Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Resistant Material
All IGCSE syllabuses follow a general pattern. The main sections are:
Aims
Assessment Objectives
Assessment
Curriculum Content.
The IGCSE subjects have been categorised into groups, subjects within each group
having similar aims and assessment objectives.
Design and Technology falls into Group V, Creative Technical and Vocational, of the
International Certificate of Education (ICE) subjects.
The Design and Technology syllabus has been designed for Centres which are
attempting to move towards a greater emphasis on design the reasoned application
of the knowledge, skills and discipline normally taught in the subject in problem solving
situations.
Aims
The aims of the syllabus are the same for all students. The aims are set out below and
describe the educational purposes of a course in Design and Technology for the IGCSE
examination. They are not listed in order of priority.
5. encourage students to relate their work, which should demand active and
experimental learning based upon the use of materials in practical areas, to their
personal interests and abilities;
Assessment Objectives
The four assessment objectives in Design and Technology are:
Under each assessment objective heading is given a list of the activities a student
should be able to carry out.
1. demonstrate the ability to state facts, recall and name items, recall and describe
processes;
2. demonstrate the ability to apply and relate knowledge to designing and making;
3. make reasoned arguments and anticipate consequences about the outcomes of
the Design and Technology process;
4. demonstrate a crucial awareness of the interrelationship between Design and the
needs of society.
B Problem Solving
Students should be able to:
5. recognise problems, identify clearly, from a problem situation, a specific need for
which a solution is required and compose a design brief;
6. analyse a problem by considering any relevant functional, aesthetic, human,
economic and environmental design factors and draw up a design specification;
7. investigate, research, collect and record relevant data and information;
8. generate a range of outline solutions to a design problem, giving consideration to the
constraints of time, cost, skill and resources;
9. develop, refine, test and evaluate the effectiveness of design solutions.
C - Communication
Students should be able to:
10. recognise information in one form and where necessary change it into a more
applicable form;
11. produce or interpret data in a variety of forms such as charts, diagrams, graphs, and
flow charts;
12. propose and communicate ideas graphically using a range of media;
13. develop ideas and represent details of form, shape, construction, movement, size,
and structure through graphical representation and three dimensional modelling.
D - Realisation
Students should be able to:
14. plan and organise the work procedure involved in the realisation of a solution;
15. select, from a range of resources, those appropriate for the realisation of the
product;
16. demonstrate appropriate manipulative skills by showing an understanding of
materials and their characteristics in relation to their use;
17. evaluate the process and product in terms of aesthetic, functional and technical
quality.
SPECIFICATION GRID
Assessment
Scheme of Assessment
Candidates who have followed this curriculum are eligible for the award of grades A*
to G.
It should be noted that the content of Part 1 of the syllabus is intended to underlie all
components of the assessment scheme and that a knowledge of the chosen option will
be demonstrated in Paper 1 in addition to the optional paper and the project.
Description of Papers
Paper 1
This question paper will be set on Part 1 of the syllabus. Candidates will be required to
answer one of 3 open ended questions intended to assess the candidates abilities of
analysis and synthesis.
Paper 3
In each of these papers there will be a Section A and a Section B. Section A will consist
of compulsory questions, testing subject knowledge in the chosen option. Section B will
consist of longer structured questions. Papers 3 will provide a choice of one out of three
questions in this section.
Each candidate will undertake a personally identified Project centred on the chosen
option from Part 2 of the syllabus. The Project, which will be internally marked and
externally moderated, is expected to be worked over the final two terms of the course.
While the Project will be option based, the nature of the Common Core within the
subject Design and Technology is such that each candidates work is likely to be of a
cross-optional character. The work presented for assessment will typically be in the form
of an A3 size folder and the made product. In the case of work from the Graphic
Products option the folder could contain all the preliminary design work, with the made
product being in the form of 2 dimension work and models.
The folder must include sufficient photographs of the made product, showing an overall
view together with detailed views of evidence to support the award of marks for
assessment criterion 6 Product Realisation. (See External Moderation section of the
Assessment Criteria for coursework).
Candidates whose work is required for external moderation will be selected by CIE.
Curriculum Content
The curriculum objectives in Part 1 are to be followed by all students. This will be
assessed specifically in Paper 1 (Design) and Coursework. It is envisaged that this core
content will also be covered, in an integrated manner in the teaching of the optional
specialist area from Part 2.
PART 1
Resistant Materials
It is recommended that the approach to the following objectives should be a practical
one wherever possible and that their delivery to students be used as the vehicle for
delivering the content of Paper 1 such that the syllabus is seen as an integrated area of
study.
Introduction
This area of study is concerned with developing the skills used by designers within the
context of materials and their processing. It is intended that practical experience be
used to create a broad understanding of materials and their processing rather than an
in-depth knowledge of any particular material, technology or process through the
following headings:
the general physical and working properties of common constructural materials, i.e.;
plastics, woods and metals, in relation to specific designing and making tasks;
Shaping
(a) Deforming/Reforming Have knowledge of the following
processes:
Topic: Materials
The chart below shows the wide range of facts and issues relating to materials research
that need to be considered when designing a product.
Properties of Materials
When studying materials and especially when selecting materials for a project / design,
it is important to understand key properties.
Various words are used to describe the properties of materials. It is important that when
we are discussing materials we should understand exactly what they mean, and use
them accurately.
Strength
The ability of a material to stand up to forces being applied without it bending,
breaking, shattering or deforming in any way.
Elasticity
The ability of a material to absorb force and flex in different directions, returning to its
original position.
Plasticity
The ability of a material to be change in shape permanently.
Ductility
The ability of a material to change shape (deform) usually by stretching along its length.
Tensile Strength
The ability of a material to stretch without breaking or snapping.
Compressive Strength
The ability of a material to stand squeezing or crushing.
Shear Strength
The ability of a material to resist being parted.
Malleability
The ability of a material to be reshaped in all directions without cracking
Toughness
A characteristic of a material that does not break or shatter when receiving a blow or
under a sudden shock.
Hardness
The ability of a material to resist scratching, wear and tear and indentation.
Thermal conductivity
It relates to how heat travels, or is conducted through a material from a hotter part to a
colder part.
Stability
It is the resistance to changes in shape and size.
Plasticity
It is the ability to be permanently changed in shape by external blows or pressure
without cracking or breaking.
How a tree grows
Roots These absorb water and mineral salts, and make crude sap.
Bast This carries plant food down from the leaves to all parts of the tree.
Medullary rays Carry plant food from the bast into the cambium layer, sapwood,
and heartwood, and store it.
Cambium layer This contains cells capable of division to produce sapwood cells on
the inside and bast cells on the outside, to make the tree grow.
Sapwood Is the living part of the tree. It consists of cellulose cells which have
thin walls capable of absorbing moisture from the roots, and plant
food to grow.
Heartwood Is the commercially most useful part of the tree. It consists of cells
which have become clogged with gum and die. They are stronger,
more durable, and more resistant to insect and fungal attack than
sapwood, and provide the strength to support the tree. A young
tree consists mainly of sapwood but as it grows it makes heartwood.
Waste products are stored here.
Pith Is the centre of the trunk consisting of the original sapling, from which
the tree grew, and is often soft.
Annual rings Each represents one years growth. In spring, the cambium layer
makes wide thin-walled cells so that a large amount of sap can each
the leaves quickly. These cells are pale, soft and weak. In summer,
the tree needs less sap, and so it makes narrow cells with thick walls
which are dark, hard and strong. In winter, the tree rests and no sap
flows. This cycle gives alternate pale and dark annual rings from
which we can count the age of softwood trees.
Some hardwood trees (e.g. oak and ash) produce light and dark
growth rings similar to, but less distinct than, those of softwood.
Others (e.g. beech and mahogany) grow at an even rate
throughout the spring and summer and so we cannot tell their age.
Hardwoods and softwoods
Hardwoods
These are produced by broad leaved trees (having leaves broad in width in proportion
to their length) whose seeds are enclosed in fruit (e.g. apple, acorn). They show a wide
range of colours and gain patterns and are divided into two groups.
Deciduous hardwoods
These trees lose their leaves in winter. They grow in warmer temperate climates
(including the British Isles, Europe, Japan, New Zealand, Chile and Central USA), and are
slow growing (100 years) and expensive. Common examples include: Oak, Ash, Elm,
Beech, Birch, Chestnut, Lime, Sycamore, Walnut, Apple and Pear.
Evergreen hardwoods
These trees keep their leaves all the year round, and therefore grow more quickly and
to a greater size. They are usually softer and easier to work than deciduous hardwoods.
They grow mainly in tropical and sub-tropical climates (including most of South America,
Central America, Indo-China, Africa, Burma, India, and the East and West Indies).
Common examples include: Mahogany, teak, African Walnut, Afrormosia, Iroko,
Rosewood, Ebony, Balsa and Sapele. There are two European evergreen hardwoods,
the holly and the laurel.
Softwoods
These are produced by conifers (cone bearing trees). They are usually evergreen with
needle-like leaves, and grow mainly in colder and cooler temperate climates (including
Scandinavia, Canada, Northern Russia, and at high altitudes elsewhere. They grow
quickly (30 years) and are therefore cheaper, softer and easier to work than hardwoods.
The seeds are not enclosed, but are held in cones. Common examples include: the
many types of Pines, Spruce, Fir, Cedar, Larch and Giant redwood. Yew is a coniferous
three which does not produce cones. Larch is the only deciduous coniferous tree.
Note: The names softwood and hardwood describe the leaves, seeds and structure of
the trees, and not necessarily the timber produced. As a result, some hardwoods
(notably Balsa) are light in weight and very soft to work, while some softwoods (e.g. Yew
and Pitch Pine) are heavy and hard to work.
Commonly available forms of hardwoods and softwoods
Remember when ordering timber that the widths and thicknesses of all timbers are
given as the rough sawn sizes. You can buy machine-planed timber either planed on
both sides (PBS) or planed all round (PAR), but its size will still be describe as the nominal
(rough sawn)size, although it will actually be approximately 3mm smaller in thickness
and if PAR in width too.
A board is a piece of wood less than 40mm thick and 75mm, or over, wide.
Common sizes for square are 25mm x 25mm, 38mm x 38mm, and 50mm x 50mm.
Strips are rectangular sections narrower than 75mm wide. Common sizes for strips are
25mm x 38mm and 25mm x 50mm.
Conversion of timber
Conversion means the sawing of logs into usuable sizes with the minimum of waste.
There are many different methods to suit different timbers and purposes.
Plain sawing (also known as flat, through, and through and slash sawing). This is the
simplest, cheapest and quickly method, but the boards warp and shrink badly
because there are long annual rings in most boards. Only the centre board has
short annual rings and will stay flat.
Quarter or radial sawing. True quarter sawing produces boards with short annual
rings which are less liable to warp and shrink, are stronger, and show the figure of the
wood. This is the attractive grain exposed by sawing along the medullary rays of
some hardwoods.
True quarter sawing is more difficult, more expensive and slower than plain sawing,
and wastes a lot of wood. Therefore, several near-radial methods are used to
reduce wastage and simplify sawing.
Properties and uses of a few common hardwoods
Name Sources Colour Advantages Disadvantages Uses
Beech Europe White or Hard, tough, very Not suitable of Most used
including pinkish strong and straight. outdoor work hardwood in Britain.
Britain. brown, The close grain because it is not For furniture
with flecks polishes well and durable when (especially chairs),
in grain withstands wear exposed to floors, wooden tools,
from rays and shocks. changes in turnery. Good for
when moisture. Heavy, steam bending.
quarter difficult to work,
sawn. narrow planks
and warps.
Elm Europe, Light Tough, elastic, Tends to warp Garden furniture
including reddish durable, fairly unless well when treated with
Britain. brown. strong, fairly easy seasoned. Cross- preservative,
to work, medium grained. construction work,
weight, does not turnery, furniture.
split easily. Good
for use under
water.
Iroko East and Initially Looks like Teak and Heavy, cross- Teak substitute.
west yellow but has the properties grained. Furniture, interior
Africa, e.g. darkens to of Teak, but is only and exterior joinery,
Nigeria, dark half the price. cladding, floors,
Ghana. brown. Naturally one of veneers,
the most durable constructional work.
timbers because it
is oily. Needs no
preservative
outside.
African West Pink to Plentiful supply, Some interlocking Shop fitting,
Mahoganies, Africa, e.g. reddish available in wide and variable furniture, cladding,
e.g. Sapele Nigeria, brown. and long boards, grain, warps, floors, veneers,
Utile Ghana. fairly easy to work, hardness varies. joinery plywood.
fairly strong, Because the name
medium weight, includes a wide
durable. Finishes range of timbers,
fairly well. the properties and
colours inevitably
vary.
Meranti Malaysia, Dark red or Red Meranti looks Does not polish as Interior joinery,
Indonesia, yellow. like Mahogany, but well as furniture,
Philippines. is cheaper. Fairly Mahogany. Fairly construction work,
strong, fairly hard to work. Mahogany
durable. substitute. Red and
yellow faced
plywood. Can be
used outside with
suitable
preservatives.
European Europe, Light to Very strong, very Heavy, expensive, Boat building,
Oak including, dark durable, hard, open-grain. garden furniture,
Britain, brown, tough. Little Contains tannic gate posts, floors,
Russia, with silver shrinkage. Usually acid which construction work,
Poland. grain or works fairly well corrodes iron and veneers, high-class
ray figure with sharp tools. steel fittings and furniture and fittings.
when Finishes well. causes
quarter permanent blue
sawn. stain on wood.
Splits. Some British
Oak is harder to
work. Sapwood
needs
preservative
Japanese Japan Yellowish Strong, durable, Slightly weaker Interior woodwork
Oak brown slightly lighter, and less durable and furniture. Good
milder and easier than European for steam bending.
to work than Oak.
European oak.
Knot free.
Cheaper than
European oak.
Teak Burma, Rich Hard, strong, one Difficult to glue High class furniture,
India, golden of naturally most because oils form veneers, laboratory
Thailand. brown. durable timbers a barrier that will benches, ships
because it is oily. not readily absorb decks.
Highly resistant to adhesives. Gritty
moisture, fire, acids nature, blunts
and alkalis. Very tools quickly.
attractive straight Very expensive.
grain. Works fairly
easily. Does not
corrode iron and
steel.
Obeche West Pale Straight-grained Tends to be Hidden parts of
Africa, e.g. yellow. variety works well, corky when furniture. Interior
Cameroon, and strains and cutting joints. Not joinery, plywood
Nigeria, finishes well after durable outside. core making and for
Ghana. filling the open Sometimes cross veneering on. Work
grain. grained and to be painted.
difficult to work-
avoid this type.
Afrormosia Africa Yellow to Works fairly well. Stains in contact High class interior
generally. light Fairly durable. with iron in damp and exterior joinery.
brown with conditions. Grain Floors, windows, sills,
darker is variable. doors, gates, stairs,
streaks. external cladding,
Tends to furniture
darken on constructional work..
exposure
to light.
African West Bronze Works fairly well. Cross grain can High class internal
Walnut Africa. yellowish- Attractive make planing and external joinery,
brown with appearance. and finishing veneers, furniture.
irregular Available in larger difficult. Sometimes used as
dark lines. sizes. a Teak substitute.
Properties and uses of a few common softwoods
Name Sources Colour Advantages Disadvantages Uses
Redwood Northern Cream to One of cheapest and Knotty. Sometimes Most used
(scots Pine, Europe, pale most readily available has a blue stain softwood in
Red Baltic Scandinavi reddish- timbers. Straight grain. from a harmless Britain.
Pine, Fir) a, Russia, brown Fairly strong. Easy to fungus. Suitable for
Scotland. heartwood work. Finishes well. Fairly all inside work
, cream durable. and with
sapwood. suitable
preservatives
for outside
work. Also for
woodturning.
Whitewood Northern Plain Fairly strong. Easy to Small hard knots. General
(Spruce) Europe, creamy work. Very resistant to Contains resin inside work.
Canada, white. splitting. pockets. Not Whitewood
USA. durable. furniture.
Douglas Fir Canada, Attractive Available in long and Splits easily. Open General
(Columbian USA. reddish- wide boards. Knot free, grain with outside
Pine) brown straight grain, slightly pronounced construction
heartwood resinous, therefore water annual rings. work, masts,
. Cream resistant. Fairly strong, ladders,
sapwood. fairly durable, tough, plywood.
fairly easy to work.
Western Red Canada, Dark Contains natural More expensive All kinds of
Cedar USA. reddish preservative oils, than red and joinery,
brown. therefore resists insects whitewood. Not especially
attack, weather and dry very strong. outside.
rot. Knot free, light Widely used
weight, soft, straight for cladding
grained. Fine, silky, the outside of
attractive surface. Very buildings, for
durable, stately. Very root shingles,
easy to work. for kitchens
and
bathrooms,
and for
panelling
walls.
Parana Pine South Pale Available in long and Lacks toughness. Best quality
America, yellow with wide boards. Often knot As expensive as internal
Especially attractive free. Hard, straight grain. some hardwoods. softwood
Brazil. red and Fairly strong, works easily Tends to warp if not joinery,
brown and well. Smooth finish. carefully seasoned especially
streaks in Fairly durable. and used. where
heartwood attractive
grain colour
will show, e.g.
staircases,
and built-in
furniture.
Seasoning
Seasoning is the removal of excess moisture
from the wood by drying it after conversion.
1 Increases strength.
2 Increased stability.
3 Increased resistance to decay.
Wood is never completely dry in normal use and moisture content (m.c.) is the amount
of water contained in the wood, as a percentage of its oven-dry weight. During
seasoning, a sample is usually put in with the main stock and checked at intervals.
Method 1 - Weighing
This works on the principle that wet wood is a better conductor of electricity than dry
wood. Two prongs are pressed into the wood, and the meter gives a direct reading of
the moisture content by measuring the current, which flows between them.
Faults in timber
(A) Shrinkage
About half as much shrinkage takes place across the diameter as around the annual
rings.
Very little shrinkage takes place along the length. (Can be ignored.)
Live knots are where a living branch joined the tree. They are hard, tightly knit into
the wood, light in colour and free from decay.
Dead knots are where a branch died or was cut off while the tree was growing.
They are often dark in colour, soft, decayed, or loose.
3 Pitch pockets are saucer shaped hollows along the grain full or resin. The resin
runs out when the pocket is opened. They are caused by damage to the growing
tree.
4 Checks are splits in the length of a board caused by bad seasoning.
5 Thunder shakes are hair-line cracks across the grain which are often impossible to
see until the timber is converted. The board will usually break along the shake. This
is especially seen in mahoganies.
6 Irregular grain is any variation of the grain from approximately parallel to the
surface, which makes planing very difficult and weakens the wood.
Cross-grain is where the grain fibres are at varying angles to the surface, usually only
in small areas of a board. Caused by cutting from logs where the grain is not
straight, or around a knot in the wood.
Most insect damage to wood in Britain is caused by beetles. They all have a similar four-
stage life cycle, and the tree most important are furniture beetle (commonly called
woodworm), death-watch beetle, and powder post beetle (lyctus).
The infestation is not visible until the flight holes appear, by which time it may be too late.
Furniture beetle
This attacks hardwood, softwood and some plywoods, especially sapwood and old
wood, and is responsible for 75% of known damage to timber in buildings. It produces
pellets of coarse, gritty powder, and honeycombs the inside of the timber with tunnels.
Prevention
1 Apply preservative to timber, e.g. creosote or insecticides.
2 Keep furniture clean and wax polished to seal small cracks.
Treatment
1 In a building, cut-out and burn infested timber wherever possible. This may not be
possible when repairing furniture.
2 Apply a deep penetrating insecticide to kill larvae and give protection from
renewed attacked.
3 Fill old holes with stopper so that new holes can be spotted.
All fungi which attack timber develop under similar conditions. They require:
The main types of fungal attack are wet rot and dry rot.
Plastics are man-made materials. They are distinguished from other chemical
compounds by the large size of their molecules. While most substances have molecules
made up of less than 300 atoms, plastics molecules contain thousands of atoms.
Sources of Plastics
A few plastics are made by modifying natural substances which already have large
molecules but most of those used today are man-made and are therefore known as
synthetic plastics
The main source of synthetic plastics is crude oil, but coal and natural gas are also used.
During the refining of crude oil, liquids of various densities, such as petrol, paraffin and
lubricating oils and highly volatile petroleum gases are produced. These gases form the
basis of the plastics industry. Although complex and expensive equipment is needed to
manufacture plastics, the basic process is simple.
The gases are broken down into monomers, which are chemical substances consisting
of a single molecule and thousands of these are then linked together in a process
called polymerization to form new compounds called polymers. Most polymers are
made by combining the element carbon with one or more of the elements oxygen,
hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine and nitrogen
Thermoplastics and Thermosetting plastics
There are two basic types of polymer chain formation and each behaves differently
when heated. This difference allows us to separate plastics into two main groups.
Thermoplastics
These plastics are made up of lines of molecules with very few cross linkages. This allows
them to soften when heated so that they can be bent into different shapes and to
become stiff and solid again when cooled. This process can be repeated many times.
Plastic Memory
Each time a thermoplastic is reheated, it will try to return to its original flat state, unless it
has been damaged by over-heating or over-stretching. This property is known as
plastics memory.
These plastics are made up of lines of molecules which are heavily cross-linked. This
results in a rigid molecular structure. Although they soften when heated the first time
and can therefore be shaped, they then become permanently stiff and solid and
cannot be reshaped.
Although it is difficult to identify all the many different plastics, especially where two or
more have been used together or when additives have been used to alter their
properties, it is used to be able to recognize the most used ones.
The following chart shows some simple tests which will help in this, and the results of
them for some common plastics. In general, most thermoplastics will cut cleanly,
become flexible at 200C or less and melt to a viscous liquid if heating continues while
thermosets will produce powdery chips when cut and bubble and decompose before
softening.
The following instructions apply particularly to acrylic but will be found suitable for most
hard plastics. Take care to avoid scratching the surface of plastics at all times. Leave
the protective paper covering on, where supplied, for as long as possible. After
removing the paper the last traces of adhesive can be washed off with warm, soapy
water.
Stage 1
After cutting, plane, file or sand the edges to remove saw marks. If using a disc or belt
sander on thermoplastics, use a coarse abrasive and light pressure to avoid
overheating. If filling, finish by draw filing.
Stage 2
Use a scraper or wet and dry paper, to obtain a completely smooth edge. Scraping will
leave the edges ready for machine polishing. By using progressively finer grades of wet
and dry paper, the edges can be made ready for hand finishing. Use the wet and dry
paper on a cork block to keep the edges square.
Stage 3
To avoid overheating when machine polishing thermoplastics, keep the work moving,
lightly against a soft mop coated with a mild abrasive.
When hand polishing use progressively finer grades of abrasive polish. Domestic metal
polish is a fine finishing abrasive
Deep surface scratches can be removed from most plastics by using progressively finer
grades of wet and dry paper or rubbing down compound.
Wet and dry paper (silicone carbide paper) is graded by grit sizes.
Common grades are:
Iron ore, usually in the form of iron oxide in rocks, is mined or quarried and taken to a
steelworks. There it is graded and crushed to reduce it to a maximum size of 100mm
cubes. Small particles are mixed with coke and heated to form a clinker of similar size
called sinter.
Once lit, a blast furnace runs continuously until the heat-resistant bricks of the refractory
lining start to burn away, usually after about 2 years. The raw materials, coke, limestone,
iron-ore and sinter are continuously poured in through the double bell charging system
which prevents hot gases from escaping during charging
Heated air is blasted into the bottom of the furnace from the blast or bustle pipe
through the tuyres, to make the coke burn effectively.
The iron in the ore melts and collects in the well at the bottom of the furnace. The
limestone acts as a flux to make impurities float on the surface of the molten iron in the
form of a liquid slag, which can be tapped off. The iron and slag are tapped off at
regular intervals.
The hot waste gases go through a gas cleaning plant before either being reused to
heat the blast to 800C or being burnt off.
The iron produced is 90 to 95% pure and it is used in one of three ways.
1. In a modern integrated steel works it is conveyed in its molten state straight to the
steel-making furnaces.
2. It is fed into a pig casting machine which makes it into small iron bars (pig iron) for
future remelting, for example, in an electric arc furnace.
3. It is refined into cast iron which is a strong but brittle metal especially suitable for
making intricate castings such as engine cylinder blocks and cylinder heads
simply, easily and economically.
The production of steel
The raw materials for steel making are iron from the blast furnaces, scrap iron and steel.
The amount of each used depends on the type of steel being made and the process
used. Because there are many different types of steel, for example, mild steel, tool steels,
stainless steel and steel alloys, there are many variations in the techniques used. All steel
making however, involves removing impurities and excess carbon from the iron and
adding small of other elements.
The furnace is tilted and charged with 30% scrap and then with 70% molten iron. With
the furnace upright, a water-cooled oxygen lance is lowered to just above the surface
of the metal and oxygen is blown into the melt at very high speed. It combines with
carbon and other unwanted elements to remove them from the charge. During the
blow, lime is added as a flux so that the oxidized impurities form a slag on the surface
ready for tapping off later.
After the blow, the steel which has been made is tapped out through the tap hole into
a ladle. The converter is then tipped upside down to empty out the slag.
Ferrous metals are those which are made mainly of iron with small amounts of
other metals or other elements added to give the required properties. Almost all
ferrous metals can be picked up with a magnet
Non-ferrous metals are those which do not contain iron, for example, aluminium,
copper, lead, zinc and tin.
An alloy is a mixture of two or more pure metals or one or more pure metals
mixed with other elements. Alloys are made in order to create materials which
have combinations of properties not available in the pure metals and to fulfil
needs for which no pure metal is suitable.
The heat treatment of metals
Heat treatment is a way of making metals more suitable for processing or for the jobs
which they have to do.
For example, a piece of high carbon steel being used to make a cold chisel must be
annealed (softened), so that it can be shaped, and then hardened and tempered so
that it can cut other metals.
Annealing makes the metal as soft as possible to relieve internal stresses, and to make it
easier to shape.
Mild Steel is heated to bright red heat, soaked for a short time and left to cool
slowly.
Aluminium is covered with soap, heated gently until the soap turns black and left
to cool
Tool Steel is heated to bright red heat, soaked for a short time and left to cool
very slowly in hot ashes. The more slowly the metal cools, the softer it will be.
Normalising returns work hardened steel to its normal condition after forging or previous
heat treatment. Steel is heated to red hot and left to cool.
Hardening increases the hardness and tensile strength of tool steel in order to make
cutting tools, springs, etc. Hardening can only be carried out on carbon and alloy steels.
The higher the carbon content of the steel, the harder it will be.
Steel is heated to cherry red heat, soaked for a short time and quenched
vertically in oil, brine or tepid water. Quenching horizontally or in cold water can
cause cracking. Hardened metal is brittle and unusable.
Case Hardening is a method of putting a hard surface coating onto steels which do not
contain enough carbon for hardening and tempering. Carbon is burnt into the surface
of the metal so that it can be hardened to give a wear resistant shell and a tough break
resistant core.
Tempering removes the extreme hardness and brittleness from hardened steel and
makes it tougher so that it can be used. Increasing the tempering temperature reduces
the hardness, but increases toughness, and the final compromises between hardness
and toughness depends on the purpose for which the steel is to be used. The hardened
steel is cleaned so that the tempering colours can be seen, heated to the required
tempering colour and immediately quenched in water.
Aluminium 650C Aluminium +4% Ductile, malleable, light, work- Aircraft and vehicle parts.
alloys, e.g. copper and 1% hardens and machines well.
Duralumin manganese.
Copper 1100C Pure metal Red, malleable, ductile, Wire, especially electrical
tough. High heat/electrical cables and conductors.
conductor. Corrosion resistant. Water and central heating
Hot or cold work is possible pipes. Printed circuits and
castings.
Castings, forgings,
Copper 980C 65% copper + Yellow, very corrosion resistant ornaments, valves,
alloys 35% zinc though it tarnishes easily. propellers.
Brass Harder than copper. Good
heat/electrical conductor.
Bearings, springs, instrument
Copper 980C 90 to 95% Reddish-yellow, harder and parts, gears. Air, water and
alloys copper + 5 to tougher than brass. Hard steam valves.
Bronze 10% tin wearing corrosion resistant
and easily machined
Lead 330C Pure metal Bright and shiny when new Coverings for power and
but rapidly oxidizes to a dull- telephone cables. Protection
grey. The heaviest common against x-rays and radiation.
metal. Soft, malleable, Used in paint and printing
corrosion resistant and type.
immune to many chemicals.
Tin 230C Pure metal White, soft, corrosion resistant Tinplate, making bronze, soft
in damp conditions solders.
Zinc 420C Pure metal Bluish-white, ductile, a layer of Making brass. Zinc chloride
oxide protects it from further soft soldering flux and wood
corrosion. Easily worked preservative. Coating for
steel galvanized corrugated
iron roofing. Rust proof paints
and intricate die castings.
Properties and uses of common ferrous metals
Low 1400C Less than 0.15% Soft, ductile, tough and malleable Wire, rivets, thin sheets,
carbon carbon. cold pressings, drawn
steels tubes.
Mild 1400C 0.15% to 0.30% High tensile strength, ductile, tough, General purpose steel,
steels carbon fairly malleable, softer than angle iron, plates,
medium and high carbon steels. sheets, tubes, bolts and
Because of low carbon content it nuts
cannot be hardened and
tempered. Must be case-
hardened.
Medium 1400C 0.30% to 0.70% Stronger and harder than mild steel Garden tools, shafts,
carbon carbon but less ductile, tough and axles, springs, wire
steels malleable. ropes.
High 1400C 0.70% to 1.4% Hardest of all carbon steels, but less Hammers, wood, metal
carbon carbon ductile, tough and malleable. and plastic cutting
steels Hardness and toughness are tools such as chisels,
improved by heat treatment. drills, files, lathe tools,
taps and dies. Silver
steel is a high carbon
steel.
Stainless 18% chromium and Corrosion resistance Sink units, kitchen ware,
steel 8% nickel added tanks, pipes, aircraft
High medium carbon Retains hardness at high Cutting tools for lathes
speed steel, tungsten, temperatures. Brittle. Can be
steel chromium and hardened and tempered
vanadium
High low carbon steel, Exceptional strength and Gears, shafts, engine
tensile nickel and toughness parts
steel chromium
Metals can be bought in a wide range of shapes and sizes and you should always try to
design jobs which use these standard sections. It is advisable to check what materials
are in stock before starting or to look in a stockholders catalogue to find out what is
available. The following sketches show the common shapes and some of the most used
sections.
Sheets 0.6, 0.8, 1.00, 1.2, 1.6, 2.0, 2.5, 3mm thick
Painting metal
Stage 1
Thoroughly clean and degrease the metal. Paraffin or special degreasers will clean
badly affected parts while hot water with soda or detergent will remove light oil and dirt
Stage 2
Find a dust-free place to work and make arrangements for supporting the work while
painting and drying before starting.
Stage 3
For maximum protection apply primer, undercoat and topcoat. For inside work, one or
two coats alone are adequate. Do not allow the paint to collect in corners or run. Paint
awkward parts first and then larger, flat, more noticeable areas. Two thin coats are
always better than one thick one. Keep brushes clean and paint tin lids sealed.
Stage1
Dip into an acid pickle consisting of one part sulphuric acid to ten parts water. Always
use brass tongs as steel will contaminate the pickle.
Stage 2
Clean the metal with pumice powder and a damp cloth and then remove any
blemishes with wetted water of Ayr stone.
Stage 3
Finally polish on a polishing machine with a linen mop and Tripoli buffing compound
and or by hand using metal polish.
Lacquering
Stage 1
Thoroughly clean, polish and degrease the metal.
Stage 2
Apply the lacquer or varnish with a best quality soft paint brush or spray gun to preserve
the finish.
IGCSE
Resistant Material
General Workshop
Safety
Good Housekeeping
Report damaged or
broken tools to your
teacher.
Marking out and measuring materials
Datum References
For a metal or plastics
workpiece, a datum reference is
called a datum edge.
A marking knife is used with a try square to cut a line across the grain of a
piece of wood where a section of the wood needs to be removed.
Marking lines parallel to an edge
Use a pair of odd-leg calipers to mark Use a marking gauge to mark lines
lines parallel to the datum edge on a parallel to the face side or face edge
metal or plastics workpiece. on a wooden workpiece.
Odd-leg calipers can also be used to A marking gauge can be set using a
find the centre of a round bar. steel rule
Marking curves, arcs and circles Marking Freeform shapes
Use a pencil compass to mark arcs and Alternatively, a freeform shape may be
circles on wood or plastics workpiece. drawn on paper, cut and pasted
directly on the material surface.
Punching Marks Marking lines at an angle to an
edge.
Punch marks are made on metal
workpieces by striking a punch with a Use a sliding bevel to mark a line at
ball-pein hammer. an angle to the datum reference of
a workpiece.
Use a centre punch to mark the centre
of a hole that is to be drilled. A centre
punch has a point angle of 90.
These are used to measure with great accuracy. The commonest type is the 0 to 25mm
external micrometer. It measures to an accuracy of 0.01mm
Vernier calipers
This is a much more accurate way of marking out than those already described.
Surface plate
This consists of an iron casting with a very accurate flat top and a ribbed underframe to
prevent distortion. The flat top provides a true surface from which measurements can
be taken, parallel lines can be scribed and other flat surfaces can be tested. It is
protected by a cover and light oiling when not in use.
Surface gauge
This is used to transfer measurements from the surface plate, to scribe lines parallel to
the surface plate and to test heights. The surface gauge has a fine adjustment screw
and the spindle and scriber can be set to almost any angle.
Vee blocks
These are used to hold cylindrical work for marking out and while machining. They are
made in sets consisting ot two matched vee blocks and a clamp.
Angle Plate
This is a very accurately made 90 angle used to hold work at right angles to the surface
plate. It is machined on the ends to enable work mounted on it to be marked both
horizontally and vertically. Work with only one true face such as machined casting can
be mounted on an angle plate.
Holding tools.
Engineers vice
Folding bars
Mole wrench
This clips over the bench or in the vice and is used to hold
wood while sawing. The bench hook helps you tohold the
work steady, prevents the wood from splitting by supporting it
under the kerf and protect the bench top.
Mitre Box
Sash cramp
G-Cramp
Pin hammer
Claw-hammer
This is used for heavy nailing and for removing larger nails.
Ball-pein hammer
Carpenters mallet
Tinmans mallet
Bossing mallet
These are usually chosen for their chuck size and their
number of speeds. Common chuck sizes are6, 8 and
13mm maximum drill shank diameter. The safest portable
tools are the double-insulated type.
Cordless drill
These are mainly used to grip small items. Combination pliers are also able to cut wire.
There are many shapes and sizes and only some of the most used are shown here.
Combination
pliers
Chain nose
pliers
Spanners
Backsaws are for accurate straight cuts in small pieces of wood. The back of the saw
limits the depth of cut.
Saws for Curves
Coping saw
Teeth usually point towards handle to cut as saw is pulled.
Saws for metal
Hacksaws are for straight cuts in metal. The blade is held in tension in the frame with the
teeth facing forward.
The junior hacksaw is for straight cuts on small, light work. The blade is held in tension by
the sprung steel frame.
Coping saws
Abrafile saws
Piercing saw (for intricate work)
Snips
These are used for cutting thin sheets of metal and soft plastics.
Files
Files are used for shaping and smoothing, mainly metal and hard plastics but also wood.
Safety: never use an engineers file without a handle. The tang could stab your hand.
Rasps
These are used for shaping and smoothing wood and acrylic plastics.
Jack plane 350 mm For planing wood to size. The general purpose plane. Its
greater length produces a flatter surface.
Foreplane 450 mm For trueing-up large surfaces and long edges.
Jointer plane 600 mm The sole is longer for accurate long work.
Chisels
These are for cutting and shaping wood where planes cannot be used and especially
for cutting joints.
Planning
Chiseling
Sawing
Filing
Drilling
Centre lathe turning
Wood turning
Milling
Screw cutting
Sawing curves
Abrafiles are toothed circular blades that fit into hacksaws frames.
They are used for metal and plastic.
Filing
Filing is a versatile process. Files are made from high-carbon steel that is
hardened and tempered. Cutting is achieved by rows of small teeth that
remove particles of material called filings.
Length
Shape
Cut
Files are normally double cut, with small diamond teeth. There are various
grade of cut:
Rough and bastard cuts for course work and soft materials
Second cut for general use
Smooth and dead smooth for finer cuts before finishing and polishing
Other types of file
Needle file are small files in a wide range of shapes with dead smooth cuts.
Rasps have individual teeth instead of a true cut and are used for working
wood.
Surforms have replaceable blades with many cutting edges. There are
many shapes and types of cut to suit a wide range of applications and
materials.
When it is required to have screw heads that finish flush with the surface,
countersink bits and counterbores are used to provide the seating for the
screw head.
Countersinks have a 90 point angle for countersunk wood screws.
Counterbores create a flat bottom recess for cheese head screws or
bolt heads.
Hand drills and drilling machines
Portable electric power drills and hand drills can be used for straight shank
drills up to 13mm diameter. Machine pedestal and bench mounted
machines have larger capacity chucks and can also accommodate taper
shank drills.
Centre lathes are used to make cylindrical components from metals and
plastic materials. The process is called turning. The principle of turning is
straight forward. Work is held firmly and is rotated whilst a single point
cutting tool, located in the tool post, cuts the work using the familiar
wedge cutting action. The shape of the work produced depends upon the
path taken by the tool, the two principle shapes being cylindrical and flat,
produced by parallel turning and facing.
Lathe bed very rigid and usually made from cast iron. The bed
keeps the other parts in alignment.
Headstock containing the gearbox, controls and the means of
holding the work, most commonly a three or four jaw chuck.
Tail stock for location of drills and drill chucks and for supporting long
work.
Saddle travels along the bed and carries a cross slide upon which is
mounted the tool post.
Work holding
Turning tools
Turning tools need to be both hard and tough. They are made from high
carbon steel, high speed steel or have replaceable tungsten carbide tips.
The shape (profile) of the tool is determined by the turning operation being
carried out.
Roughing tools normally have a broad radiused point for strength and
are used to reduce work to within 1mm of the finished shape.
Finishing tools are used for fine cutting, normally with a small raduised
point.
Knife edge tools in left and right-hand forms are used to finish turning
sharp internal corners.
Parting-off tools are used to produce grooves and to cut the work off
from the material remaining in the chuck.
The geometry of turning tools is important to ensure efficient cutting. The
tools clearance and rake angles must be correct and the tool must be set
on the centre line height of the workpiece.
Turning speeds
The speed at which a lathe rotates is determined by the material and the
diameter of the work. The speed is calculated and the right speed is set.
Cutting lubrication
Most turning operations benefit from the use of a cutting lubricant that acts
as a coolant and lubricant for the operation, reducing friction and heat
and assisting the waste removal. Examples of lubricants are Paraffin and
soluble oil.
Drilling
Boring
Boring is internal turning. The process must start with a drilled hole to enable
the boring tool to enter. It is a process that requires great care as it is not
possible to see what is happening.
Taper turning
Wood turning
Threading is the process of cutting external threads using a split die held in
a die stock.
When screw cutting by hand, it is important to remember to use a cutting
sequence that involves half a turn clockwise followed by a quarter turn
anti-clockwise. This breaks off the swarf (waste) and stops the tap or die
from getting jammed or breaking.
Using
a centre lathe for screw cutting
Screw threads can also be cut using a single point tool on a centre lathe.
This is a very precise process requiring a tool that is ground to the exact
profile of the screw thread and very accurate setting up the lathe to
achieve the correct pitch of the thread.
Deforming and reforming processes
Deforming processes bring about a change in shape such as bending,
without the loss of material that is associated with the wasting process.
Deforming processes
More complex forms, such as trays and dishes, can be made form thin
acrylic sheet using a plug and yoke press forming technique. For this
process a two-part former is needed. The male half, the plug, needs to
have tapered edges and rounded corners to assist the flow of material and
removal. The female part, the yoke, needs to be slightly larger to allow for
the material thickness.
Vacuum forming
Moulds must be made with care and should have regard for the following:
Sides should all be tapered towards the top so that the formed plastic can
be removed. This taper is called a draft.
Deep draws should be vented to ensure that air does not get trapped.
Corners should be raduised so that the material flows and does not
become thinned on the corners.
The vacuum forming process may start with a blow that stretches the
plastic all over or it may be started by raising the mould on the platen to
create a drape forming. On some machines a combination of these
processes is used. The aim is always to create a high definition outcome
without any excessive thinning having taken place.
Blow moulding
In its simplest form blow moulding forms flexible hot plastic material into a
dome shape.
Extrusion Blow molding allows for a wide variety of container shapes, sizes
and neck openings, as well as the production of handle-ware. Some
extrusion machines can produce 300 to 350 bottles per hour. Extrusion
blown containers can also have their gram weights adjusted through an
extremely wide range, Extrusion blow molds are generally much less
expensive than injection blow molds and can be produced in a much
shorter period of time.
Advantages of extrusion blow molding include a high rate of production,
low tooling cost, and a vast majority of machine manufactures. Some
disadvantages usually include a high scrap rate, a limited control over wall
thickness, and some difficulty of trimming away excess plastic.
Injection blow molding is part injection molding and part blow molding.
Injection blow molding is generally suitable for smaller containers and
absolutely no handles ware. Injection blow molding is often used for
containers that have close tolerance threaded necks, wide mouth
openings; solid handles, and highly styled shapes. Injection blown
containers usually have a set gram weight which cannot be changed
unless a whole new set of blow stems are built. Generally injection blow
molded container's material is distributed evenly throughout, and generally
do not need any trimming or reaming. The air is injected into the plastic at
a rate between 75 to 150 PSI.
The first stage is where the melted plastic is injected into a split steel
mold cavity from the screw extruder.
The mold produces a preform parison which resembles a test tube with
a screw finish on the top.
The preform is then transferred on a core rod to the second part of the
injection blow molding stage. The preform is then placed inside another
cold and usually aluminum blow mold cavity.
Air is then injected through the core rod till the preform takes the shape
of the cavity.
While still on the core rod, the container is then transferred to a desired
location for the third stage, where it is ejected from the machine
Injection blow molding: (1) parison is injection molded around a blowing rod; (2)
injection mold is opened and parison is transferred to a blow mold; (3) soft polymer is
inflated to conform to a blow mold; and (4) blow mold is opened and blown product is
removed.
Injection Moulding
Stage 1
Stage 2
Heaters surround the barrel melt the plastic as it travels along the barrel.
Stage 3
The screw is forced back as the melted plastic collects at the end of the
barrel.
Once enough plastic has collected a hydraulic ram pushes the screw
forward injecting the plastic through a sprue into a mould cavity.
The mould is warmed before injecting and the plastic is injected quickly to
prevent it from hardening before the mould is full.
Stage 4
Pressure is maintained for a short time (dwell time) to prevent the material
creeping back during setting (hardening). This prevents shrinkage and
hollows, therefore giving a better quality product.
The moulding is left to cool before removing (ejected) from the mould. The
moulding takes on the shape of the mould cavity.
Large flat surfaces should be avoided because the finished mouldings will
often not come out completely flat.
Extrusion
The material enters through the feed throat (an opening near the rear of
the barrel) and comes into contact with the screw. The rotating screw
(normally turning at up to 120 rpm) forces the plastic beads forward into
the barrel which is heated to the desired melt temperature of the molten
plastic (which can range from 200 C/400 F to 275 C/530 F depending on
the polymer).
The product must now be cooled and this is usually achieved by pulling the
extrudate through a water bath.
Compression moulding
Advantages
Disadvantages
Transfer moulding
Advantages
Disadvantages
Forging
Boxes, trays, pipework,cylinders and cones can all be made from sheet
metal such as mild steel, tin-plate, aluminium, brass and copper. Sheet
metal can be folded cold using a mallet and folding bars, but it is much
better to use a folding machine in order to achieve sharp and accurate
corners.
Before carrying out any sheet metal work it is best to make a full size or
scaled card model or prototype. Card is easy to work and this enables you
to work out the position of flaps for joining and the sequence of bends. The
card can then also be used as a template for the development of your
product. Safe edges are used to prevent exposed sharp edges.
Presswork
Bending wood
Laminating
Thin layers of wood are called lamina or veneers and because they are
thin they bend more easily. Laminating is like constructing plywood. Using
strong adhesive, forms can be built up that stay in shape once the
adhesive has hardened.
GRP Glass Reinforced Plastic (Glass Fibre)
The product made takes its form completely from the mould. The finished
surface of the product is the surface that is in contact with the mould.
Moulds therefore must be made to the highest standard and have a good
quality surface finish. It is also necessary to apply a release agent to the
mould surface to assits removal.
Casting
Aluminium sand casting is the only metal casting process that is commonly
available for school use. This is because the material (aluminium) is cheap
and the temperature required for casting 750C is not hard to achieve. The
process involves six distinct stages:
Patter making
Mould making
There are many adhesives (glues) available that have been developed
over recent years. Some adhesives such as wood glues are for specific
materials, whilst others like epoxy resin will bond dissimilar materials.
Adhesives may be rigid or they may be flexible. Some will alloew time for
repositioning and adjustment whilst others bond instantly on contact. You
must check instructions and if you are not certain then try a test join,
Epoxy resin is a two-part adhesives for unlike materials. It will bond glass,
ceramic, wood, metal and hard plastics. Mixing the two parts resin and
hardener, triggers a chemical reaction that begins the setting process. A
popular brand is Araldite.
Double-sided tape is used increasingly for large flat areas of metal and
plastics. Clean surfaces are essential for effective joining.
Joints in wood
Corner
T joints for joining rails to frame
cross joints where pieces cross over.
Below are some of these but there are many more that are associated with
traditional woodworking. The current trend in construction is for joints that
can be machine made such as dowel joints.
Box construction
Box construction methods are for joining wide pieces of solid timber and
some manufactured board. They are used for boxes and shelves, etc. The
aim of this construction is to provide mechanically strong joints such as
dovetails or large gluing areas such as dowels and comb joints.
Nailing wooden pieces together
A fast way of joining two wooden pieces together is by nailing. This forms a
permanent joint. Nails come in all shapes and sizes and are usually made
from mild steel.
Panel pins are used for finer joinery such as for fixing thin sheets.
Nails are driven into the wood using a cross-pein hammer. The striking pein
is used to drive the nail into the joint.
Nails are usually driven straight into the wood but a stronger joint is
achieved by dovetail nailing.
Nails are sometimes staggered to avoid splitting the grain of the wood.
The head of a panel pin may be driven below the surface of the wood
using a dot punch. The small hole is then filled with wood filler.
Round head screws are used in joints where the head of the screw does
not need to be flush with the surface.
Chloroform and liquid poly are examples of solvents that are applied with a
brush. They work by dissolving the surfaces that are in contact and fusing
them together.
Joining sheet materials
Sheet metals can be joined using rivets. The common types of rivet are
shown below.
After the rivet is inserted through the hole drilled in the workpiece, the end
of the rivet is then spread out or shaped to form another head. In this way,
the workpieces are held together permanently.
The stages below show how two metal parts can be joined together using
a countersunk head rivet.
Thin sheet materials can also be joined quickly and permanently by pop
riveting. Pop riveting is normally used to join metal sheets together but
other materials may also be joined to metals in this way.
Joining metal
Soft solder is the weakest solder and has the lowest melting point. It is used
mainly for electrical work and joints in tin-plate. Soft soldering can be
carried out using either a flame or a soldering iron. It is an alloy of tin and
lead. Use resin flux for soft soldering.
Silver solders are hard solders and have melting points in the range 625C -
800C. They are used for many beaten metal work applications. Silver
soldering is carried out using either a brazing hearth or an oxy-acetylene
flame. Silver solders are alloys of copper and zinc with some added silver.
Use easy-flo flux for silver soldering.
Brazing is the hardest form of hard solder and melts at the highest
temperature, 875C. this is too hot for brass and copper work but ideal for
mild steel. Brazing spelter, the rod used for brazing, is an alloy of copper
and zinc. Use borax flux for brazing.
Joints must be prepared and held securely in place for all soldering
processes. Joints will always be stronger if they have a mechanical strength
built into them such as interlocking or slotting together. Fire bricks should be
used around joints to retain and concentrate the heat from the flame.
Welding
Welding joins materials together by the process of melting the parent metal
and allowing it to fuse together as it solidifies. It is a permanent joining
process best suited to steel but can also be applied to aluminium provided
that the surface is shielded from oxidisation by an inert gas or a controlled
atmosphere. With all welding, preparation is necessary to ensure a sound
joint. This is particularly true with thick material.