Electr Eng (2017) 99:301311
DOI 10.1007/s00202-016-0428-8
ORIGINAL PAPER
Artificial neural-network-based fault location for power
distribution lines using the frequency spectra of fault data
Ylmaz Aslan1 Yunus Emre Yagan1
Received: 15 July 2016 / Accepted: 6 September 2016 / Published online: 15 September 2016
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016
Abstract This study presents an artificial neural-network
(ANN)-based digital fault classification and location algo-
rithm for medium voltage (MV) overhead power distribution
lines with load taps and embedded remote-end source. The
algorithm utilizes frequency spectra of voltage and current
samples which are recorded by the digital relay at the sub-
station. In the algorithm, to extract useful information for
ANN inputs, the frequency spectral analysis of voltage and
current waveforms has been carried out using Fast Fourier
Transform. To classify and locate the shunt faults on an MV
distribution system, a multilayer perceptron neural network
(MLPNN) with the standard back-propagation technique has
been used. A 34.5 kV overhead distribution system has
been simulated using MATLAB/Simulink, and the results
are used to train and test the ANNs. The technique takes into
account all the practical aspects of real distribution system,
such as errors, originated from instrument transformers and
interface. The ANN-based fault location technique has been
extensively tested for a realistic model and gives satisfactory
results for radial overhead distribution systems with load taps
and in the presence of remote-end source connection.
Keywords Fault location Distribution lines Artificial
neural networks Remote-end source
B Yunus Emre Yagan
yunusemre.yagan@dpu.edu.tr
Ylmaz Aslan
yilmaz.aslan@dpu.edu.tr
1 Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department,
Dumlupnar University, 43100 Kutahya, Turkey
1 Introduction
In power distribution systems, the employment of reliable
fault detection and location algorithm brings high-energy
system security and faster restoration time, savings in system
costs, reduction of shunt faults, and weak points in the whole
system [13]. A digital fault location technique can be imple-
mented as a stand-alone device, i.e., an independent device
using data from digital protection relays, or an algorithm
using data from digital fault recorders (DFRs) located at a
substation [4]. When a fault occurs, digital fault recorders
record data from the line in an online mode and send the
voltage and current information to a fault locator to process
the data in an offline mode. The required system parameters,
such as line and network configuration, and load and source
conditions, were retrieved from a database.
The majority of fault location techniques developed to
date for overhead distribution lines are based on the con-
cept of apparent impedance. These techniques make use
of fundamental frequency components of voltage and cur-
rent information which are recorded at a single location.
Although in some of these techniques, the load taps are taken
into account and satisfactory results are obtained, and the
possible presence of remote infeed source, transducer, and
hardware errors and load estimation errors is not consid-
ered. Furthermore, these techniques are adversely affected
by the presence of fault resistance and require the exact
knowledge of distribution line configuration and system load-
ing [59]. In [8,10,11], the concept of traveling waves and
high-frequency (HF) components that are injected by the
fault point and propagate in both directions along the line
has been used. These methods are complex and require
specially tuned filters. Although in inter-meshed distribu-
tion systems, directional fault locators can be useful, and
the construction and maintenance costs are very high. In
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recent years with the developments in computer technology,
there is ever increasing number of fault location techniques
using knowledge-based approaches, such as artificial neural
networks, fuzzy set theory, and expert systems [1221].
However, the majority of these algorithms are exclusively
developed for high-voltage (HV) transmission lines, and they
have not been tested on an MV distribution systems yet. Or
they are based on fundamental components of fault data and
the effect of frequency spectra on the algorithm has not been
studied.
This paper presents an ANN-based alternative approach
to classify and locate shunt faults on primary overhead power
distribution system using frequency spectra of post-fault volt-
age and current data. Despite the fact that the underlying
principles of the algorithm are similar to the ANN-based
algorithm presented in [14], the algorithm has been substan-
tially modified to include the frequency spectra of fault data
in the process of ANN training. In the algorithm presence of
load taps on the main feeder, small-scale-distributed genera-
tion connected at the remote-end of the primary distribution
feeder is taken into consideration. The power distribution line
is simulated using MATLABR2009b/Simulink. The fault
location has been implemented for a 34.5 kV MV overhead
power distribution line. The accuracy of the proposed algo-
rithm has been investigated for fault type and location, fault
resistance, fault angle, presence of remote-end source, and
source capacity estimation errors.
2 ANNs
In fault location algorithms, ANNs exhibit excellent normal-
ization and generalization capability, robustness, immunity
to noise, and system parameter estimation errors. ANN-based
fault location methods perform a better performance in the
presence of fault resistance and for the power system para-
meter variations. Moreover, since ANN-based fault locators
do not require an exact knowledge of the power system con-
figuration; they have been extensively used in power system
applications [1520]. Figure 1 shows the architecture of a
typical feed-forward multilayered neural network which con-
sists of an input layer, one or more hidden layers, and an
output layer [21]. In the network, xn shows the inputs from
(1) (2)
outer environment to the first layer; wkn and wmk are the
weights applied to the second and third layers, respectively.
The number of hidden layers and neurons in the layers is
subjected to the problem studied and decided upon the trial
error. The data received from outer environment (or other
neurons) are transferred to the neurons in the hidden layer(s)
through weights which adjust the effect of inputs. The neuron
calculates a weighted average of them using the summation
function and then uses an activation function to compute the
output [22]. The activation function is used to express the
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Electr Eng (2017) 99:301311
x w
x w
y
y
w k
w m ym
n
k wm , k
xn wk , n
Fig. 1 Feed-forward multilayer ANN
non-linear relationship process between the input and out-
put data. The selection of the activation function may vary
according to the problem studied. In general, step, sign, sig-
moid, and linear functions are used [14].
3 Fault location algorithm
The block diagram of the proposed fault location algorithm
is shown in Fig. 2. The algorithm was applied to an MV over-
head power distribution system consisting of main line with
load taps. The faulted voltage and current samples which
have been recorded by DFR at the fault locator end of the
simulated distribution system have been used as input data
for the algorithm. In the development stage of fault location
algorithm, the effect of voltage transformers (VTs), current
transformers (CTs), and analog interface effects, such as
anti-aliasing filters and quantization errors, are taken into
account. Hence, the data obtained from the simulated DFR
are very close to the data supplied by a real device. In the
DFR, after the digitization stage, the microprocessor contin-
uously monitors the current and voltage samples from the
near end of the distribution line and stores the measured data
in the RAM memory of the computer. During this process,
the oldest information is overwritten. In the algorithm for
fault inception time identification, an adaptive approach has
been used and three consecutive samples of the current wave-
forms were compared with the corresponding three samples
of the previous cycle. In this process, any significant change
more than a predefined threshold level (i.e., 40 %) indicates
the time at which the fault has occurred. If these criteria are
not satisfied for the current samples, then the same process
is repeated for the voltage samples. However, in the incep-
tion of the fault, it is not always possible to detect the fault
at precisely the right sample. In some cases, the fault incep-
tion time identified may shift one or two samples from the
time the fault actually occurred. However, this delay (or
advance) is manifested in all the signals, and therefore, there
Electr Eng (2017) 99:301311
CT
C (ACSR) with the configuration, as shown in Fig. 4.
-
- - -
Fig. 2 Block diagram for the fault location algorithm
is no effect on accuracy. In the algorithm, to improve the
accuracy of fault location, for each fault type rather than a
single network, separate ANNs have been used. As shown in
Fig. 2, initially, all 11 types of shunt faults on overhead power
distribution lines (AG: a-phaseearth fault, BG: b-phase
earth fault, CG: c-phaseearth fault, AB: ab-phase
fault, BC: bc-phase fault, AC: ac-phase fault, ABG:
ab-phaseearth fault, BCG: bc-phaseearth fault,
ACG: ac-phaseearth fault, ABC: three-phase fault, and
ABCG: three-phase-earth fault) are classified by a single
ANN, regardless of the exact fault position. In the second
stage, separate ANNs have been employed for each type of
fault to achieve a good generalization for the fault [12,23].
4 Practical considerations
The fault location algorithm is based on voltage and current
measurements from the single end of the line. The steps for
the development and testing of the algorithm are as follows
[12]:
303
Step 1: The simulation of the overhead distribution system
and extracting voltage and current information using
the MATLAB/Simulink/SimPowerSystems toolbox/
powergui/Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) analysis.
Step 2: FFT filtering of voltage and current samples and
applying their frequency spectra at certain frequen-
cies to designed ANN topology.
Step 3: Adjusting the weights between neurons to minimise
the error in between the output of ANN and desired
output.
Step 4: Repeating and adjusting the weights and computa-
tions until the predefined error criterion has been
reached.
4.1 Power system simulation
The radial 34.5 kV 14.8 km overhead power distribution
line is shown in Fig. 3 currently operating in the sub-urban
residential area of city of Ktahya. It has been simulated
using Matlab/Simulink to test the proposed fault location
algorithm. The overhead distribution lines employed are
modelled as steel reinforced aluminumalloy conductors
The relevant data used are as follows:
1. Earth resistivity (assumed homogeneous) = 100m.
2. Source X/R ratio (at both ends) = 10; Z s0 /Z s1 = 0.5.
3. 34.5 kV feeder impedance = (0.3366 + j0.373) /km
(Pigeon).
In the algorithm, the three-phase currents and voltages which
were attained from one end of the simulated distribution line
enter the DFR via input transformers. The input transformers
provide galvanic isolation in between DFR and instrument
transformers while transforming the voltage and current sig-
nals to 10 V level. The voltage and current signals received
from VTs and CTs can contain high-frequency components
under fault conditions which may cause the sampling errors.
Hence, a second-order Butterworth filter with a cut-off fre-
quency of 1.5 kHz has been embedded into the simulation
to reject high-frequency components, hence prevent aliasing.
Outputs of the filter are sampled at 4 kHz using a sample and
hold circuit and fed to a 12-bit analog-to-digital converter
(ADC) for digital conversion [14].
4.2 Digital signal processing and feature extraction
Figure 5 shows voltage and current waveforms for an a-
phaseearth fault created at 8 km for the distribution system,
as shown in Fig. 3. In ANN-based algorithms, to reduce the
size of input data and to discard the unnecessary information
as a first step, feature extraction is implemented. This step
brings important reduction in the size of the network and,
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304
Fig. 3 34.5 kV distribution ,
system
b 4.
Fig. 4 34.5 kV pole configuration
therefore, improves the speed and performance of the training
process. In this stage, time-domain frequency decomposition
of voltage and current waveforms has been carried out with
the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) using two cycles of post-
fault voltage and current information [23]. The FFT analysis
has been implemented using MATLAB/Simulink. The fre-
quency spectra for a-phase voltage and a-phase current
obtained under an a-phaseearth fault at 8 km of the distri-
bution system are shown in Fig. 6.
4.3 Training data for ANNs
In ANN-based algorithms, the training and testing stages of
developed ANN are very important. To generate the training
data, each fault type has been simulated on the distribution
system shown in Fig. 3 at different locations for various fault
angles, resistances, and system conditions. The voltage and
current waveforms obtained from the simulation of faults are
recorded for digital signal processing and feature extracting.
Finally, the processed data have been grouped for certain
frequency bands, as shown in the following:
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Electr Eng (2017) 99:301311
1. DC component.
2. 25 Hz component.
3. Fundamental component (50 Hz).
75200 Hz components.
5. 225500 Hz components.
6. 5251100 Hz components.
In this way, a vector with 36 components representing any
fault condition was generated as an input to the ANN. With
regard to the procedure for preparing the training data, at
every km of distribution system, various faults were created.
Approximately 750 faults were created on the distribution
system, as shown in Fig. 3. Nearly 70 % of these cases were
used to train the developed ANNs, while the remaining 30 %
were used to validate and test the performance of trained
ANNs.
4.4 Application of ANNs to distribution lines
In the implementation stage of the ANN model, after the
training data have been prepared, the most appropriate
ANN structures for estimating fault-type classification and
fault location are determined. The conventional multilay-
ered neural network architecture, as shown in Fig. 1, is
generally decided with one, two, and three hidden layers,
different numbers of neurons in these layers, and the type
of transfer functions employed in neurons. The best topol-
ogy which has a better generalizing ability amongst the tried
combinations is generally selected [24,25]. ANN Toolbox
of MATLAB is used for developing the desired ANN topol-
ogy. Figure 7 shows a comparison of the structures with one
(12 neuron), two (11 + 12 neuron), and three (14 + 9 + 15
neuron) hidden layers which have the best structure amongst
themselves. In ANN topology for fault-type classification
and fault location, feed-forward LevenbergMarquardt (LM)
learning algorithm with back-propagation ANNs has been
used. Table 1 tabulates the structure of the ANNs, including
the number of neurons in hidden and output layers which
were employed for fault-type classification and location.
Electr Eng (2017) 99:301311 305

Fig. 5 a-phaseearth fault 30

waveforms at 8 km of the line. a
Three-phase voltages. b
Three-phase currents
15

Voltage (kV)
0

-15
phase (a)
phase (b)
phase (c)
-30
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time (sec)
(a)
1.5

0.75
Current(kA)

-0.75
phase (a)
phase (b)
-1.5 phase (c)
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time (sec)
(b)

5 Results 5.1 Effect of fault type and location

The trained ANNs are tested to evaluate their accuracy and
performance with a separate set of test data. The test data
used consist of the data unseen by the ANNs before and
contain different systems and fault conditions, such as fault
types and locations, fault resistance, fault inception angle,
and remote-end in-feed. In all the results presented herein,
the percentage error relating to fault location is based on the
following Eq. [12]:
actual location estimated location
Error (%) = 100
length of the feeder
(1)
Table 2 shows the test results for fault-type classification,
where the results were rounded to the nearest value. It is evi-
dent from the results that the ANN can accurately classify
all fault conditions tested and the performance of the devel-
oped ANN has not been influenced by fault types (A, B, C,
and G representing phase a, phase b, phase c, and earth,
respectively), fault point (km), fault inception angle ( ), and
fault resistance ().
Table 3 shows fault location results for different fault con-
ditions unseen by the ANNs before. It is shown from the
results in Table 3 that the performance of the fault location
algorithm has not been significantly influenced by different
fault conditions and the presence of the remote-end source.
The maximum error observed from Table 3 is 3.39 %, while
error remained less than 1 % for the majority of fault con-

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Fig. 6 Frequency spectra for 100

a-phaseearth fault. a Spectra
of a-phase voltage. b Spectra
of a-phase current
80

Quantised units
60

40

20

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Frequency (Hz)
(a)

100

80
Quantised units

60

40

20

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Frequency (Hz)
(b)

Fig. 7 Estimating results of 6

three ANNs structure 1 hidden layer
5 2 hidden layer
3 hidden layer
4
Error (%)

0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Fault location (km)

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Electr Eng (2017) 99:301311 307

Table 1 Structure of trained ANNs 5.2 Effect of fault resistance

The transfer function of the hidden layers Logarithmic sigmoid
The ANN has been trained for a-phaseearth fault for the
The transfer function of the output layer Linear
system illustrated in Fig. 3 for the fault resistances of 2, 5,
Fault-type classification 6 + 4 Neuron 10, 20, 50, 70, and 100 . The effect of fault resistance on
Phaseearth fault location 14 + 9 + 15 + 1 Neuron accuracy is examined for unseen cases by the ANN, and the
Phasephase fault location 10 + 1 Neuron results are shown in Table 5. As seen from the results, the
Phasephaseearth fault location 12 + 12 + 1 Neuron algorithm was little affected from the fault resistance and the
Three-phase fault location 7 + 1 Neuron absolute error remained less than 2 % for all the cases stud-
ied. To better evaluate the effect of fault resistance on the
accuracy of the algorithm, the a-phaseearth faults, which
Table 2 Fault classification results are given in Fig. 8 as boxplot, have been rearranged and
Test cases Actual output Estimated output grouped according to fault resistances and presented in Fig. 9
(ABCG) (ABCG) as graphical form. This enables the evaluation and testing of
each fault resistance with different fault locations and angles
AG (3 km,14 , 15 ) 1001 1 001
of a-phaseearth faults. As seen from the results, although
AG (10 km, 90 , 60 ) 1001 0.99 0 0 0.98 the accuracy is degraded slightly for the faults with a fault
BG (4 km, 2 , 45 ) 0101 0 101 resistance of 50  or higher, the accuracy of the algorithm
BG (8 km, 50 , 90 ) 0101 0 101 remains superior compared to impedance-based techniques
CG (2 km, 2 , 45 ) 0011 0 011 and the mean error remains less than 2 % for the fault resis-
AB (7 km, 5 , 90 ) 1100 1 1 0 0.09 tances studied.
ABG (7 km, 20 , 45 ) 1101 1 101
ABG (7 km, 50 , 45 ) 1101 1 101 5.3 Effect of fault angle
ABCG (12 km, 2 , 45 ) 1111 1 111
ABCG (12 km, 2 , 90 ) 1111 1 111 In practice, faults can occur at any point on the wave which
affects the high-frequency components injected by the fault
to the system. Hence, it is important to test and verify the
algorithms performance for different inception angles rather
ditions tested. In Table 4, the accuracy of the proposed than those near voltage maximum of phaseearth faults. The
approach has been compared with the apparent impedance- algorithm was tested for phaseearth faults created at differ-
based algorithm presented in [26] and ANN-based approach ent fault angles on the distribution system, as shown in Fig. 3,
presented in [14] for the same distribution system. Both these and the results are given in Table 6. As can be seen from the
approaches are based on fundamental phasors of voltages and results, the algorithm maintains a high degree of accuracy
currents. As can be seen from the results, the accuracy of the and the error in fault location remains less than 1 % for the
proposed algorithm is significantly better in comparison with majority of the cases. Although the accuracy of the locator is
apparent impedance-based approach presented in [26]. When slightly degraded for the faults which occurred with the fault
the algorithm is compared with the ANN-based approach in angles of 180 and 280 , the overall performance remains
[14] which makes the use of fundamental components, the satisfactory and the accuracy remains less than 2 % for all
accuracy of the proposed algorithm is similar. Figure 8 shows the cases studied.
294 fault data for a-phase earth fault used in training set and
the results obtained from the tests on the network. In every 5.4 Effect of source capacity
fault point, the faults were tested for 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 70, and
100  and for fault inception angles of 0 , 45 , and 90 ; cor- Although the majority of radial power distribution lines oper-
responding to 21 faults at each fault location. As shown from ate with the remote end is open, in recent years, it is becoming
the results given in Tables 2, 3, and Fig. 8, estimation error a common practice to connect renewable energy systems
in percentages increases or decreases irregularly whether the to the existing distribution network at MV level. Thus, it
fault is at the beginning, end, or at load taps of the line or is important to test the accuracy of fault location algorithm
remote-end power generation is present and regardless of any in the presence of remote-end source at the end Q. Table 7
type fault angle and fault resistance. In addition to that, from shows the effect of remote-source capacity on the accuracy
Tables 2, 3, and Fig. 8, in general, it is seen that percentage for an a-phaseearth fault at 4 km of the line for the sys-
estimation errors are below 1 % for the majority of the cases tem, as shown in Fig. 3. The designed ANN is also tested with
studied. By considering these test results, it can be concluded ten MVA remote-end source with capacity setting errors of
that the algorithm performs fairly well. 5 % (9.5 and 10.5 MVA), 10 % (9 and 11 MVA), and

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Table 3 Fault location results

Fault type Remote-source Fault Fault Fault location (km) |Error| (%)
capacity (MVA) resist. () angle ( )
Actual output Estimated output

AG 0 2 45 2.5 2.48 0.16

AG 0 30 60 3.0 2.90 0.64
AG 0 14 75 3.0 2.96 0.25
AG 0 5 30 4.5 4.38 0.80
AG 0 100 90 4.5 5.01 3.39
AG 0 2 60 8.0 8.11 0.73
AG 0 60 60 11.5 11.55 0.36
AG 0 90 30 12.5 12.64 0.95
AG 0 60 30 13.5 13.37 0.84
AG 0 10 45 13.5 13.23 1.83
AG 10 2 45 4.5 4.39 0.73
AG 10 50 90 4.5 4.49 0.06
AG 10 2 45 11.5 11.54 0.29
AG 10 50 45 11.5 11.74 1.62
AG 10 100 45 11.5 11.37 0.85
AB 0 2 30 1.0 1.21 1.42
AB 0 2 60 2.5 2.40 0.69
AB 0 2 70 7.5 7.76 1.75
AB 0 2 40 10.0 10.03 0.20
AB 0 2 80 12.5 12.62 0.82
AB 10 2 45 4.5 4.46 0.27
AB 10 2 45 5.5 5.59 0.57
AB 10 2 45 6.5 6.60 0.69
AB 10 2 45 7.5 7.56 0.39
AB 10 2 45 11.5 11.47 0.18
ABG 0 15 15 2.0 1.79 1.40
ABG 0 25 50 4.0 3.93 0.45
ABG 0 100 30 8.0 8.00 0.01
ABG 0 60 60 9.0 9.08 0.55
ABG 0 35 70 11.0 10.91 0.58
ABG 10 2 45 2.0 1.99 0.15
ABG 10 100 45 2.0 2.01 0.05
ABG 10 2 45 8.0 7.66 2.28
ABG 10 50 90 8.0 7.96 0.30
ABG 10 100 45 8.0 7.95 0.35
ABCG 0 2 30 4.0 4.07 0.47
ABCG 0 2 30 5.0 5.06 0.41
ABCG 0 2 0 8.0 8.17 1.13
ABCG 0 2 90 9.0 8.99 0.06
ABCG 0 2 45 12.5 12.49 0.05
ABCG 10 2 45 2.0 1.93 0.45
ABCG 10 2 0 4.5 4.43 0.46
ABCG 10 2 90 5.5 5.44 0.38
ABCG 10 2 0 8.5 8.47 0.20
ABCG 10 2 0 12.5 12.54 0.28

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Electr Eng (2017) 99:301311 309

Table 4 Comparison of test results for maximum errors

Fault type |Error|(%)
Aggarwal [26] Aslan [14] Proposed method
Max Average Standard deviation Max Average Standard deviation Max Average Standard deviation

Phaseearth 6.06 1.17 1.21 2.95 0.81 0.71 3.39 0.86 0.72
Phasephase 3.14 1.18 0.81 0.96 0.29 0.33 1.75 0.66 0.51
Two-phaseearth 3.97 1.08 0.84 0.63 0.18 0.23 2.28 0.51 0.61
Three-phaseearth 3.20 0.86 1.11 0.01 0.01 0.01 1.13 0.36 0.32

Fig. 8 Effect of fault location 3.5

3

2.5
Error (%)

1.5

0.5
0
1 2 3.5 4 5 6 7 8 9 10.4 11 12 13 14
Fault location (km)

Table 5 Effect of fault resistance 6 Conclusion

Fault resistance, () Fault location (km) |Error|(%)

(Faullt angle = 45 ) Actual output Estimated output In this study, an ANN-based fault location algorithm for loca-
tion and classification of shunt faults on MV overhead power
2 8 8.17 1.10 distribution lines has been developed and tested. In the algo-
10 8 8.07 0.49 rithm, the post-fault voltage and current data which were
15 8 7.87 0.88 obtained from the locator end of the distribution system have
30 8 8.09 0.57 been used. The fault information after has been processed
40 8 7.81 1.27 by the DFR was grouped to certain frequency components
50 8 7.79 1.38 and used as input to the ANN. In the study, all the fault
80 8 7.76 1.58 types are studied and feed-forward networks with backprop-
100 8 8.08 0.51 agation having LevenbergMarquart training algorithm, and
logarithmic sigmoid activation function in all the layers has
been used. The system has been tested for a 14.8 km long
34.5 kV MV radial distribution line which links the Ktahya
city center with the sub-urban area of Enne. From the results
20 % (8 and 12 MVA). Based on the test results, the accu-
attained, it is clear that the algorithm virtually immune to the
racy of the algorithm was not significantly affected by 5 %
fault type, fault resistance, fault inception angle, and presence
source capacity setting errors, and location errors were 1.54
of remote-end generation. In the majority of the cases, the
and 0.91 %, respectively. There is a little decay in accuracy
fault estimation error was less than %1. Another advantage
with 10 % source capacity setting errors, introducing loca-
of the algorithm, since it is based on measurements from
tion errors of 1.63 and 2.93 %, respectively. On the other
the single end, there is no requirement for communication
hand, with remote-source capacity setting errors of20 %,
and data synchronization from other ends of the distribution
the accuracy of the algorithm was degraded, resulting to loca-
system.
tion errors of 7.43 and 7.41 %, respectively.

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Fig. 9 Effect of fault resistance 2.5

Error (%)
1.5

0.5

0
2 5 10 20 50 70 100
Fault resistance ( )

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