Aircraft engine

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An aircraft engine is the component of the propulsion

system for an aircraft that generates mechanical power.
Aircraft engines are almost always either lightweight piston
engines or gas turbines, except for small multicopter UAVs
which are almost always electric aircraft.

Contents

1 Manufacturing industry

2 Development history A Rolls-Royce Merlin installed in a preserved Avro

3 Shaft engines York

3.1 Reciprocating (piston) engines

3.1.1 In-line engine

3.1.2 V-type engine

3.1.3 Horizontally opposed engine

3.1.4 H configuration engine

3.1.5 Radial engine

3.1.6 Rotary engine

3.2 Turbine-powered

3.2.1 Turboprop

3.2.2 Turboshaft
4 Reaction engines

4.1 Jets

4.1.1 Turbojet

4.1.2 Turbofan

4.2 Pulse jets

4.3 Rocket
5 Newer engine types
 5.1 Wankel engine

5.2 Diesel engine

5.3 Precooled jet engines

5.4 Electric

6 Fuel

7 See also

8 Notes

9 References

10 External links

Manufacturing industry
In commercial aviation, the major players in the manufacturing of turbofan engines are Pratt & Whitney,
General Electric, Rolls-Royce, and CFM International (a joint venture of Safran Aircraft Engines and General
Electric).[1] (http://clearwaterinternational.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Aerospace-Report-Master-2014.pd
f) A major entrant into the market launched in 2016 when Aeroengine Corporation of China was formed by
organizing smaller companies engaged in designing and manufacturing aircraft engines into a new state owned
behemoth of 96,000 employees.[1]

In general aviation, the dominant manufacturer of turboprop engines has been Pratt & Whitney.[2] General
Electric announced in 2015 entrance into the market.[2]

Development history
1848: John Stringfellow made a steam engine for a 10-foot
wingspan model aircraft which achieved the first powered flight,
albeit with negligible payload.
1903: Charlie Taylor built an inline aeroengine for the Wright
Flyer (12 horsepower).
1903: Manly-Balzer engine sets standards for later radial
engines.[3]
1906: Lon Levavasseur produces a successful water-cooled V8
engine for aircraft use.
1908: Ren Lorin patents a design for the ramjet engine.
1908: Louis Seguin designed the Gnome Omega, the world's first
Wright vertical 4-cylinder engine
rotary engine to be produced in quantity. In 1909 a Gnome
powered Farman III aircraft won the prize for the greatest non-
 stop distance flown at the Reims Grande Semaine d'Aviation setting a world record for endurance of 180
kilometres (110 mi).
1910: Coand-1910, an unsuccessful ducted fan aircraft exhibited at Paris Aero Salon, powered by a
piston engine. The aircraft never flew, but a patent was filed for routing exhaust gases into the duct to
augment thrust.[4][5][6][7]
1914: Auguste Rateau suggests using exhaust-powered compressor a turbocharger to improve high-
altitude performance;[3] not accepted after the tests[8]
1917-18 - The Idflieg-numbered R.30/16 example of the Imperial German Luftstreitkrfte's Zeppelin-
Staaken R.VI heavy bomber becomes the earliest known supercharger-equipped aircraft to fly, with a
Mercedes D.II straight-six engine in the central fuselage driving a Brown-Boveri mechanical
supercharger for the R.30/16's four Mercedes D.IVa engines.
1918: Sanford Alexander Moss picks up Rateau's idea and creates the first successful turbocharger[3][9]
1926: Armstrong Siddeley Jaguar IV (S), the first series-produced supercharged engine for aircraft
use;[10][nb 1] two-row radial with a gear-driven centrifugal supercharger.
1930: Frank Whittle submitted his first patent for turbojet engine.
June 1939: Heinkel He 176 is the first successful aircraft to fly powered solely by a liquid-fueled rocket
engine.
August 1939: Heinkel HeS 3 turbojet propels the pioneering German Heinkel He 178 aircraft.
1940: Jendrassik Cs-1, the world's first run of a turboprop engine. It is not put into service.
1943 Daimler-Benz DB 670, first turbofan runs
1944: Messerschmitt Me 163B Komet, the world's first rocket-propelled combat aircraft deployed.
1945: First turboprop powered aircraft flies, a Gloster Meteor with two Rolls-Royce Trent engines.
1947: Bell X-1 rocket propelled aircraft exceeds the speed of sound.
1948: 100 shp 782, the first turboshaft engine to be applied to aircraft use; in 1950 used to develop the
larger 280 shp (210 kW) Turbomeca Artouste.
1949: Leduc 010, the world's first ramjet-powered aircraft flight.
1950: Rolls-Royce Conway, the world's first production turbofan, enters service.
1968: General Electric TF39 high bypass turbofan enters service delivering greater thrust and much better
efficiency.
2002: HyShot scramjet flew in dive.
2004: NASA X-43, the first scramjet to maintain altitude.

Shaft engines
Reciprocating (piston) engines

In-line engine

In this entry, for clarity, the term "inline engine" refers only to engines
with a single row of cylinders, as used in automotive language, but in
aviation terms, the phrase "inline engine" also covers V-type and
opposed engines (as described below), and is not limited to engines with
Ranger L-440 air-cooled, six-cylinder,
a single row of cylinders. This is typically to differentiate them from
inverted, in-line engine used in
radial engines. A straight engine typically has an even number of
Fairchild PT-19
cylinders, but there are instances of three- and five-cylinder engines. The
greatest advantage of an inline engine is that it allows the aircraft to be
designed with a low frontal area to minimise drag. If the engine crankshaft is located above the cylinders, it is
called an inverted inline engine: this allows the propeller to be mounted high up to increase ground clearance,
enabling shorter landing gear. The disadvantages of an inline engine include a poor power-to-weight ratio,
because the crankcase and crankshaft are long and thus heavy. An in-line engine may be either air-cooled or
liquid-cooled, but liquid-cooling is more common because it is difficult to get enough air-flow to cool the rear
cylinders directly. Inline engines were common in early aircraft; one was used in the Wright Flyer, the aircraft
that made the first controlled powered flight. However, the inherent disadvantages of the design soon became
apparent, and the inline design was abandoned, becoming a rarity in modern aviation.

For other configurations of aviation inline engine, such as X-engines, U-engines, H-engines, etc., see Inline
engine (aeronautics).

V-type engine

Cylinders in this engine are arranged in two in-line banks, typically

tilted 60-90 degrees apart from each other and driving a common
crankshaft. The vast majority of V engines are water-cooled. The V
design provides a higher power-to-weight ratio than an inline engine,
while still providing a small frontal area. Perhaps the most famous
example of this design is the legendary Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, a
27-litre (1649 in3) 60 V12 engine used in, among others, the Spitfires
that played a major role in the Battle of Britain.
A Rolls-Royce Merlin V-12 Engine
Horizontally opposed engine

A horizontally opposed engine, also called a flat or boxer engine, has

two banks of cylinders on opposite sides of a centrally located
crankcase. The engine is either air-cooled or liquid-cooled, but air-
cooled versions predominate. Opposed engines are mounted with the
crankshaft horizontal in airplanes, but may be mounted with the
crankshaft vertical in helicopters. Due to the cylinder layout,
reciprocating forces tend to cancel, resulting in a smooth running
engine. Opposed-type engines have high power-to-weight ratios because
they have a comparatively small, lightweight crankcase. In addition, the
compact cylinder arrangement reduces the engines frontal area and
A ULPower UL260i horizontally
allows a streamlined installation that minimizes aerodynamic drag.
opposed air-cooled aero engine
These engines always have an even number of cylinders, since a
cylinder on one side of the crankcase opposes a cylinder on the other
side.

Opposed, air-cooled four- and six-cylinder piston engines are by far the most common engines used in small
general aviation aircraft requiring up to 400 horsepower (300 kW) per engine. Aircraft that require more than
400 horsepower (300 kW) per engine tend to be powered by turbine engines.

H configuration engine

An H configuration engine is essentially a pair of horizontally opposed engines placed together, with the two
crankshafts geared together.
Radial engine

This type of engine has one or more rows of cylinders arranged around a
centrally located crankcase. Each row generally has an odd number of
cylinders to produce smooth operation. A radial engine has only one
crank throw per row and a relatively small crankcase, resulting in a
favorable power-to-weight ratio. Because the cylinder arrangement
exposes a large amount of the engine's heat-radiating surfaces to the air
and tends to cancel reciprocating forces, radials tend to cool evenly and
run smoothly. The lower cylinders, which are under the crankcase, may
collect oil when the engine has been stopped for an extended period. If
this oil is not cleared from the cylinders prior to starting the engine,
serious damage due to hydrostatic lock may occur.

Most radial engines have the cylinders arranged evenly around the
crankshaft, although some early engines, sometimes called semi-radials
or fan configuration engines, had an uneven arrangement. The best
known engine of this type is the Anzani engine, which was fitted to the
Bleriot XI used for the first flight across the English Channel in 1909.
A Pratt & Whitney R-2800 engine
This arrangement had the drawback of needing a heavy counterbalance
for the crankshaft, but was used to avoid the spark plugs oiling up.

In military aircraft designs, the large frontal area of the engine acted as an extra layer of armor for the pilot.
Also air-cooled engines, without vulnerable radiators, are slightly less prone to battle damage, and on occasion
would continue running even with one or more cylinders shot away. However, the large frontal area also
resulted in an aircraft with an aerodynamically inefficient increased frontal area.

Rotary engine

Rotary engines have the cylinders in a circle around the crankcase, as in

a radial engine, (see above), but the crankshaft is fixed to the airframe
and the propeller is fixed to the engine case, so that the crankcase and
cylinders rotate. The advantage of this arrangement is that a satisfactory
flow of cooling air is maintained even at low airspeeds, retaining the
weight advantage and simplicity of a conventional air-cooled engine
without one of their major drawbacks. The first practical rotary engine
was the Gnome Omega designed by the Seguin brothers and first flown
in 1909. Its relative reliability and good power to weight ratio changed
aviation dramatically. [11] Before the first World War most speed records
were gained using Gnome-engined aircraft, and in the early years of the
war rotary engines were dominant in aircraft types for which speed and
agility were paramount. To increase power, engines with two rows of Le Rhone 9C rotary aircraft engine
cylinders were built.

However, the gyroscopic effects of the heavy rotating engine produced handling problems in aircraft and the
engines also consumed large amounts of oil since they used total loss lubrication, the oil being mixed with the
fuel and ejected with the exhaust gases. Castor oil was used for lubrication, since it is not soluble in petrol, and
the resultant fumes were nauseating to the pilots. Engine designers had always been aware of the many
limitations of the rotary engine so when the static style engines became more reliable and gave better specific
weights and fuel consumption, the days of the rotary engine were numbered.

Turbine-powered

Turboprop

While military fighters require very high speeds, many civil airplanes do
not. Yet, civil aircraft designers wanted to benefit from the high power
and low maintenance that a gas turbine engine offered. Thus was born
the idea to mate a turbine engine to a traditional propeller. Because gas
turbines optimally spin at high speed, a turboprop features a gearbox to
lower the speed of the shaft so that the propeller tips don't reach
supersonic speeds. Often the turbines that drive the propeller are
separate from the rest of the rotating components so that they can rotate
at their own best speed (referred to as a free-turbine engine). A
Cutaway view of a Garrett TPE-331
turboprop is very efficient when operated within the realm of cruise
turboprop engine showing the
speeds it was designed for, which is typically 200 to 400 mph (320 to
gearbox at the front of the engine
640 km/h).

Turboshaft

Turboshaft engines are used primarily for helicopters and auxiliary

power units. A turboshaft engine is similar to a turboprop in principle,
but in a turboprop the propeller is supported by the engine and the
engine is bolted to the airframe: in a turboshaft, the engine does not
provide any direct physical support to the helicopter's rotors. The rotor is
connected to a transmission which is bolted to the airframe, and the
turboshaft engine drives the transmission. The distinction is seen by
some as slim, as in some cases aircraft companies make both turboprop
and turboshaft engines based on the same design.
An Allison Model 250 turboshaft
engine common to many types of
helicopters
Reaction engines
Reaction engines generate the thrust to propel an aircraft by ejecting the
exhaust gases at high velocity from the engine, the resultant reaction of forces driving the aircraft forwards. The
most common reaction propulsion engines flown are turbojets, turbofans and rockets. Other types such as
pulsejets, ramjets, scramjets and Pulse Detonation Engines have also flown. In jet engines the oxygen necessary
for fuel combustion comes from the air, while rockets carry oxygen in some form as part of the fuel load,
permitting their use in space.

Jets

Turbojet
A turbojet is a type of gas turbine engine that was originally developed
for military fighters during World War II. A turbojet is the simplest of all
aircraft gas turbines. It consists of a compressor to draw air in and
compress it, a combustion section where fuel is added and ignited, one
or more turbines that extract power from the expanding exhaust gases to
drive the compressor, and an exhaust nozzle that accelerates the exhaust
gases out the back of the engine to create thrust. When turbojets were
introduced, the top speed of fighter aircraft equipped with them was at
least 100 miles per hour faster than competing piston-driven aircraft. In A General Electric J85-GE-17A
the years after the war, the drawbacks of the turbojet gradually became turbojet engine. This cutaway clearly
apparent. Below about Mach 2, turbojets are very fuel inefficient and shows the 8 stages of axial
create tremendous amounts of noise. Early designs also respond very compressor at the front (left side of
slowly to power changes, a fact that killed many experienced pilots the picture), the combustion chambers
when they attempted the transition to jets. These drawbacks eventually in the middle, and the two stages of
led to the downfall of the pure turbojet, and only a handful of types are turbines at the rear of the engine.
still in production. The last airliner that used turbojets was the
Concorde, whose Mach 2 airspeed permitted the engine to be highly
efficient.

Turbofan

A turbofan engine is much the same as a turbojet, but with an enlarged

fan at the front that provides thrust in much the same way as a ducted
propeller, resulting in improved fuel-efficiency. Though the fan creates
thrust like a propeller, the surrounding duct frees it from many of the
restrictions that limit propeller performance. This operation is a more
efficient way to provide thrust than simply using the jet nozzle alone and
turbofans are more efficient than propellers in the trans-sonic range of
aircraft speeds, and can operate in the supersonic realm. A turbofan
typically has extra turbine stages to turn the fan. Turbofans were among
the first engines to use multiple spoolsconcentric shafts that are free to
A cutaway of a CFM56-3 turbofan
rotate at their own speedto let the engine react more quickly to
engine
changing power requirements. Turbofans are coarsely split into low-
bypass and high-bypass categories. Bypass air flows through the fan, but
around the jet core, not mixing with fuel and burning. The ratio of this air to the amount of air flowing through
the engine core is the bypass ratio. Low-bypass engines are preferred for military applications such as fighters
due to high thrust-to-weight ratio, while high-bypass engines are preferred for civil use for good fuel efficiency
and low noise. High-bypass turbofans are usually most efficient when the aircraft is traveling at 500 to 550
miles per hour (800 to 885 km/h), the cruise speed of most large airliners. Low-bypass turbofans can reach
supersonic speeds, though normally only when fitted with afterburners.

Pulse jets
Pulse jets are mechanically simple devices thatin a repeating cycledraw air through a no-return valve at the
front of the engine into a combustion chamber and ignited it. The combustion forces the exhaust gases out the
back of the engine. It produces power as a series of pulses rather than as a steady output, hence the name. The
only application of this type of engine was the German unmanned V1 flying bomb of World War II. Though the
same engines were also used experimentally for ersatz fighter aircraft, the extremely loud noise generated by the
engines caused mechanical damage to the airframe that was sufficient to make the idea unworkable.

Rocket

A few aircraft have used rocket engines for main thrust or attitude
control, notably the Bell X-1 and North American X-15. Rocket engines
are not used for most aircraft as the energy and propellant efficiency is
very poor except at high speeds, but have been employed for short
bursts of speed and takeoff. Rocket engines are very efficient only at
very high speeds, although they are useful because they produce very
large amounts of thrust and weigh very little.

Newer engine types An XLR99

Wankel engine
Another promising design for aircraft use was the Wankel rotary engine. The
Wankel engine is about one half the weight and size of a traditional four-stroke
cycle piston engine of equal power output, and much lower in complexity. In an
aircraft application, the power-to-weight ratio is very important, making the
Wankel engine a good choice. Because the engine is typically constructed with
an aluminium housing and a steel rotor, and aluminium expands more than steel
when heated, a Wankel engine does not seize when overheated, unlike a piston
engine. This is an important safety factor for aeronautical use. Considerable
development of these designs started after World War II, but at the time the
aircraft industry favored the use of turbine engines. It was believed that turbojet
or turboprop engines could power all aircraft, from the largest to smallest
designs. The Wankel engine did not find many applications in aircraft, but was
used by Mazda in a popular line of sports cars. The French company Citron Powerplant from a
had developed Wankel powered RE-2 helicopter in 1970's.[12] Schleicher ASH 26e self-
launching motor glider,
In modern times the Wankel engine has been used in motor gliders where the removed from the glider and
mounted on a test stand for
compactness, light weight, and smoothness are crucially important.[13]
maintenance at the
The now-defunct Staverton-based firm MidWest designed and produced single- Alexander Schleicher GmbH
and twin-rotor aero engines, the MidWest AE series. These engines were & Co in Poppenhausen,
developed from the motor in the Norton Classic motorcycle. The twin-rotor Germany. Counter-clockwise
version was fitted into ARV Super2s and the Rutan Quickie. The single-rotor from top left: propeller hub,
engine was put into a Chevvron motor glider and into the Schleicher ASH mast with belt guide,
motor-gliders. After the demise of MidWest, all rights were sold to Diamond of radiator, Wankel engine,
Austria, who have since developed a MkII version of the engine. muffler shroud.

As a cost-effective alternative to certified aircraft engines some Wankel engines, removed from automobiles and
converted to aviation use, have been fitted in homebuilt experimental aircraft. Mazda units with outputs ranging
from 100 horsepower (75 kW) to 300 horsepower (220 kW) can be a fraction of the cost of traditional engines.
Such conversions first took place in the early 1970s; and as of 10 December 2006 the National Transportation
Safety Board has only seven reports of incidents involving aircraft with Mazda engines, and none of these is of
a failure due to design or manufacturing flaws.

Diesel engine

Most aircraft engines use spark ignition, generally using gasoline as a fuel. Starting in the 1930s attempts were
made to produce a compression ignition Diesel engine for aviation use. In general, Diesel engines are more
reliable and much better suited to running for long periods of time at medium power settings, which is why they
are widely used in, for example, trucks and ships. The lightweight alloys of the 1930s were not up to the task of
handling the much higher compression ratios of diesel engines, so they generally had poor power-to-weight
ratios and were uncommon for that reason, although the Clerget 14F Diesel radial engine (1939) has the same
power to weight ratio as a gasoline radial. Improvements in Diesel technology in automobiles (leading to much
better power-weight ratios), the Diesel's much better fuel efficiency and the high relative taxation of AVGAS
compared to Jet A1 in Europe have all seen a revival of interest in the use of diesels for aircraft. Thielert
Aircraft Engines converted Mercedes Diesel automotive engines, certified them for aircraft use, and became an
OEM provider to Diamond Aviation for their light twin. Financial problems have plagued Thielert, so
Diamond's affiliate Austro Engine developed the new AE300 turbodiesel, also based on a Mercedes
engine.[14] Competing new Diesel engines may bring fuel efficiency and lead-free emissions to small aircraft,
representing the biggest change in light aircraft engines in decades. Wilksch Airmotive build 2-stroke Diesel
engine (same power to weight as a gasoline engine) for experimental aircraft: WAM 100 (100 hp), WAM 120
(120 hp) and WAM 160 (160 hp)

Precooled jet engines

For very high supersonic/low hypersonic flight speeds inserting a cooling system into the air duct of a hydrogen
jet engine permits greater fuel injection at high speed and obviates the need for the duct to be made of refractory
or actively cooled materials. This greatly improves the thrust/weight ratio of the engine at high speed.

It is thought that this design of engine could permit sufficient performance for antipodal flight at Mach 5, or
even permit a single stage to orbit vehicle to be practical. The hybrid air-breathing SABRE rocket engine is a
pre-cooled engine under development.

Electric

About 60 electrically powered aircraft, such as the QinetiQ Zephyr, have been designed since the 1960s.[15][16]
Some are used as military drones.[17] In France in late 2007, a conventional light aircraft powered by an 18 kW
electric motor using lithium polymer batteries was flown, covering more than 50 kilometers (31 mi), the first
electric airplane to receive a certificate of airworthiness.[15]

Limited experiments with solar electric propulsion have been performed, notably the manned Solar Challenger
and Solar Impulse and the unmanned NASA Pathfinder aircraft.

Many big companies, as Siemens, are developing high performance electric engines for aircraft use, also, SAE
shows new developments in elements as pure Copper core electric motors with a better efficiency. An hybrid
system as emergency back-up and for added power in take-off is offered for sale by Axter Aerospace, Madrid,
Spain. [2] (http://axteraerospace.com/)
Small multicopter UAVs are almost always powered by electric motors.

Fuel
To avoid fuel-related engine failures which could endanger an aircraft, aviation fuel is produced to quality
standards much more strict than those for road vehicle fuel. These high standards mean that aviation fuel costs
much more than fuel used for road vehicles.

Aircraft reciprocating (piston) engines are typically designed to run on aviation gasoline. Avgas has a higher
octane rating than automotive gasoline to allow higher compression ratios, power output and efficiency at
higher altitudes. Currently the most common Avgas is 100LL that refers to the octane rating (100 octane) and
the lead content (LL = low lead, relative to the historic levels of lead in pre-regulation Avgas).

Refineries blend Avgas with tetraethyllead (TEL) to achieve these high octane ratings, a practice that
governments no longer permit for road vehicle gasoline. The shrinking supply of TEL and the possibility of
environmental legislation banning its use has made a search for replacement fuels for general aviation aircraft a
priority for pilot's organizations.[18]

Turbine engines and aircraft Diesel engines burn various grades of jet fuel. Jet fuel is a relatively heavy and less
volatile petroleum derivative based on kerosene, but certified to strict aviation standards, with additional
additives.

Model aircraft typically use nitro engines (also known as "glow engines" due to the use of a glow plug) powered
by glow fuel, a mixture of methanol, nitromethane, and lubricant. Electrically powered model planes[19] and
helicopters [20] are also commercially available. Small multicopter UAVs are almost always powered by
electricity,[21][22] but larger gas-powered designs are under development.[23] [24] [25]

See also
Aircraft diesel engine
Aircraft engine position number
Aviation safety
Engine configuration
Hyper engine
List of aircraft engines
Model engine
United States military aircraft engine designations

Notes
1. The world's first series-produced cars with superchargers came earlier than aircraft. These were Mercedes 6/25/40 hp and
Mercedes 10/40/65 hp, both models introduced in 1921 and used Roots superchargers. G.N. Georgano, ed. (1982). The
new encyclopedia of motorcars 1885 to the present (3rd ed.). New York: Dutton. p. 415. ISBN 0-525-93254-2.

References
 1. "China launches state-owned aircraft engine maker". CCTV America. August 29, 2016.
2. "GE Pushes Into Turboprop Engines, Taking on Pratt". Wall Street Journal. November 16, 2015.
3. Ian McNeil, ed. (1990). Encyclopedia of the History of Technology. London: Routledge. pp. 31521. ISBN 0-203-19211-
7.
4. Gibbs-Smith, Charles Harvard (1970). Aviation: an historical survey from its origins to the end of World War II. London:
Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
5. Gibbs-Smith, Charles Harvard (1960). The Aeroplane: An Historical Survey of Its Origins and Development. London:
Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
6. Winter, Frank H. (December 1980). "Ducted Fan or the World's First Jet Plane? The Coanda claim re-examined". The
Aeronautical Journal. Royal Aeronautical Society. 84.
7. Antoniu, Dan; Cico, George; Buiu, Ioan-Vasile; Bartoc, Alexandru; utic, Robert. Henri Coand and his technical work
during 19061918 (in Romanian). Bucharest: Editura Anima. ISBN 978-973-7729-61-3.
8. Guttman, Jon (2009). SPAD XIII vs. Fokker D VII: Western Front 1918 (1st ed.). Oxford: Osprey. pp. 2425. ISBN 1-
84603-432-9.
9. Powell, Hickman (Jun 1941). "He Harnessed a Tornado...". Popular Science.
10. Anderson, John D (2002). The airplane: A history of its technology. Reston, VA, USA: American Institute of Aeronautics
and Astronautics. pp. 25253. ISBN 1-56347-525-1.
11. Gibbs-Smith, C.H. (2003). Aviation. London: NMSO. p. 175. ISBN 1 9007 4752 9.
12. Boulay, Pierre (1998). Guides Larivire, ed. Les hlicoptres franais (in French). ISBN 2-907051-17-2.
13. "ASH 26 E Information". DE: Alexander Schleicher. Archived from the original on 2006-10-08. Retrieved 2006-11-24.
14. "Diamond Twins Reborn". Flying Mag. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
15. Worldwide premire: first aircraft flight with electrical engine, Association pour la Promotion des Aronefs
Motorisation lectrique, December 23, 2007, archived from the original on 2008-01-10.
16. Superconducting Turbojet, Physorg.com.
17. Voyeur, Litemachines.
18. "EAA'S Earl Lawrence Elected Secretary of International Aviation Fuel Committee" (Press release). Archived from the
original on March 3, 2013.
19. http://www.nitroplanes.com/rtf.html
20. http://electricrchelicopterreviews.com/gas-vs-electric-helicopters-which-is-better/
21. http://www.amazon.com/b/ref=s9_acss_bw_cg_dronessf_4a1?
node=13407343011&pf_rd_m=ATVPDKIKX0DER&pf_rd_s=merchandised-search-
4&pf_rd_r=0H5N5XQPZSQNWDZEZCME&pf_rd_t=101&pf_rd_p=2311473662&pf_rd_i=11910405011
22. http://www.nitroplanes.com/quadcopters.html
23. http://www.gizmag.com/yeair-hybrid-two-stroke-combustion-quadcopter-drone/37713/
24. https://hackaday.io/project/1230-goliath-a-gas-powered-quadcopter
25. http://www.industrytap.com/heavy-lifting-quadcopter-lifts-50-pound-loads-its-a-gas-powered-hulk-hlq/2182

External links
Aircraft Engines and Aircraft Engine Theory (includes links to
Wikimedia Commons has
diagrams) (http://www.aviation-history.com/index-engine.htm) media related to Aircraft
The Aircraft Engine Historical Society (http://www.enginehistory. engines.
org/)
Jet Engine Specification Database (http://www.jet-engine.net/) Look up aircraft engine in
Aircraft Engine Efficiency: Comparison of Counter-rotating and Wiktionary, the free
Axial Aircraft LP Turbines (http://www.softinway.com/news/articl dictionary.
es/Counter-Rotating-and-Traditional-Axial-Aircraft-Low-pressure
-Turbines/1.asp)
The History of Aircraft Power Plants Briefly Reviewed : From the " 7 lb. per h.p" Days to the " 1 lb. per
h.p" of To-day (http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1935/1935%20-%201222.html)
"The Quest for Power" (http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1954/1954%20-%200959.html) a
1954 Flight article by Bill Gunston
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