveexecutionof work by zones
different stagesofthe process.The AIM sys- using multitrade teams.
tem can support any kind of simple-to-so-
phisticated project managementapproachand 2.3. Management
Approach
any type of work organization, whether by The traditional approachto ship repair man-
system or zone or both. agement has been by function. This was be-
The AIM program attempts to apply a cause the work definition, design, estima-
zone approachwith a product-orientedwork ting, purchasing,planning, and testing were
breakdown structure focused on the actual all done by systems,the same systems that
shipboardcomponents(pumps,valves,etc.). were the exclusive responsibility of specific
The component-basedwork breakdown trade skill functions. The pipefitters did pipe
ntructure
i0n:ists unit(CU) gygt0ng,
0fI componcnt theJhii,fill""b.,ilt],,rll.t*.t,r.",
r
t
i
i
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA,N D R E P A I R 385
electricians ran wire and hooked up electrical project basedon skill needsand value to the
equipment, machinists worked on machinery, project. They establish and maintain a close
and the sheet metal workers did ventilation. working relationship with the customer.
This approachcan be effectivefor smaller, Successfulprojectmanagementteams also
simple jobs involving only a few systems. exploit the benefits of group technology.The
However,when the scopeof work becomestoo projectteam is responsiblefor all facetsofthe
large, the work spacestoo congested,or the project and ensuresthat the key transitions
work too complexor involving too many sys- from a systemsorientation to a zoneorienta-
tems, this trade and system approach to tion are properly implemented and executed.
managing a projectfrequently results in com- During the project planning phase,a key
petition between different trades for work transition takes placethat the projectteam's
spaceand resources.The trades'primarycon- planning manager can facilitate. The sys-
cern becomesthe successof their individual tems orientation used during basic design
trades, not the health ofthe overall project. and planning is transformed to a zorreorien-
For these larger, more complex situa- tation. This transition is improved if the zone
tions, there is a need for an approach that managersare part of the project team. They
allows a manager to step back and view the can work closely with the project planning
project as a whole and make decisionsbased manager and determine project strategy, es-
on the overall goodofthe project,not a single tablish zone boundaries and groupings, and
trade. When this manager puts together a initiate discussionson effectivework pack-
project management team with representa- aging within the various zones.The project
tives from each of the major trades and sup- team approach greatly facilitates the plan-
port organizations,he or she has the tools for ning of integrated work flows by promoting
coordinating all the project work to meet the discussion.tradeoff. and mutual consentbe-
overall project goals.All shipyard shopsand tween the project team members.
departments are expectedto supporbthe proj- Another key transition, back to systems
ect team and to provide trained personnel orientation, occurslate in the life ofthe proj-
and equipment as requested and funded by ect.This happenswhen a systemsorientation
the project team. is required to allow system testing, product
The project team is structured to take certification, and overall project evaluation.
advantage ofthe zone technologyapplied in Once again this transition is facilitated and
the planning approach. Zone managers are more effectively executedif the test person-
identifred and tasked with the proper plan- nel, certifrcation personnel, and other associ-
ning and execution of all work within their ated parties are members of the integrated
assignedzonesand they are responsibleto the project team. If they have worked closely
project manager for their daily performance. with the projectplanning manager,zoneman-
Successfulproject teams clearly under- agers, and the team's production personnel
stand that their project is important in the during the life of the project, then this transi-
businessposition ofthe shipyard.They estab- tion and the successofthe projectis enhanced.
lish a sense of urgency on the project; per- The projectteam approachcan alsofacili-
formance is expected; and the entire team tate the introduction of a more participative
either succeedsor fails. They establish clear approachto the planning and executionof a
metrics and routinely monitor progressand project.It frrmly establishesteam ownership
performance.They bench mark their perfor- for the planning, execution,and overall cus-
mance against competitors. They staff the tomer satisfactionof the frnal product. Fi-
386 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
nancial results and accountability are also matrix management organization comprises
clearly established at the project (revenue both zone and shop management for the pro-
center) level. All of these factors have been duction work, a production manager respon-
shown to be key ingredients in the success of sible for production decisions, and additional
a high-performance work team. [6] administrative,/business development positions
Representative management structures to assist with customer interfaces.
for a small repair yard and a larger repair/ Each of the following sections will discuss
conversion shipyard are presented in Figures the requirements forjobs of different size and
9-6 and 9-7 from the Philadelphia Naval Ship- complexity and how to select an appropriate
yard Reuse Study presented in Section 2.1. of planning and management approach:
this chapter. In the small shipyard, project
managers plan and execute each job, deal di- . repair and overhaul
rectly with the customer, and make deci- o conversion and modernization
sions regarding the project themselves. In r deactivation
the larger ship repair/conversion shipyard, a . scrapping
3. RepairandOverhaul
A ship needs to be operating to earn money . unscheduled voyage repairs
for its owner or, if it is a military ship, to . planned maintenance
perform its mission. In order to maximize . overhauls
operating time during its service life, a ship
must be repaired when damaged and main- 3 . 1 . U n s c h e d u l e dV o y a g e R e p a i r s
tained regularly to avoid breakdown and de- The need for unscheduled voyage repairs re-
terioration. sults from damage or breakdown occurring
Classification societies publish rules for during operations. Damage can come from ex-
maintenance of the vessels they classify. Sur- posure to heavy seas and weather, colli-
veys are conducted at intervals, with the type sions, groundings, fire, explosions, or flooding.
of inspection varying with the age of the ship. Breakdowns and other equipment failures
In addition to regular suryeys, the societies can occur at any time. Whenever one of these
require that damage repairs be accomplished events does occur and the ship must be re-
according to society rules. paired, it is an emergency, affecting the abil-
In addition to classification society in- ity ofthe ship to operate safely and perform
spection, government agencies inspect mer- its mission. Emergency repairs require im-
chant vessels to assure that they are main- mediate attention; otherwise they would be
tained according to published rules. In the postponed until a more convenient time, pref-
United States, merchant vessel safety inspec- erably the next planned maintenance period
tion is carried out by the U.S. Coast Guard. when the work could be bid as part of a larger
(Classification societies and regulatory bod- work package to keep the cost down.
ies usually coordinate their efforts to elimi- Even when there is competition, emer-
nate overlapping requirements and redun- gency repairs tend to cost substantially more
dant inspection cost. This is sometimes for- than routine maintenance. This is because
malized through documents of agreement.) the emphasis is on placing the ship back in
Repair and maintenance of ships gener- service as quickly as possible. The cost ofthe
ally falls into three categories discussed ship being out of service is generally much
below: more than the cost of the repairs. Therefore,
I
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA,N D R E P A I R 387
ffil Unscheduled
ffil LeastSize,
Complexity,&
Sophistrcation
Repairs
Planning Management
S i z e C o m p l e x i t v F a c i l i t i e s Approach Approach
U n s c h e d u l e dR e p a i r s
r 1 P r o p e l l efro u l e d D t l Pier System Functional
with fish nets
r 2 B o t t o md a m a g e z t z Shops/DD Zone Project
frnm nrn' 'nd,nn
F i g .9 - 1 9 ( a ) Fig.e-1s(b)
F i g .9 - 1 9 ( c ) F i g .9 - 1 s ( d )
Fig. 9-19.Example of bottom damage.
SHIPCONVERSION,
OVERHAUL,
AND REPAIR 389
blies, and fitted for final welding. In the se- track-mounted positionerscapableof rolling
cond, the bow forefoot has been so severely and lifting the assemblyinto frnal position for
damagedthat an entire lower bow assembly fitting and welding.
has been constructed to shorten the repair
cycle. The fully painted assembly is posi- o Facilities-The big requirement is for
tioned in the dry dock using both cranesand a dry dock. Sincethis is an emergency
Fig.9-20(a) Fig.e-20(c)
wj
"q*
Fig.e-20(b) Fis.e-20(d)
Fig. 9-20. Example of bottom damage.
390 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
repair, and dry docksare frequently damagethat might not be great in size, but
bookedup, it may be difficult and ex- be very complexand affect many systemson
pensiveto dry-dockthe ship, especially the ship.
if the ship is not allowed to transit to
a dry dock in another area beforethe o Facilities-This work can be done at
repair is complete.Other requirements pierside. It doesnot have to be a ship-
involve steel-handling,fabrication, yard pier, but it would be preferable
and welding facilities. A crane and to have the ship near the shops,ship-
other material-handling equipment yard crane,and other material-han-
will be needed,as well as blasting and dling services. An electronicsshop
painting equipment. This job should will be needed,though someof this
be done at a shipyard. work may be subcontracted.There
. Zoneplanning approach-The damage will be somestmctural work requiring
may extend over a large enough area steel and perhaps aluminum fabrica-
that it should be broken down into tion and welding facilities. The venti-
severalgeographicalzonesfore and lation, pipe, electrical,and joinery
aft or port and starboard. The work shopswill also have tasks to do.
might be divided betweeninside and . Zoneplnnning approach-While the fire
outsidezones.A zonemight be created may have been confinedto one space,
for any structural units that could be it damagedthe controls,monitors, and
prefabricated. The zonesshould reflect wiring for systemsthat go all over the
the most effectiveway to do the work. ship, as well as the many support sys-
o Proj ect management approach-This tems servhg that space.It might make
job may involve a substantial number senseto divide the burned-outspace
of workers, but they will comefrom into zonesthat would changeby stage.
only a few trades (shipfitters, welders, One set of zonesmight make sensefor
tank testers, painters) and support rip-out, another for structural repairs,
peoplefor material handling and opera- and yet another for equipment instal-
ting the dry dock. The project team will lation and wiring. Since much wiring
need to order steel; coordinatewith is sure to be damagedand sometypes
the insurer, classificationsociety,and of wiring are not allowed to be spliced,
CoastGuard for inspecbions;and arrange there may be a requirement to rerun
for the shops to make up prefabricated electricalcablesto many placesthrough-
units. The team may also have to out the ship which couldalsobe one or
arrange to accomplisha lot of growth more zones.Finally, a system approach
work becauseplacing a ship on the dry is used for the massivetest and certifi-
dock is expensiveand shipownerslike cation program.
to take advantageofthe opportunity to o Project managementapproach-The job
have nonemergency underwater work will involve many trades, the services
and pending surveys done without pay- of original equipment manufacturers,
ing for a seconddry-dockingor taking in-houseelectronicsexperts (or, more
the ship out ofserviceagain. likely, subcontractors),certification
agencies,and an intricate, extensive
3.1.3. Case 3. Fire in a combat information test program. It will be necessaryto
center of a military ship is less likely to be coordinate the many peoplefrom
encountered.It is, however, an example of different trades and companies.all
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA,N D R E P A I R 391
Planning Management
Size Complexitv Facilities Approach Approach
PlannedMaintenance
r l Underway E tl Tools System Functional
roulinemaint.
12 Annualsurvey& Z Z Shops/Pier Zone project
roulinemaint.
r 3 Underwatersurvey, X] X Shops/Pier/DD Zone project
underwatermainl.,
hull coatings,as well
as roulineannualmaint.
ticated approach threshold. What may be leader can take full responsibility for
sophisticated,however,is the philosophy,en- all aspectsof performanceto the plan.
gineering, and strategy behind the mainte-
nance progTam. 3.2.2.Case2. In order to maintain their ini-
tial classifications,steel ships are usually sur-
c Facilities-Some tools and equipment veyedannually. At pierside,the condition of
are carried aboard ships, but most hull closure appliances,freeboardmarks, and
work teams will bring their tools with auxiliary steering gear is inspectedby a re-
them. presentative of the classification society. Con-
. Systemplanning approach-This type cernedwith safety,regulatory bodiescheckout
of equipment maintenanceprogram is stability, frre protection,machinery and elec-
usually designedaround individual trical system safety, hazardousand pollut-
systemsand components. ing substancecontrol, lifesaving equipment,
. Functional managementapproach- and navigation and communication equipment.
Usually only a few trade skills are re- Plannedmaintenanceand repairs are accom-
quired, such as machinists, pipe fitters, plished,usually under a contract with a ship-
andclcclflcirns.
0n0rssponsibls
tsm I r ' r
I
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA,N D R E P A I R 393
last from a week for some commercial ships The freeboard marks, load lines. and draft
to several months for a military ship. Some- marks are checked and painted. A docking
times preparation for the in-port planned planned maintenancemay last as little as 10
maintenance is done at sea with a riding days for somecommercialships or as long as
team to reduce the required time in port. This 6 months for a military ship and include ship
is done frequently on cruise ships because alterations.As in Case2, underway prepara-
of the high cost ofhaving them out ofservice. tion may be doneprior to ship arrival to mini-
mize time in port.
o Facilities-This work can be done at
any pier, but is more convenient in a . Facilities-Most often the work is
shipyard with access to cranes, shops, done by a shipyard with a dry dock.
and controlled staging areas. Other- In someports a topside companycan
wise, workers, tools, and material have dock the ship in a publicly owned dry
to be transported to and from thejob dock to perform the job or team with a
site daily. shipyard that has a dry dock. In some
o Zone planning approach-Work is Naly home ports the Navy has a dry
done throughout the ship and is best dock it makes available to small busi-
coordinated using zone technology, nesses.Other facility requirements
since there is time for a well-thought- includepiers,shops,and cranes.It is
out approach. not unusual for there to be damageto
o Project monagement approach-A the propeller, shafts, or rudder that
small project team can handle most requires the use ofoversized lathes
jobs of this magnitude, especially and other specialequipment. This is
since the members can participate in subcontractedifthe shipyard doesnot
the early planning. have suffrcientmachining capabilities.
. Facilities-A dry dock,pier, cranes, and removed from the ship and sent to a
a full array ofrepair shopsare required subcontractorfor repair, bought new
for an overhaul ofthis nature. Secure or manufactured,or providedby the
storageareasfor both new and removed owner. Accountability for this great
ship material are needed.Office facili- amount of material and equipment
ties for the project team should be pro- must be maintained throughout the
vided adjacentto the job site with a clear process,and the material and equip-
view ofthe ship and its accesspoints. ment must be returned to the ship in
. Zoneplanning approach-A zonetech- time to support the reinstallation
nology approachis certainly dictated sequencesand phasedtesting program.
by the magnitude and diverselocation Each pieceof equipment or material
of the work. However,it is also made must be linked to its location and its
necessaryby the complexity of reas- placein the processby zoneand by stage.
sembling the ship with material and o ProjectmotrcLgement approach-Ajob of
equipment that have been removed this nature requires a sophisticated
from the ship and stored,removedfrom projectmanagementteam working with
the ship to a shop and repaired, a large shipyard work force in a matrix
Greatest
Size
'",ffi+::1"
Threshold
I
I ,'Ji'-:S-
ll
I
Overhauls
lJl$^.^*
Il
Least Srze,
Complexity,&
Sophisttcahon
Planning Management
Size Gomplexitv Facilities Approach Approach
Overhauls
r'1 Tugs,fenies,& X X Shops/Pier/DD Tone project
otherworkboats o r M a r i n eR R
t2 Containerships, z X Shops/Pier/DD Zone proiect
lankers,bulkcarriers,
& othercargoships
r 3 Cruiseships& z Z Shops/Pier/DD Zone Project&
militarycombatants Matrix
matrix relationship. The project team . F acilit ies -The facility requirements
should include membersfrom all the are the same as Case2, exceptaddi-
major shipyard organizationsto coor- tional facilities are neededfor electron-
dinate planning, material ordering, pre- ics, ordnance,gas turbines,variable-
fabrication, production, subcontractors, pitch propellers,and other special
testing,trials, and contractmanagement. systems.Servicesfor specialsystems
can also be obtained from subcontrac-
3.3.3. Case 3. Overhauls of highly complex tors. There is a substantial amount of
ships, such as cruise ships and military com- specialtest equipment needed.
batants, are similar to and have much the . Zoneplanning approach-The plan-
samerequirements as Case2. However,they ning requirements are similar to Case
involve much more denselypackedand com- 2, but more complex.This is especially
plex systems,thereby increasing the level true for the combatant ships where
of sophistication needed in the approach. the work zonesmust be completedto
Cruise ships have intensely concentrated support extensivetest programs,crew
habitability systemsand passengercomfort training, and certification by various
standards.Military combatantsnot only have review boards.The propulsion system
state-of-the-artpropulsion,weapon,fire con- work and testing, leading up to a light-
trol, communication, navigation, and com- off examination by the crew, used to
puter systems,but most of those systemsare be the controlling part of a combatant
redundant so the ship can continue to frght overhaul. That position has now been
even if it sustains substantial damage. Com- usually replacedby the even more
batants tend to be narrow and frne-lined to complicatedintegrated combat systems
enhancetheir speedcharacteristics.This re- test and certification program.
ducesthe available volume for accommodat- c Proj ect managementapproach-C ase
ing all the redundant systems and makes 2 onceagain providesthe model for
accessibility very difficult. Survivability of the project managementteam, except
combatants is also improved by a prolifera- that it would be larger and include ad-
tion of watertight boundaries,which further ditional specialistsinjoinery and out-
complicatesworking on systems that pene- fitting for cruise ships and in combat
trate those boundaries. systemsfor combatant ships.
4. Conversion
andModernization
Conversion and modernization of both com- ued use. This process,termed "jumboizing,,'
mercial vessels and naval warships are com- utilizes the stern, machineryroom, and exist-
plex strategic, business, and waterfront pro- ing house. Completely new (and usually
duction endeavors. Typical modernization and larger) cargotanks, pump room, and bow are
conversion projects include installation or joined to the stern, providing an additional
removal of midbodies, cargo-handling up- 15 to 20 years of serviceto the shipowner at
grades, installation of improved bows, re-engi- lower costthan completelynew construction.
ning work, habitability upgrades, environmen- These types of projects are often techni-
tal protection modifications, and military cally challengrng and require a substantial
mission system upgrades. Figure 9-24 shows engineeringeffort. Conversionprojectsare aiso
theconyersion
ofanoldcr
trnlicrforcontin- cheLectoLizsd
by liigh ,,rrl"riolu'd *q.r,p-
SHIPCONVERSION,
OVERHAUL,
AND REPAIR 397
ment costs and labor-intensive rip-out and than it would be in a new ship where instal-
installation. Items such as a new missile sys- lation could occur at a stage of construction
tem for a modern cruiser, a new main propul- when there was easyaccess.Rip-out,working
sion unit in a re-engining effort, or steel for around existing systems,transporting ma-
vessel lengthening are major expenditures. terial through circuitous accessroutes, and
In somecases,installation costis much more additional safety precautions necessaryfor
working around such hazards as fuel oil and
live electrical systems force up labor costs
substantially.
Whether to undertake conversionand mod-
ernization work is fundamentally a strategic
business decision that may be considered
several times during the life of a ship. This
decision is influenced by external drivers
(see Figure 9-25) that are similar for the
private ship operator and the naval planner.
Both consider and respond to competition
and external threats, technologicaldevelop-
ments, changing mission requirements, and
the age and material condition of the ship.
The modernization/conversiondecisionis in-
fluenced by labor prices,material costs,gov-
ernment regulations, replacement costs, and
Fig. 9-24. Conversion ofan older tanker for contin- competitor decisions and actions. The deci-
ued use. sion maker is ultimately facedwith conducting
irtu.o l
\
r---'-:-----r Output
,'.1exrernalthreats
\ { \
l-------------- Ji
r----'----l
,il Competition N\
-.)\ Do nothing
I
I-_:
I
Chanqinq
mart<iti
Changing | ,
N\
N
]
flq Convertor
modernize
regulation. I I lmpaclon revenue
I
I
^_-_-=.....-_.. L.
\ |
rmpacton market ->r' Scrap&
Newbuilding \ | Position build
nriees lmpacton profit
\ |
Technological
developments
a series ofcost-benefit analyses on the various at the same South Korean shipyard. Thus,
scenarios: the conversion price per hull was less and the
owner's capital cost on a fleet basis was lower
. Do nothing and continue to operate the
than for a single ship.
ship as cunently configured and in the The aging of the world fleet is producing
same mission status a need for more modern shipping capacity
. Scrap the ship and build a replacement
and forcing more of these types of decisions.
vessel As Figure 9-26 shows in a typical snapshot of
. Conduct the conversion or moderniza-
the merchant fleet in 1992, the large number
tion project ofships built in the 1970s are nearing the end
of their economic service life, and the small
As an example of this type of decision mak-
number built since appears to be insufficient
ing, consider the recent actions of a major
to carry the current level of trade when the
shipowner reacting to new government regu- older ships are retired. [4 ] Fleet data are con-
lations, changing market conditions, and ac-
stantly reviewed by shipbuilding and repair
tions of competitors. The vessel in question marketing personnel in order to determine
was built in 1975 and was used primarily as
the demand for conversion or moderniza-
a crude oil tanker until 1992. tion versus new building. Since new building
In September of that year, the U.S. Coast costs are high and world trade prospects con-
Guard ruled that the shipowner would be tinue strong, service life extension alterna-
required to conduct major repairs and up- tives to new construction are attractive to a
grading if he were to continue to operate the
large number of shipowners and operators
ship as a crude oil tanker. These require- and are expected to provide continuing mod-
ments were based on new safety and environ-
ernization and conversion work for shin re-
mental regulations. The current oil-shipping pair companies.
market did not justify the capital invest-
Complexity is initially confronted during
ment to conduct the required upgrades, so the basic and functional design processes
the owner decided to alter the mission of the for the proposed conversion or moderniza-
ship, employing it exclusively as a carrier of tion, demanding creative and innovative so-
government grain cargoes.
lutions. During basic design, specifications
In 1993, the federal government decided
that address the technical and performance
that it would discontinue the practice of mov- requirements of the conversion or moderni-
ing grain in oil tankers. The shipowner was zation project are developed.From these spe-
once again faced with a strategic and busi- cifications and requirements, system dia-
ness decision in response to new government grams and zone groupings are developed as
regulations and changing market conditions. part ofthe functional design process. These
His answer to this new situation was to un- processes are very similar to those encoun-
dertake a conversion effort at a South Korean tered during basic design and functional de-
shipyard. The nearly 20-year-old oil tanker sign on a new construction project, but are
was converted to a dry bulk carrier for a cost frequently more complex because of the fol-
of approximately $7.5 million. The converted lowing factors:
vessel was now eligible for the government-
sponsored grain trade. . Size and space considerations on the
As an additional benefit the shipowner existing vessel
was able to negotiate and execute an option to o Support system requirements for the
convert a second oil tanker for a reduced nrice new equipment
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA.N D R E P A I R 399
. Compatibility issues with other equip- . Developing schedules that are resource-
ment that will remain on the ship based
. Weight, moment, list, and trim limi- o Integratin g zorreproduction schedules
tations with system testing and certification
requirements
Complexity in a conversion or modernization r Planning and scheduling unique or
effort is addressed during the planning and high-value resources
execution of the project in some of the follow- o Estimating, costing, and progressing
ing ways: work via zone-oriented approaches
. Bench marking costs versus potential
. Identifying and segregating material
competitors
into material-ordering zones and
. Performing make or buy decisions
establishing appropriate linkages to
. Subcontracting or outsourcing por-
the work control schedule
tions ofthe project to reduce cost
o Establishing zone boundaries and
and speed up schedule
appropriate zone groupi ngs
. Establishing appropriate linkages with Where a large portion of work is focused in a
the fabrication shops single geographic area ofthe ship, integrated
o Planning, establishing, and maintain- process lanes can be used to reduce time and
ing proper flows of work cost. Zone-oriented planning also supports the
. Implementation of the zone-oriented creation of project or conversion work teams
organization and zone-oriented that cut across traditional trade jurisdic-
scheduling tions. These teams should receive any nec-
TheWorldMerchantFleet
Age Distribution
in Mid-1992
GWTshareof respective
fleetsegmentin 7o
20%
10o/o
o%
10-14 15-19 20-25
011 013 0 4 8 -l 011
t, o2t d ;,i
9,27 _- S4 - ]_ !
031 021 013 013 _ 00'1
0 26 0.19 0.12
Conversion&
Modernization
P l a n n i n g Management
Conversion & Size Complexitv Facilities Approach Approach
Modernization
r'l Doublehulltanker Xl Z Shops/Pier/
DD Zone Project
lo shuttletanker
12 ShortenSea-Land Xl X FullSvcSY Zone Project
Atlanticclassship
13 Modernize Navy Z X FullSvS
cY Zone Project &
combatstoresship Matrix
14 MarAdcontainershio Z Z Fullsvc sY Zone Project&
to craneshio Matrix
r 5 ModernizeNavy I I MaxSvcSY Zone Project&
nuclearsubmarine Matrix
r 6 Servicelifeextension I I MaxSvcSY Zone Project &
Navvaircraftcarrier Matrix
Legend: f-l Least[] Lea<romidange Xl u,o.ng" Midnngerogrealed ! crearesr
Z
open and the new cranes stored in the wet high pressure air, and seawater cooling.
cargo holds. The ship was finally brought to Weight, moment, list, and trim considera-
the second yard in a deteriorated condition tions were also key factors because of the
with the removed material scattered about submarine's operating environment within a
and the work scope unknown. This job was submerged operating envelope.Also required
considered large and much more complex than were the replacement of components in the
it should have been. The project was com- nuclear propulsion plant and extensive repair
pleted in 20 months at the second yard. work. This was a large, very complex job. This
project was completed in 12 months.
4.1 .5. Case 5. Nuclear-powered submarines
are more complex technological vessels than 4.1.6. Case 6. Becauseoftheirtremendous cost,
NASA space ships. The modernization of a aircraft carriers are designed to last longer
688 class nuclear-powered submarine pre- than most other ships. The aircraft carrier
sented complex technical issues to the pro- Service Life Extension Program (SLEP) proj-
gram team. The sonar and fire control system ects were designecl to extend the service life
upgrades produced system interface require- of the Forrestal class aircraft carriers even
ments that generated the need for a substan- further (from 30 years to 45 years). These
tial test and system certification program. huge modernization projects were challeng-
Installing new equipment on-board resulted ing simply because of the sheer scale of the
in a complete evaluation of support system effort. They were so big that in the initial zone
requirements, including electrical power, breakdown (shown in Figure 9-28), each zone
hydraulics, air-conditioning, chilled water, was called a mini-ship. l7l Communications
U.S.S.Constellation
(CV-64)Zone Boundaries
F L TD K
03 LVL
02 LVL
01 LVL
MNDK
2ITD DK
3 R DD K
4 T HD K
1S T P T L F R M
2NDPTLFRM
I N N E RB O T T O M
The management approachfor this type approach builds on a revenue center orienta-
of work is frequently a project approach.The tion for the management of work. The project
deactivation project team is responsiblefor team can adopt the modifred zone approach
the planning, execution, and overall perfor- for planning the project and package tasks for
mance of the project. Once again, the project execution within a particular zone.
6. Scrapping
Shipbreaking and scrapping are attractive mechanismfor producing a sound and effec-
endeavors when steel and used equipment tive scrappingplan. Initially, the ship should
pricesare high and when ready markets exist be strategically divided into zonesfor scrap-
for quick conversionof scrap to other prod- ping by zone-orientedwqfk teams. Some of
ucts. Shipbreaking and scrapping are labor- the factors that should4e consideredwhen
intensive activities that require high pro- dividing the ship into zonesshould include:
ductivity and competitive wages in order to
be financially viable. This type of work has o Rotating machinerythat requiresremo-
been conducted mostly in developing coun- val for resaleor reuseon other vessels,
tries in recentyears (seeFigure 9-29),but the . ElectricaVelectroniccomponentsto be
market has been changing due to the dechn- removed
ing steelmarket and increasingwages. . On-boardliquids to be drained and
The projected annual market for ship- properlydisposedof
braking and scrappingis expectedto grow to . Asbestospresentby geographiclocation
38 million DWT by 1999.[3]This market is . PCB's present by geographiclocation
valuedin excessof $1billion annually,world- . Specialsystem lay-up requirements
wide, until the end of the 1990s.
This forecastfor a growing shipbreaking After strategically planning the scrapping
market is based on the age of the current zones,work must be packagedand scheduled
worldwide fleet and the increasingincidence for executionby multiskilled work teams.These
of structural and mechanicalproblems asso- teams shouldbe trained and equippedto per-
ciated with these aging vessels.Additionally, form a wide variety of tasks in a rapid man-
insurance premiums are rising for many of ner, with minimal supervision.High pro-
these older ships, making them even more ductivity, with minimal labor expenditures,
expensiveto operate. is the primary goal of scrapping projects.
Effective shipbreaking projects require Size and complexity of a scrapping job is
creativeplanning, specialtooling, strict labor usually proportional to the size and complex-
controls, and high productivity in order to be ity of the ship being scrapped,though the
financially successful.The zone approachto presenceof hazardous waste products seri-
planning the scrappingofa ship is the desired ously complicatesany job.
7. RecentInnovations
in ShipRepair
Like shipping, the ship repair, conversion, peting for their business,an environment has
and modernization business is a very com- beencreatedthat generatesinnovative ideas
petitive industry. With shipownerstrying to for achievingimproved operating results and
drive down their costsand the shipyardscom- more competitive business positions. Some
r-
i
SHIPCONVERSION,
OVERHAUL,
AND REPAIR 405
Analysis
of VesselsBrokenUp in 1992
(Developing
countriesare in the lead)
Thailand 1 15 1
Mexico 1 13 1 1a
Spain 2 6
z 5
Peru 1 3 1 3
Greece 1 1 3
Portugal 1 z 1 I
Denmark 2 z z Z
.Japan I 1 z 1
Netherlands 1 1 1 1
Germany 1 1 1 1
UnitedKingdom 1 1 1 1
-74
TOTAL 220 9,593 A q10 34 1.453 t t z 1,221
Source:
Lloyd's
Shipping
Economist.
Research
files.London
Fig.9-29.Analysisofvesselsbrokenup in 1992.
recent ideas and innovations for both manag- PDM is an innovation in the ship repair
ing and delivering ship repair services will be industry that uses vibration monitoring and
needed. analysis of equipment to provide insight into
the current condition of a pieceof equipment
7. 1 . Maintenance Management Approaches
and to predict imminent catastrophicfailure
Preventative maintenance, an approach of of vital machinery. This type of program is
providing maintenance for equipment before particularly attractive to shipownersand op-
it breaks down, has long been a mainstay of erators becauseit:
ship maintenance programs designed to min-
imize out-of-service time. Life cyclelequip- r Increasesequipment availability by
ment failure data are routinely available for maximizing running time between
most equipment and can be used as the equipment overhauls
basis for determining maintenance intervals . Increasesship operating time by re-
in a preventative maintenance program. Now, ducing urgent maintenancedue to cata-
planning for preventative maintenance can strophic failures of critical equipment
be enhanced with more specific data from Pre- . Allows more efficient repairs because
dictive Maintenance (PDM). repair quality can be checked
406 sHrPpRoDUcloN
for other purposes is used as an opportunity o Diesel designs, with engines producing
to upgrade the coatings and take advantage 900-1200 kW at 750-1,000 rpm, that
ofthe latest technology. Safety and environ- can have much more extensive repair
mental regulations related to coatings are a and overhaul work done on them while
major factor in the ship repair and mainte- the ship is underway
nance industry also. The industry not onl;1 . Gas turbine engines in need of repair
has to comply with all the rules concerning \ that can often be removed and replaced
coating application (as do new construction for fast turnaround, while the damaged
yards), but also the rules for disposal oftoxic engine is sent back to the factory for
and hazardous wastes generated from the repairs
removal of old coatings containing such ma- . New jet engines that provide water
terials as lead and organo-tins. jet propulsion without cavitating
propellers. The jet engines will need
7.3.2. New Processes.Because of the unique new techniques for repair. In some
nature of much ship repair, application of cases, ships might be retrofitted
automated procedures has traditionally been with one of these propulsion systems
limited. Gradually this is changing in some during modernization or conversion.
areas where simple robotics are starting to
be used for welding, cleaning pressure ves- 7.3.4. Electronlcs. Warships have become so
sels, and doing other work in places where sophisticated electronically that the elec-
access is diffrcult or impossible for humans. tronic test program has become the critical
There is much room for progress. However, item in most scheduled maintenance avail-
advances continue to be made in tool and abilities. Commercial ships have lagged be-
equipment design, improved scaffolding, and hind warships in this area, but are rapidly
environmental controls. incorporating new electronic technology for
navigation, communications, propulsion con-
7.3.3. Ship Design and Propulsion Systems. trols, cargo management, alarm systems, and
New ship designs with radical hull forms, maintenance analysis. State-of-the-art ship
unique superstructure, or novel machinery control centers (single point bridge systems
arrangement all pose new challenges to the that embrace all navigation, engine control,
repair, overhaul, modernization, and conver- and communications functions into a pack-
sion industry in the future. These include: aged center) are already installed on some
ships. This trend will increase the impor-
. Ships'superstructure and hull form tance of electronics in maintenance and re-
being designed so aerodynamically pair programs and will generate a demand for
that they must be model-tested in a retrofit of some of these systems on existing
wind tunnel commercial ships. Much marine electronics
. Open-topped containerships that were work is currently done by specialist subcon-
recently built in Germany tractors to the ship repair contractor.
. Ships 600 to 800 feet long designed
with semiplaning hulls 7.3.5. Regulatory Requirements. Safety and en-
. Small waterplanearea,twin-hull vironmental
regulations,
bothU.S.andinter-
(SWATH) ships built for applications national, are becoming more stringent and
requiring greater stability at sea having more impact on the design and outfit-
. Ships equippedwith flapped rudders ting of ships. Sometimes, when regulations
to enhancemaneuverability change, the new equipment configuration must
408 SHIPPRODUCTION
be retrofrtted to existing ships. Compliance port can be connectedby radio to the on-board
may mean changesto tanks, new doublebot- computer.
toms, creation of new temporary storage,in-
stallation of new sewage treatment plants, References:
stack gas omission controls, or addition of 1. ShipbuildersCouncil of America, Presenta-
new emergencyequipment. -----tion to the
American Society of Naval Engi-
neers and SocietyofNaval Architects and
7 .3.6. lnformation Technology.There are now Marine Engineers,January 13, 1gg3.
2. Censusof Manufacturers, 1g87.
available interactive software packageswith
3. U.S. Department of the Navy, basedon Fy
programs coveringthe various aspectsof a
1994CongressionalBudget.
lifetime of ship care. The repair and mainte- 4. Peters,Hans Jurgen, "The International
nance programs are designedto work with a OceanTransport Industry in Crisis," The
personalcomputer aboard a ship. The hull World Bank, April 1993.
conditionmonitoring and protectivecoating 5. Luby, Peel,and Swahl, "Component-Based
programs provide instant update of hull Work Breakdown Structure," Program
condition with pictorial displays of each sur- ManagementJournal, Spring 1995.
6. Luby, Robert, and John Shultz, "Reengi-
face showing corrosion, coating condition,
neering and Reinventing the U.S. Naval
and extent of pitting and cracking, together Shipyards,"PMnetwork, Vol. 8, No. 11,
with details of scantlings as new and showing February 1994.
their renewal limits. Another program can be 7. Baba, Koichi, Takao Wada, Soichi Kondo,
connectedwith sensorsand strain gaugesat M.S. O'Hare, and James C. Schaff,"Initial
strategic points in a ship's structure to pro- Implementation of IHI Zone Logic Tech-
nology at Philadelphia Naval Shipyard,"
vide real-time motion and stressinformati<_rn.
A shore-basedserviceproviding24-hourtech-
SNAME, NSRP Ship Production Symposium,
Seattle,Washington, 1988.
I
nical analysis and crisis managementsup-
--.\
G L OS S A R Y
409
410 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
frame. Aft of it and connected to it are the cant Boom. A round spar hinged at its lower end, usu-
beams. ally to a mast or a crane, and supported by a wrre
Berth. Where a ship is docked or tied up; a place to rope or tackle from aloft to the upper end ofthe
sleep aboard ship; a bunk or bed. boom. Cargo, stores, etc., are lifted by tackle
Bevel. The angle between the flanges of a frame or lei*iag from the upper end of the boom.
other member; also an angled edge on a Boom table. A stout, small platform, usually at-
structural member used to facilitate welding. tached to a mast or crane to support the end of
Bevel, closed. A term applied where the flange ofa booms and to provide proper working clearances
bar is bent to form an acute angle with the web. when a number of booms are installed around
Bevel, open. A term applied where the flange ofa one mast; also called a mast table.
bar is bent to form an obtuse angle with the web. Bosom piece. A strap formed by a short piece of
Bilge. Curved section between the bottom and the angle attached inside a buttjoint oftwo angles.
side ofthe vessel; also the lowest part ofa ves- Bossing or boss.The curved swelling outboard por-
sel's internal spaces into which water drains. tion of the ship's shell plating that surrounds
Bilge and ballast system. A piping system gener- and supports the propeller shaft; also called
ally located in holds or lower compartments of a propeller bossing/boss.
ship and connected to pumps or eductors. This Bossing plate. Steel plate covering the bulged por-
system is for pumping overboard accumulations tion ofthe hull where the propeller shaft passes
of water in holds and compartments and also for outboard.
filling and emptying ballast tanks. Bow. Forward end of a ship.
Bilge blocks. Blocks set under the bilge for support Bracket. A structural member used to rigidly
during construction or dry docking. reinforce two or more structural parts, which
Bilge bracket. A vertical transverse plate welded are joined at approximately right angles to each
to the tank top or margin plate and to the frame other, such as deck beam to frame. or bulkhead
in way of the bilge area. stiffener to the deck or tank top; usually a plate.
Bilge keel. A vane mounted on the outside of a ship Break. The end ofa partial superstructure such as
at the turn of the bilge normal to the hull to a poop, bridge, or forecastle where it drops to the
reduce rolling. deck below; any sharp change in a vessel's line.
Bilge plates. The curved shell plates that form the Breakwater. Plates fitted on a forward weather
bilge. deck to form a V-shaped shield against water
Bilge strake. The hull plates that compose the that is shipped over the bow.
curved sections that make the transition from Breasthook. A triangular plate bracket joining
bottom shell to side shell. port and starboard side stringers at the bow.
Bitt, mooring. Short posts (usually two) attached Bridge, flying. The platform forming the top of the
to the deck for the purpose ofsecuring mooring pilothouse.
or towing lines. Bridge, navigating. The conning station or com-
Bitumastic. An elastic bituminous cement usually mand post of a ship.
found in fresh water tanks, used in lieu of paint Bridge house. A part ofthe upper superstructure of
to protect steel. a ship. The officers'quarters, staterooms, and
Block. A section of a ship structure which is a three accommodations are usually located in the
dimensional entity. Blocks are combined to form bridge house and the pilothouse located above it.
a ship during erection, and are normally the Bulbous bow. A bow with a rounded, protruding
largest sections to be assembled away from the shape at the bottom to improve flow and resist-
erection site. ance characteristics.
Blue sky. In the open; not under a roofor other Bulk carrier. Ships designed to carry bulk cargo, t
protection from the weather. usually not in liquid form, such as coal, ore,
I
Blue sky outfitting. Outfitting done in the open graln, etc. q
l
during hull erection, e.g., landing outfit units or Bulkhead. A vertical partition, which subdivides
components before a space is enclosed. the interior of a ship into compartments or
Body. Refers to the hull; all volume from the upper rooms. Bulkheads which contribute to the
deck down. strength ofa vessel are called strength
Bollard. A mooring bitt. bulkheads; those which are essential to the
Booby hatch. An accesshatch from a weather deck watertight subdivision are watertight or
protected by a hood from sea and weather; also oiltight bulkheads. Gastight bulkheads serve to
called companionway. prevent the passage ofgas or fumes.
GLOSSARY 411
Bulwark. Fore and aft vertical plating im- Cofferdam. Narrow void space between two
mediately above the upper edge ofthe sheer bulkheads or floors that prevents leakage be-
strake. tween the adjoining compartments.
Bumped. A term applied to a plate which has been Come along. A hand-operated lever hoist used dur-
pressed or otherwise formed to a concave or ing shffiting for pulling together or supporting
convex shape used for heads oftanks, boilers, ship's parts or subassemblies.
etc. Companionway. An accesshatchway in a deck,
Burning. Oxy/gas, plasma-arc, or laser cutting, with a ladder leading below, generally for the
usually ofshell plating or structural sections. crew's use.
Butt. The joint formed when two parts are placed Compartment. A subdivision of space or room in a
edge to edge; the endjoint between two plates; ship.
also transverse joints for connecting two parLs, Compartmentation. The subdividing of the hull by
subassemblies, or blocks. watertight bulkheads so that the ship may re-
Butt strap. A strap that serves as a connecting main afloat under certain conditions of floodine.
strength strap when it overlaps the butt be- Container ship. A ship designed to carry cargo
tween two plates. containers in holds and on deck.
Cost/schedule control system (C/SCS). Any system
CAD. Computer aided design. used by a U.S. government contractor in plan-
CAM. Computer aided manufacturing. ning and controlling the performa.,ce of a corr-
Cant frame. A frame which is not square to the tract. A C/SCS is predicated on a logical
keel line, such as stern frames. breakdown ofcontract work into discrete work
Cargo hatch. An opening in a deck for vertical packages.
loading and unloading ofcargo holds. Covered electrode. A filler metal electrode used rn
Cargo port. An opening in a ship's side for loading arc welding, consisting of a metal core (usually
and unloading cargo. steel) with a covering that protects the'weld
Casing, engine and boiler. Bulkheads enclosing a puddle from the atmosphere, improves the prop-
large opening between the weather deck and the erties of the weld metal, and stabilizes the arc;
engine and boiler rooms. This permits instalhng also called a stick or rod.
or removing large propulsion units such as boil- Cowl. See Ventilator cowl.
ers or turbines. Cradle. A support form in which a ship rests dur-
Centerline. A vertical reference plane running ing launching.
fore and aft, dividing the ship into two Crane. A device for lifting and moving heavy
symmetrical halves. weights by means of a movable projecting arm
Center vertical keel. A vertical girder running and/or a horizontal beam.
from the flat keel to the tank top along the Critical Path Method (CPM). Scheduling meth-
centerline. odology that determines which sequence of
Chafing plate. Bent plate for minimizing chafing tasks within a project requires more time to
ofropes as at hatches. accomplish than any other sequence, based on
Chain locker. The compartment in the forward or the anticipated duration and interrelationships
aft lower portion of a ship in which anchor charn of all tasks in the project.
is stowed.
Chain pipe. Pipe for passage of chain from the Davit. A crane arrn for handling lifeboats, an-
anchor windlass to the chain locker. chors, stores, etc.
Chamfer. To cut offthe sharp edge of a 90'corner; Dead cover. A metal cover to close or protect an arr
to trrm to an acute angle. port in case ofheavy weather, to avoid glass
Chock. A cut piece of plating used to terminate a breakage.
structural shape at its end or to support a Deadlight. A metal cover, fitted inside a porthole,
structural shape; also an opening or guide for a to prevent the ingress ofwater ifthe porthole
towing or mooring line. leaks. or the glass becomes broken.
Chock, boat. A cradle or support for a lifeboat. Deck.A horizontalsurf'ace in a shipcorresponding
Clip. A short length ofangle used by shipfitters to to a floorin a building.It is theplating,plank-
align structural sections. ing, or covering of any tier of beams in either the
Coaming. The vertical plating bounding an open- hull or the superstructure ofa ship. Decks are
ing for the purpose ofstiffening the edges ofthe usually designated by their location, as boat
opening. It also retards the entry ofwater. deck, bridge deck, upper deck, main deck, etc.
412 SHIPPRODUCTION
Decks at different levels serve various func- arresting the motion of a ship when it is
tions; they may be either watertight decks, launched.
strength decks, or simply cargo and passenger Dry cargo ship. A ship designedto carry dry cargo
accommodation decks. in units, often stowedon pallets and not carried
Deck height. The vertical distance between the i" !!\
molded lines of two adjacent decks.
Deckhouse. A comparatively light structure, built Edge preparation. A contour prepared on the edge
on the hull, which does not normally extend of a plate or member to facilitate welding. Often
from side to side of the ship. It commonly is an included angle of 10 or 30 degrees.
composed ofspaces that are used for crew accom- Eductor room. A pump room to transfer liquid
modations and control of the ship (bridge, cargo.
radioroom, etc.). Electric arc welding. A standard welding process
Deck machinery. Miscellaneous machinery used in shipbuilding and repair work. An
located on the decks ofa ship such as windlasses, electric arc is formed when an electric current
winches, etc. passes between two electrodes separated by a
Deck stringer. The strake ofdeck plating that runs short distance from each other. In electric arc
along the outboard edge ofthe deck; also called welding one electrode is the welding rod, while
stringer plate. the other is the metal (plates, etc. ) to be welded.
Declivity. Inclination of the ways on which some The temperature is about 4000" C, the current
ships are built and down which they slide during flow between 20 and 600 amperes.
Iaunching. Engine room. The location of main propulsion and
Deep tanks. Tanks extending from the bottom or some auxiliary machinery on board a ship.
inner bottom up to or higher than the lower Ensign staff. A flagstaffat the stern.
deck. They are often fitted with hatches so that Equivalent manning. The total manhours
they may also be used for dry cargo in lieu of fuel (straight time) recorded daily, weekly, or
oil, ballast water, or liquid cargo. monthly divided by the standard number of
Depot-level. Used to describe repair and mainte- hours in the period.
nance actions on military ships, temporarily Erection. The placing and connection on the ways
taken out of service, that must be accom- or other building position of subassemblies,
plished at a repair facility. blocks. and/or outfit units ofa ship.
Derrick. A device for hoisting and lowering heavy Escape trunk. A vertical trunk fitted with a ladder
weights, cargo, stores, etc. to permit personnel to escape when trapped,
Docking brackets. Short transverse flanged plates usually located in the aft end ofthe vessel be-
in the inner bottom strrrcture that run from the tween the shaft tunnel and the upper decks.
center vertical keel to the first longitudinals on
both sides ofthe keel. They usually alternate Fabricate. To process materials in the shops, to
with the floors (seeFloor). create parts needed for both hull and outfit as-
Dog. A small metal device used to secure doors, semblies. In hull work, fabrication consists of
hatch covers, manholes, etc., in a closed position. cutting (shearing), shaping, punching, drilling,
Double bottom. Compartments at the bottom of a countersinking, scarfing, rabbeting, beveling,
ship between inner bottom and the shell plating, and welding.
mostly used for ballast water, fresh water, or Face plate. Generally a narrow stiffening plate
fuel oil. fitted along the inner edge of web frames, string-
Doubling plate. A plate fitted outside or inside of ers, etc., to form the flange of the member.
another to give extra local strength or stiffness. Fair. To align the parts of a ship so that they will
Draft marks. The numbers which are placed on be without kinks, bumps or waves; to remove
each side ofa ship at the bow and stern, and distortion from parts or assemblies.
sometimes amidships, to indicate the distance Fairhead or fairlead. A fitting device used to pre-
from the lower edge of the number to the bottom serve or change the direction ofa rope so that it
ofthe keel or other fixed reference point. The will be delivered on a straight line to a sheave or
numbers are 6 inches high and spaced 12 inches drum.
bottom to bottom vertically. Draft marks may Fairwater. A term applied to plating fitted around
alternativelybeprovidedin meters. theendsofshafttubesandstrutbarrels.
and
Draglines.Wireropesattachedto temporarypads shaped to streamline the parts, thus eliminatine
0r chainsattachedto a shipto providemeansof abrupt changesin the waterflow.
GLOSSARY 413
Fall. The rope usedwith blocksto make up a frames, depending on the shapeor frame used.
tackle. The end securedto the block is called the Freeing port. An opening in the lower portion of
standing part and the oppositeend,the hauling the bulwark which allowswater on deckto drain
part. overboard.
Fantail. The overhangingstern sectionofa ship's Funnel. A chimney through which combustion
after end which extends well aft of the after productsare led from propulsionand auxiliary
perpendicular;also called counterstern. machinery to the weather.Also calledthe stack
Fashion plate. Bulwark aft ofthe bow and above or smokestack;frequently containsother things
the forecastledeck. (e.g.,fan rooms,etc.)or may be a "dummy" for
Fender.A devicebuilt into or hung overthe sideof appearanceonly.
a ship to prevent the shell plating from rubbing Furnaced plate. A plate that requiresheating in
or chafing against other shipsor piers. order to be shaped.
Fidley. The top of the engineand boiler room;
casingson the weather deck;a partially raised Galley. A cookroomor kitchen on a ship.
deck over the engine and boiler casings,usually Gangway. A passageway,side shell opening,and
around the smokestack. ladderway usedfor boardinga ship.
Fish head. A plate clamp, self-locking,usedon Garboard strake. The strake ofbottom shell plat-
cranesto lift plate. ing adjacentto the keel plate.
Fixed light. A circular non-openingwindow with Gas metal arc welding. A processthat welds by
glass in the side ofa ship, door,skylight cover, heating with an electric arc between a continu-
etc. ous consumableelectrodewire and the work.
Flange. The part ofa plate or shapebent at right Shielding is usually by an inert gas.Also called
angles to the main part; to bend over to form an MIG (metal inert gas)welding.
angle. Gas tungsten arc welding. A process,commonfor
Flat. A small partial deckor a machinery level, aluminum or stainlesssteel,that weldsby heat-
usually built flat. ing with an electric arc between an electrode
Floor. Vertical transverseplate immediately and the work. Shielding is obtained from an
above the bottom shell plating, often located at inert gas or gas mixture. Also calledTIG (tung-
every frame, extending from bilge to bilge. sten inert gas)welding.
Fore. A term used in indicating portions or that Girder. A large strengthening member to support
part ofa ship at or adjacentto the bow. horizontal or vertical loads.It is larger than a
Fore and aft. In line with the length of the ship; longitudinal or stiffener.
longitudinal. Girth. Any expanded length, such as the length of
Forebody. That portion of the ship's body forward a frame from gunwale to gunwale.
of the midship section;entrance. Gooseneck,or pacificiron. A swivel fitting on the
Forecastle. A superstructure fitted at the extreme end of a boom for connecting it to the mast or
for-ward end of the upper deck. mast table. It permits the boom to rotate later-
Forefoot.The lower end of a ship'sstem which ally and to be peaked to any angle.
curves to meet the keel. Gouging. The forming ofa groove or bevel by
Forepeak. The watertight compartment at the ex- material removal; usually donewith arc-air or
treme forward end. pneumatic tools and oft,enused for removing
Forward. In the direction of the bow. defectivewelds;alsocalledchipping.
Foundation. A structural support for equipment Grommet. A soft ring under a nut or bolt head to
and machinery installed on a ship. The maintain watertightness.
structural supports for the boilers, main engines Ground tackle. A generalterm for anchors,cables,
or turbines, and reductiongearsare calledthe wire ropes,etc.,usedin anchoringa ship to the
main foundations. Supports for auxiliary bottom.
machinery are called auxiliary foundations. Group technology. The logical arrangement and
Frame. A term used to designateone ofthe trans- sequenceofall facetsofcompanyoperationin
verse members that make up the riblike part of order to bring the benefits ofmass production to
the skeleton of a ship. The frames act as stiffen- high variety, mixed quantity production.
ers, holding the ousideplating in shapeand Gudgeon.Bossesor lugs on the sternpostdrilled
maintaining the transverse form of the ship. for the pins (pintles)on which the rudder hinges.
Frame spacing. The fore and aft distance,heel to Gunwale. The junction of deckand shell at the top
heel or web to web, ofadjacenttransverse ofthe sheerstrake.
414 SHIPPRODUCTION
Gunwale bar. See Stringer bar. Jack staff. A flagstaffat the bow.
Gusset plate. A bracket plate lying in the horizon- Jig. A device, oft,en with metal surfaces, used as a
tal or nearly horizontal plane. tool or template.
Habitability. Pertaining to those spaces and Joinery. Work involving lightweight metallic and
non-metallic materials, such as for bulkheads
systems used to provide living accommodations
for the crew and passengers aboard a ship. and ceilings in accommodation spaces.
Halyard. Light lines used in hoisting signals, Keel. The principal fore-and-aft component of a
flags, etc. ship's framing, located along the centerline at
Hatch beam. A portable beam across a hatch to the bottom and connected to the stem and stern
support hatch covers. frames. Floors or bottom transverses are at_
Hatchway. An opening in a deck through whicn tached to the keel.
cargo and stores are loaded or unloaded. Keel blocks. Heary wood or concrete blocks on
Hawsepipe. Tube through which anchor chain rs which a ship rests during construction or
led overboard from the windlass wildcat on deck drydocking.
through the ship's side. Stockless anchors are Keelson side. Fore-and-aft vertical plate member
usually stowed in the hawsepipe. located above the bottom shell on each side ofthe
Heel. The corner ofan angle, bulb angle, or chan- center vertical keel and some distance
nel; commonly used in reference to the molded therefrom.
line. King post. A strong vertical post used instead of.a
Hold. The large space below deck for the stowase of mast to support a boom and rigging to form a
cargo; the lowermost cargo compartment. derrick; also called Samson post.
Holding piece. A device used to hold metal in place Knee or beam knee. A bracket between a deck
for tack welding. beam and frame.
Horning. A method of checking the layout accu- Knuckle. An abrupt change in direction of the
racy ofa square or rectangular plate by match_ plating, frames, decks, or other stmcture of the
ing diagonal measurements. ship.
Hot tack. A tack weld followed by a hammer blow
to bring the surfaces of the members in line Labor turnover. The number ofseparations di_
while the weld material is still plastic. vided by average employment during a specified
Hull. The structural body ofa ship, including shell time interval multiplied by 100 (the number of
plating, framing, decks, bulkheads, etc. also the separations during the period per 100 em_
;
outfit specialty desigrr group dealing with all ployees). Annual turnover rate is the monthly
areas of the ship except machinery and turnover multiplied by 12.
superstructure. Land. To set in place an outfit unit, subassemblv.
Hull block construction method. A shipbuilding or block during ship erection
system wherein hull parts, subassemblies. and Lap. A joint in which one part overlaps the other.
blocks are manufactured in accordance with the Launching. To set a ship afloat for the first time.
principles of group technology.
Laydown. A schedule or diagram showing the in_
dividual sheets that make up a plate assembly
I-beam. A structural shape with a cross section
with weight, size, drawing number, etc.
resembling the letter I.
Laying off. The development of the lines of ship,s
Ice-strengthening. Special strengthening for ice form on the mold lo{t floor and makine tem_
class ships as specified by a classification plates therefrom; also called laying dolwn.
society. Layout. The process of making a plate assembly
Impressed current system. A cathodic protection
showing the location of longitudinals, frames.
system to slow marine corrosion of a ship,s hull.
edges, and attached parts.
Inner bottom. Plating forming the top of the Learning function or startup curves. Mathemati_
double bottom; also called tank too. cal formulas used for a variety ofoperating man_
Intercostal. Made oflseparateparts, running be- agement purposes, especially in the areas ofcost
tween floors, frames, or beams; the opposite of planning and control. Learning curves measure
continuous. actual or planned efficiency gains for successive
Intermittent. A weld where the continuity of the items produced using a repetitive process. Also
weld is broken by recurring unwelded .ou"".. called experience or progress function.
GLOSSARY 415
Lifeboat. A boat carried by a ship for use in Margin bracket. A bracket connecting a side
emergency. frame to the margin plate at the bilge; some-
Life raft. A very buoyant raft, usually ofinflatable times called bilge bracket.
material, designed to hold people abandoning Margin plate. The outboard strake of the inner
ship. bottom. When the margin plate is turned down
Lightening hole. A hole cut in a nonwatertight at the bilge it forms the outboard boundary of
structural member for ventilation, accessibility, the double bottom, connecting the inner bottom
and/or weight reduction. to the shell plating at the bilge.
Limber hole. A small hole or slot in a frame or Mast. A tall vertical or raked structure, usually of
plate for the purpose ofpreventing water or oil circular section, located on the centerline of a
from collecting; a drain hole. ship and used to carry navigation lights, radio
Line heating. The use of systematic heating and antennae, and sometimes cargo booms.
cooling to shape or form steel or aluminum Mast step. The foundation on which a mast is
plates or structural shapes. erected.
Liner. A flat or tapered strip placed under a plate Mast table. See Boom table.
or shape to bring it in line with another part that Material control. The functions of purchasing, ex-
it overlaps; a filler. pediting, warehousing, palletizing, and deliver-
Line shafting. Sections of the main shafting ing material to the work site.
located in the shaft tunnel between the engine Material list by system (MLS). A list of all mate-
room and the afterpeak bulkhead. rials required for construction ofa shipboard
Liquefred gas carrier (LNG). A ship specially de- outfit system.
signed to carry gases, primarily natural gas, at Material list for component (MLC). A list of mate-
extremely low temperatures in the liquid state. rials for manufacturing outfit components other
The liquid gases are carried in specially con- than pipe.
structed tanks and considerable insulation has Material list for fitting (MLF). A material list of
to be provided to ensure that the temperatures all outfit components required by pallet.
are maintained in the tanks while the main Material list for pipe (MLP). A list of materials for
hull structure is maintained at ambient manuflacturing pipe pieces.
temperature. Messroom. Dining room for ship's officers or crew.
Loftwork. The laying offof full form details at full Molded dimensions. The dimensions of the ship,
size in preparation for cutting plate and measured inside the shell and deck plating,
structural members. The process is now almost horizontally to the outer edges ofthe frames,
entirely computerized. vertically from the baseline to the level ofthe
Longitudinal. A fore-and-aft structural shape or tops of the beams at the ship's side.
plate member attached to the underside of decks Mold loft. Originally a large floor space used for
or flats, or to the inner bottom, or on the inboard laying down (laying ofD the full size lines of a
side ofthe shell plating. ship and for making templates to lay out the hull
structural components. In modern shipyards the
computer facilities which replaced the manuai
Machinery. All spaces on a ship that primarily
methods are still referred to as the mold loft.
contain operating equipment such as main pro-
pulsion machinery, auxiliary machinery, pump- Mooring. Securing a ship at a dock or elsewhere by
ing systems, heating, ventilation, and air condi- several lines or cables so as to limit its
movement.
tioning machinery, etc.; also the outfit speciality
Mooring ring. A round or oval casting inserted in
design group dealing with machinery spaces.
the bulwark plating through which the mooring
Manhole. A hole cut in an oil or watertight
lines, or hawsers, are passed.
bulkhead for accessibility; associated with a
cover, gasket, and means to make tight.
Manning. The number of workers or equivalent Nonwatertight. A joint or attachment that, while
workers assigned to a particular ship (ship man- structurally strong, makes no effort to seal the
ning), program (program manning), or shipyard flow ofliquids from one side to the other.
(yard manning). Notch. Any structural discontinuity or any abrupt
Margin angle. The angle connecting the margin change in geometry, such as square cut corners
plate to the shell. ofhatchways.
416 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
structural plating members whereby the butts Stays. Fixed wire ropes leading forward from aloft
of adjacent members are located a specific dis- on a mast to the deck to prevent the mast from
tance from one another. bending fore or aft.
Shop. A covered floor space (a building) where Stealer. A single wide plate that is butt-connected
work is performed in a protected area. to two narrow plates, usually near the ends ofa
Shore. A brace or prop used for support during the ship.
building of a ship. Steering gear. A term applied to the steering
Shroud. One ofthe principal members ofthe stand- wheels, leads, steering engine. and fittingi bv
ing rigging, consisting of wire rope which which the rudder is turned.
extends from the masthead to the ship's side, Stem. The bow frame forming the apex of the in-
affording lateral support for a mast. tersection ofthe forward sides ofa ship. It is
Sight edge. The visible edge ofshell plating as seen rigidly connected at its lower end to the keel and
from outside the hull may be a heavy flat bar or ofrounded plate
Skids. A skeleton framework used to hold construction.
structural assemblies above ground to facilitate Stern. After end of a shio.
welding Stern frame. Large casting, forging, or weldment
Skip burn. A partially burned opening to indicate attached to the after end ofthe keel. Incoroo-
to a burner where to start an opening from the rates the rudder gudgeons and in single-screw
far side. ships includes the propeller post.
Skylight. A framework fitted over a deck opening Stern post. The vertical part ofthe stern frame to
and having covers with glass inserted for the which the rudder is attached.
admission of light and air to the compartment Stern tube. The watertight tube enclosing and
below. supporting the propeller shaft. It consists of a
Smokestack. See Funnel. cast rron or cast steel cylinder fitted with a bear_
Smooth side. On a plate assembly the surface oppo- ing surface upon which the propeller shaft, en-
site the one with the longitudinals or stiffeners. closed in a sleeve, rotates.
Snipe. A 45" beveled offcorner. Stiffener. A structural section (usually angles,
Sounding pipe. A pipe leading to the bottom ofan tees, or I-beams) attached to a plate to
oil or water tank, used to guide a sounding tape strengthen it.
or jointed rod when measuring the depth of Strake. A course or row ofshell, deck, bulkhead. or
liquid in the tank; also called a soundins tube. other plating.
Spectacle frame. A large casting extendin! out- Stringer. A fore-and-aft girder running along the
board from the main hull and furnishing sup- side ofa ship at the shell; the outboard strake of
port for the ends ofthe propeller shafts in a plating on any deck; also the side pieces ofa
multiscrew ship. The shell plating (bossing)en- ladder or staircase into which the treads and
closes the shafts and is attached at its after end risers are fastened.
to the spectacle frame used in place of shaft Stringer bar. The angle connecting the deck plat-
struts. ing to the shell plating or to the inside ofthe
Spring bearing. Bearings to support line shafting. frame. The strength deck stringer bar is usually
Stage. A classification ofwork based on when it called the gunwale bar.
will be performed (in what sequence)duringthe Stringer plate. See Deck stringer.
construction process relative to other work. Strut. An outboard columnlike support or vee-
Staging. Temporary or movable wooden or metal arranged support for the propeller shaft; mostly
structures for supporting workmen, tools, and used on warships with more than one propeller,
materials; also called scaffolding. instead ofbossings; rarely used on modern
Stanchion. A vertical column supporting decks, merchant vessels.
flats, girders, etc.; also called a pillar. Rail stan- Subassembly. An assembly of parts (primarily
chions are vertical metal columns on which structural parts). Subassemblies,when ioined
fencelike rails are mounted. See olso Rail. together. form blocks.
Standing rigging. Fixed rigging supporting the Superstructure. A decked-over structure above
masts such as shrouds and stays. Does not in- the upper deck, the outboard sides ofwhich are
clude running rigging such as boom topping formed by the shell plating, as distinguished
lifts, vangs, and cargo falls. from a deckhouse that does not extend outboard
GLOSSARY 419
strength. Usually fabricated of a web plate Work measurement. An analysis technique de_
flanged or otherwise stiffened and spaced sev- signed to establish the time an average qualified
eral frames apart, with the smaller frames in worker should take to carry out a specifiedjob at
between. a defined level ofperforrnance.
Weld preparation. A contour such as a bevel, Work package. A resource subdivision which
placed on the edge of a member or plate to facili^ specifies the material and/or labor required to
tate welding. complete some portion of a shipbuilding or re-
Well. The space in the bottom of a ship to which pair contract. A work package should
bilge water drains so that it may be pumped correspond to the work breakdown structure in
overboard; also the space between partial use and may be either system or product
superstructures. oriented.
Wildcat. A special type of coglike windlass drum
whose faces are formed to fit the links of an Zone. A geographical sub-section of a ship that
anchor chain. The rotating wildcat causes the includes all items within the boundaries of the
chain to be slacked offwhen lowering the an- physical region.
chor, or hauled in when raising it. Zone outfitting method. A shipbuilding system
Winch. A machine, usually steam or electric, used which organizes outfitting work by zone and
primarily for hoisting and lowering cargo but stage into on-unit, on-block, and on-board work.
also for other similar purposes. Zone painting method. A shipbuilding system
Windlass. The machine used to hoist and lower which integrates surface preparation and
anchors. coating work into the overall construction
Work breakdown structure. Any classification process.
system for subdividing the work required for a Zone technolory. Management methodolory
ship construction or conversion program in based on organizing work by zone rather
order to manage the program. Categories may than by system.
be defined according to functional systems or
interim products.
INDEX
421
422 INDEX
-
426 INDEX
H foreign purchase,25-26
Hammerhead crane, 146 investment,2T
Hand tool cleaning, 154-55 merger,26
Hardcore cost,39 proflrtability, 26
Hatch cover,87 strategic value, 26
Hawser, 14 Industry status, 14-29
Heating, 740-41 economicmodel,14-15
Hoisting machine, synchrolift, 773, \74 national policy, 14-15
Hull,63 political factors, 14-15
integrated schedule,66 U.S., 18-21;U.S. shipyardlocations,19
Hull block, 4 U.S. market, 21-23;history,2l-23;Navy, 21-23
Hull block constructionmethod. 60. 68-75 world market, 15-18
objectives,68 Information booklet, title p age,227
planning,68-69 Information flow, 197-99
product aspectclassification,68 standards,357-58
sevenlevels, 68-75 Ingalls Shipbuilding, 165, 168
Hull bottom cleaner,153 Innovations,406
Hull construction,55 Insulator, 12
basic production plan, 280-81 Insurancerates, 14
basic schedule,280-81 Interim product, 2t, 32, 33, 34, 46, 48, 68
communication,2T6-78 accuracy,319
manpower expenditure,299 tolerance, 324-25
on-block,277-78 Interstitial solid solution, 106
on-boardoutfitting, 279 Iron/iron carbidephasediagram, 108
planning, 271-98
processlane,276 J
production planning flow, 286 Jack, hydraulic, 185
production progress,299 Jacking clamp, 185
production scheduling flow, 287 Japaneseshipyard, 29
schedule,275 Jib crane. 144-46.183
standards,279 Jig, 188
start date, 264 Job satisfaction,46
Hull constructionprocessesplan, 280-81 Joiner, 12
Hull erection,74 Joiner work, 142
accuracycontrol, 339-40 JonesAct, 22
problem area,74 Journeyman, training, 24
rework analysis, 344-47 Journeyman/totalworker ratio, 36
stage,74
K
Hull erectionlayout plan, 280
Kaiser, Henry, 163
Hull erectionmaster schedulenetwork, 281
Kerf,353
Hull feature, outfit convenience,237-38
Kerf compensation,342
Hull material, 105-16
Key plan, 207
Hull outfrt. 63. 64
change,242
compositearrangement,218
computer-aideddesign,249
Hull structural design, outfitting, 236-38
mold loft, 223
Hull structural desigrr schedule,276
structural, 208-9
Hydraulic device,185
Hydraulicjack, 185 L
Hydrofoil, 11 Labor
Hydrostatic test, piping unit, 159 cost;foreign, 28; minimization, 34; U.S., 28
learning curve, 36-37
I market, cyclicality,25
Idleness,52 quality, 35, 38, 39-40;adjusted,35; cost curve,
Industrial project managementcycle,61, 62 39-40
Industrial vehicle, 146-47 shortage,training,23
Industry organization,25 -28 Labor adjustment cost
businessenvironment, 26-27 external, 37-38
capital budgeting policy, 26-27 frictional, 37-38
economicperformance,27 internal,3T-38
economicvalue, 25 Laborer, 12
INDEX 427
Labor force,23-24 Market, 14
Labor hoarding, 3Z Market cycle,23
Labor intensiveness,18 early 1970s,15-16
U.S. vs. forcign,27 oil embargo,15
Labor standard,engineered,257 Marketing plan. long-range,2bg
Larson.B.. 171 Market research.258
Laser welding, 72G,1Bg-84 Marking, 775-76,177
Launching, 171-73 Martensite, 109-10
level building facilities, 124 Martensitic st6el, 110
Launch pontoon, 1ZB Mass production,5
Layoff,23
technique,5
Legislation, 14 Master outfitting schedule,272
Line heating,72I-ZB,856 Master schedule,block erection,386
curwature,121 Master Ship Repair Agreement(MSRA),866
distortion removal, 1gb-96 Mast unit, 87
local reactions, 121-22 Match mark, 334
Linnean hierarchical taxonomv.49 Material, 24-25,88
Lloyd's Register of Shipping, 1'3 allocated,302
quality assurance,158
allocatedstock,307
Loading. processlane. 1g3-g4
assigneilgeograph\ca\, 2B\-32
Lofting, computer systems,166
classification,30b-14
Loftsman, 12
critical path, B0Z
Lot size batch, 48
definition,30B-5
design,305-8
M geographicarrangement,283
Machinery,63,18Z-38
lead times,302
installation, 197-88
long-lead-time,207, 212
loadingmethods,213
non-standard,2 18
reliability, 14 procurement,30b_14
Machinery arrangement module. 231
production,308, 804
Machinery outfitting, 63, 64
requisitioning process,2II_I2
manpower expenditure,299
short-lead-time,202
productivity, 299-902
standard, 213, 312-lJ
Machine shop, 138
stock,307
Machinist, 13
Material classificationsystem,29
Major detail. planning, 287-gg
Material code
Managementcycle,industrial project,61, 62
componentcode,808
Management system,58
desigrratingsystem,B0g
corporateplan, 2b8
number, SOb
Man-hour. borrowing, 52
part code,308
Man-hour budget, 268, 2g2
Material control, 302-17
Man-h_ourbudget determination system, 267_6g,
block assembly,2gT
292-93
classihcation,B0Z-8
Man-hour control, 292-gB
parts fabrication shop.295
Man-hour control curve, 262-6g
subassembly section,296
Man-hour expenditure,29g
Material control group,lZ4-78
Manning level, 35, 41
Material control identifrcationcode,307_g,309
Manpower,55
Material cost classifrcation
Manpower expenditure
number,305
electric cable assemblv.299
structure, 310
electricalassemblv.299 Material definition, 22I, BOB-5
hull construction.Zgg
schedulingobjectives,262
machinery outfitting, 299
Material handling, 148-b0,l7B-74
Manufacturing work instruction, Igg, 282
equipment, 149-b0
|}fang{ac^turingwork instruction drawing, 22I _22 inventory, 175
MarAd. SeeMaritime Administration
retrieval, 175
Margin,325
storage,175
Marinette Marine, 124
system design,148
Maritime Administrat ion, L4, 26,27
Material issue.palletizing,315,3lZ
National DefenseReserveFleet. 866
Material list. 312.813
428 INDEX
I
I
INDEX 429
required, 38-39 material control, 295
unit,34 productivity, 295
Output rate, optimum, 39 scheduling, 292-95
Overhaul Patternmaker, 13
commercial,302-4 Pattern making, 175-76
critical path, 371 Pearlitic steel, 110
Navy, 382-84,393, 394 Pennsylvania Shipbuilding, 180
network, 371-72,382 Percent physical completion, 34
personnel,385 Personnel
planning,368-84 conversion,398-403
planning documents,375 Physical completion, 32
product-oriented,375-82 Physicaloutput rate, 35
product work breakdown structure, 37l, 373 Pickling, 156
scheduling,37I-72 Piecenumber, 305
systems-oriented, 37 | -72 Pipe
vs. new construction,373 bending, 139-40
virtual flow lane, 373 conveyor, 144
zone-oriented,372-75 cutting, 139
Overlap, planning,6l size,138-39
storage and retrieval rack, 182
P welding, 138-39
Padeye,186 Pipe bending machine, 140
Painter, 13 Pipe coaster,183
Painting,55, 179-81 Pipe fabrication, 181-83
erection site, 181 automation, 181
facility, 158 semiautomated,181-82
integrated schedule,66 Pipe fitter, 13
new construction,157 Pipe material, 138
Paint system,zonepainting method, 89-93 Pipe passage,multiple pipe runs, 234
Pallet, 82,I48 Pipe piece
coding systems,197-99 assembly,99-103
definition, 213-15 fabrication, 97-99
mold loft, 226 palletized, l4O-41,
pipe pieces,104 Pipe piece family manufacturing, 93-104
storageareas, 103 assembly,94
subcontractordelivery, 317 classifications,98, 100,101,102
work breakdown,314, 315 coating, 103-4
Pallet concept,197, 198 control by lot, 94
Palletizing, 314-18 determining families, 99
functional flow. 314. 316 joining level, 94
Pallet list, 213 key zone,93
original,213 manufacturing levels,95
Panel assembly,176-78 material receiving,95-97
Panel line, 176-78 palletizing, 104
blast and coastfacilitv. 180 pipe pieceassembly,99-103
high-capacity,165 pipe piecefabrication,93, 94, 97-99
layout, 176-78 pipe piecejoining,103
steel,179 problem area,94
Panel shop,layout, 176-78 product aspects,94, 95
Parent/child sigrr, 2 12 testing, 103-4
Parts assembly,70 work flow lanes,93
level classifrcation,70 work lot, 94-95
sub-blockpart concept,70 work packages,94
Parts fabrication, 70 Pipe piecejoining, 103
accuracycontrol, 337, 353 Pipe piecemanufacturing, 138
problem area,70 Pipe run
productivity, 299-302 commonsupports,235
stage classifications,70 multiple,234
Parts fabrication processlanes plan, 290 parallel toXJ{Z axes,235
Parts fabrication shop, 180 Pipe shop band saw, 139
430 INDEX
r-
I
I
INDEX 433
Underbidding,33 planning,29I-92
Uniform work content, 34 scheduling,292
Unit assembly,83-84 Work instruction master plan, 289
problem areas,84 Work instruction package,195
stage,84 Work instruction plan, 218
moldloft,224
V Work lot, 94-95
Vacuum blaster, push mower type, 154 Work order, 52
Vacuum saddle, 186 fire main,52
Value analysis, 57-59 Work package,32, 58
Variance,324 iterative development,58
Variation,319 Work packagenumber, 305
constructionstage sources,329 Work process,standards,357-58
Variation merging, 323-24 Work processlane, 63
Variation-merging equation, 324, 331-32,332-33 Work standard, accuracycontrol, 333-3b
Ventilation, 140-4I Work unit, 189
w Y
Waiting time, 45 Yard plan, 797,213
Warehousing,Sl4-I7 mold loft, 223
facility, 174-75
functional flow, 314, 316 Z
Weaponssystem, 142-43 Zone,56
Web,356 problem area,76-82
Wedge,184 stage,76-82
Wedgedevice,184 Zone constructiongroup, 48
Weekly schedule,273 Zone constructionmethod, 29, 53, 67 -93
Welder, 13 design,229-40
Welding,5,123-34,161.Seeolso specifictype fitting instruction, 232
aluminum, 116 manufacturing instruction, 232
pipe, 139 material list for fittrng,232
plate, 356 operation,89
repair, 178 pallet,232
semiautomatichigh-capacity,166 planning,68,76
stiffener, 356 test, 89
types,126-34 Zone outfitting method, 60, 76-89
Welding process,penetrations, 123, 725 componentprocurement,84
Weld metal, metallurgical effects,126 manufacturing levels,83
Weld-onsaddle,184 objectives,82
Wet blasting, 155 operation,89
Work accessholes plan, 289 planning, 76-84
Work breakdown structure. 53-59 product aspects,82, 85
product-oriented,31 scheduling,270-71
system-oriented,31 test, 89
Work flow,60 Zone painting method, 60, 89-93 i
I
level,258-59 manufacturing levels,89-90
planning,258 objectives,89-90 I
Working detail, planning, 289-91 paint systems,90, 92
Working drawing, 63 planning, 89-93
I
Working piecetreatments plan, 289 prerequisites,89
Working scheduling,291 product aspects,90, 91
ri
I
Work instruction stage,90 I
computer-aideddesigrr,248 Zoneplanning, 29
moldloft,224 Zone-to-systemtransposition,62, 302
A B O U T T H E A U T H OR S
r s B N0 - 8 7 0 3 3 - 4 6 1 - 1
ttnfilfiut
ilililru]ffiilil t..fr:.er\35lr
t _ _ -2'.J.-.*-
Fig.3-27(a) Fig.3-27(b)
Fig. 3-29
1
I
PI,ATE II
Fig.3-35 Fig.3-36
Fig.3-37 Fig.3-38
Fig.3-39 Fig.3-40
Fig. 3-35. Engine room tank top components block.Fig. 3-38.On-blockoutfitting and painting,
fitted on-block. Fig. 3-36. Outfitted engine room on the ceiling and on the deck. Fig. 3-39. Two
blocks erected over previously landed outfit complexblocks, outfitted together, upside down,
units (courtesy Avondale Shipyard). Fig. 3-37. to ease erection. Fig. 3-40. On-board outfitting
Downhand outfrtting on.block, in an upside-down performedpriorto landing the main engine.
PLATE III
Fig.3-49 Fig.3-50
Fig.3-51 Fig.3-52
Fig. 3-47. On-block outfitting of a forecastledeck side shell and engine room flat right side up. Fig.
upside down. Fig. 3-48. On-block outfitting of a 3-51. On-block outfitting of the block shown in
forecastledeck right side up. Fig. 3-49. On-block figures 3-49 and 3-50 being completedright side
outfitting of a side shell and engine room flat up next to the building dock.Fig. 3-52.Erection of
upside down. Fig. 3-50. On-block outfrtting of a the block shown in figures 3-49 through 3-51.
PI,ATE IV
Fig.3-53 Fig.3-54
Fig.3-55
Fig. 3-56.Erection, keel laying plus 11 workdays. Fig. 3-57. Erection, keel laying plus 13 workdays.
PI,ATE V
Fig.3-60 Fig.3-61
Fig.3-62 Fig.3-63
Fig. 3-58.Erection, keel laying plus 15 workdays. Fig. 3-61.Erection, keel laying plus 22 workdays.
Fig. 3-59. Erection, keel laying plus 19 workdays. Fig. 3-62.Erection,keel laying plus 24 workdays.
Fig. 3-60. Erection, keel laying plus 22 workdays. Fig. 3-63. Erection, keel laying plus 24 workdays.
PLATE VI
Fig.3-64 Fig.3-65
Fig.3-68