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Curs Microunde Cap 1
Curs Microunde Cap 1
Introducere n microunde i
n tehnica microundelor
Unde 102
1
10-
12
Unde (raze)
101
X 8 10-9
Ultraviol
Spectr et
ul Vizibil 101
5 10-6
optic Infrarou
Unde 101
10-3
submilimetrice 2
EHF
Microun SHF
de 10 9
UHF
1
VHF
Unde
HF
radio
optic Unde 106 MF
103
RF LF
VLF
103
106
Tabelul 1.1
Tabelul 1.2
Tabelul 1.3
(1.3)
n aceste ecuaii am utilizat urmtoarele mrimi electrice i
magnetice:
E - intensitatea cmpului electric [V/m];
D - inducia cmpului electric [C/m2 = A s/m2 ];
H - intensitatea cmpului magnetic [A/m];
B - inducia cmpului magnetic [Wb/m2 = V s/m2 ];
JC - densitatea curentului electric de conducie [A/m2 ];
JD - densitatea curentului electric de deplasare [A/m2 ];
V - densitatea de volum a sarcinii electrice [C/m 3 = A s/ m3
].
(1.4)
n relaiile (1.4) am notat cu:
0 r 0 (1 e ) 0 ( /r j r// ) [F/m= A s/ V m ] -
permitivitatea dielectric a mediului ( 0 8,8542
10-12 F/m este
permitivitatea dielectric a vidului, r este permitivitatea
dielectric relativ a mediului, e susceptivitatea electric a
mediului),
0 r 0 (1 m ) [H/m = V s/ A m ] - permeabilitatea
magnetic a mediului ( 0 4 10-7 H/m este permeabilitatea
magnetic a vidului, r este permeabilitatea magnetic
relativ a mediului, m susceprivitatea magnetic a
mediului),
PT este polarizaia electric temporar a mediului,
PP este polarizaia electric permanent a mediului,
MT este magnetizaia temporar a mediului i
MP este magnetizaia permanent a mediului.
(1.5)
n form integral, ecuaiile lui Maxwell descriu cum
integralele cmpului printr-o suprafa nchis sau de-a lungul
unei curbe nchise depind de schimbrile n timp ale cmpului
i de sursele acestuia:
Integralapeconturulinchis aintensit ii
instantaneeacmpuluielectricesteegalcu
t S vitezainstantaneedescdereafluxului
E dr B dS -
magneticcetreceprinsuprafaadeschis
limitatdecurba.
Integralapeconturulinchis aintensit
ii
D instantaneeacmpuluimagneticesteegal
H dr S (JC t ) dS- cusumadintrecurenilordeconduciesi
dedeplasarecaretrecprinsuprafaa
deschislimitatdecurba.
Fluxulinducieielectriceinstantaneu,caretrece
D dS V V dV - prinsuprafaainchis,esteegalcusarcina
electrictotalaflatininteriorulsuprafeei.
Fluxulmagneticinstantaneu caretreceprinoricesuprafaa
inchis estenul.
B dS 0 -
(1.6)
Se observ c:
dS este un vector perpendicular pe suprafaa S cu
magnitudinea egal cu suprafaa elementului de arie,
vectorul dr este un element de lungime msurat de-a
lungul tangentei ntr-un punct la curba ,
Sreprezint suprafaa deschis limitat de curba , iar
V reprezint volumul delimitat de suprafaa nchis .
Forma integral a ecuaiilor lui Maxwell este util pentru a
rezolva acele tipuri de probleme care implic o simetrie complet
(cum ar fi simetria sferic, cilindric etc.)
(1.7)
iar ecuaiile lui Maxwell devin:
forma diferenial
E j B
H J C j D ( j ) E j ( j ) E j * E
(1.8)
D V
B 0
forma integral
E dr j S B dS
H dr S (JC j D) dS S ( j ) E dS j S E dS
*
D dS V V dV
B dS 0
(1.9)
n aceste ecuaii
[S/m A/(V m)reprezint conductivitatea electric a
mediului, iar
// / 0
* 0 ( r/ j //r j ) 0 r/ (1 j r )
0 r/
0 r/ (1 j tg )
(1.10)
reprezint permitivitatea dielectric complex a mediului (
tg reprezint tangenta de pierderi a mediului).
(1.11)
pentru regim variabil al cmpului electric
- diaelectrice - medii cu susceptivitate electric e
independent de frecven (medii lipsite de postefect
- polarizaia electric temporar a mediului urmrete
instantaneu variaiile cmpului electric) i de
temperatur,
- paraelectrice medii cu susceptivitate electric e
dependent de frecven (medii cu postefect ridicat -
polarizaia electric temporar a mediului nu
urmrete instantaneu variaiile cmpului electric) i
variabil invers proporional cu temperatura.
- medii dielectrice neliniare, ce au permitivitatea
dielectric dependent de intensitatea cmpului
electric E (de exemplu materialele feroelectrice la
care relaia de dependen ntre PT i E este dat de
un ciclu de histerezis electric fac parte din aceast
categorie),
medii semiconductoare ce au K m 1 i care de regul
au o dependen J J (E) neliniar,;
medii conductoare ce au K m 1 ; la rndul lor, n funcie
de dependena J J (E) , mediile conductoare se mpart n:
- medii conductoare liniare ce au conductivitatea
electric independent de intensitatea cmpului
electric E i care se mpart n:
- izotrope - are aceeai valoare indiferent de direcia
considerat n material,
- anizotrope - este un tensor, adic:
xx xy xz
yx yy yz
zx zy zz
(1.12)
(1.13)
pentru regim variabil al cmpului magnetic
- diamagnetice - medii cu susceptivitate magnetic m
independent de frecven (medii lipsite de postefect -
magnetizaia temporar a mediului urmrete
instantaneu variaiile cmpului magnetic) i de
temperatur,
- paramagnetice medii cu susceptivitate magnetic
m dependent de frecven (medii cu postefect
ridicat - magnetizaia temporar a mediului nu
urmrete instantaneu variaiile cmpului magnetic) i
variabil invers proporional cu temperatura.
medii magnetice neliniare, ce au permeabilitatea
magnetic dependent de intensitatea cmpului
magnetic H i care se mpart n:
- feromagnetice la care relaia de dependen ntre MT
i H este dat de un ciclu de histerezis,
- antiferomagnetice materiale paramagnetice la care
momentele magnetice ale ionilor acestora devin
antiparalele pentru temperaturi mai mici dect o
temperatur critic T (materialele prnd
nemagnetice din punct de vedere macroscopic),
- ferimagnetice - la care relaia de dependen ntre MT
i H este dat de un ciclu de histerezis apropiat de
forma dreptunghiular i o rezisten electric foarte
mare.
(1.14)
B
E1 1 E 2 1 l contribui
a
extremit h l h 2
ilor
0 pentru
h 0 t
0 pentru
h 0
D
H1 1 H2 1 l contribui
a
extremit h (J C
ilor ) l h 2
0 pentru
h 0 t
J S l 2 pentru
h 0
D1 n D2 n A contribui
a
suprafeei
laterale A h
V
0 pentru
h 0 S A pentru
h 0
B1 n B2 n A contribui
a
suprafeei 0
laterale
0 pentru
h 0
(1.15)
n care E1, D1, H1 i B1 reprezint componentele cmpului
electromagnetic n vecintatea interfeei din mediul 1, E2, D2, H2
i B2 reprezint componentele cmpului electromagnetic n
vecintatea interfeei din mediul 2, S h0 C
J lim J h [A/m] reprezint
JC
S lim V h
densitatea superficial de curent de conducie, iar h0
V
[C/m2] reprezint densitatea de sarcin electric de suprafa.
Reducnd suprafaa cilindric la 2 A i perimetrul
conturului la 2 l ( h 0), obinem condiiile la limit:
E1 1 E2 1 0
E E 0,
E E1 1 E2 2 En n 11 21
1.
(1.16)
adic la interfaa dintre cele dou medii componentele
tangeniale ale intensitii cmpului electric sunt egale.
innd seama de urmtoarele relaii:
E1 1 1 E1
E 2 1 1 E 2
1 2 n ,
2 n E1 2 n E1
2 n E2 2 n E2
condiia la limit (1.16) poate fi exprimat i astfel
n E1 E2 0
(1.17)
H1 1 H2 1 JS 2
H H J J
H H1 1 H2 2 Hn n 11 21 S2 S
2.
(1.18)
adic la interfaa dintre cele dou medii componentele
tangeniale ale intensitii cmpului magnetic difer cu o
cantitate egal cu densitatea superficial (liniar) de
curent de conducie.
innd seama de urmtoarele relaii:
H1 1 1 H1
H2 1 1 H2
1 2 n
2 n H1 2 n H1 ,
2 n H2 2 n H2
JS 2 2 J S
condiia la limit (1.18) poate fi exprimat i astfel
n H1 H2 J S
(1.19)
D1 n D2 n S
D D
D D1 1 D2 2 Dn n 1n 2n S
3.
(1.20)
adic la interfaa dintre cele dou medii componentele
normale ale induciei cmpului electric difer cu o
cantitate egal cu densitatea de sarcin de suprafa.
B1 n B2 n 0
B B 0
B B1 1 B2 2 Bn n 1n 2n
4.
(1.21)
adic la interfaa dintre cele dou medii componentele
normale ale induciei cmpului magnetic sunt egale.
n cazul n care conductivitile mediilor n contact sunt
finite atunci
J S lim JC h 0,
h0
JC
iar condiiile la limit (1.18), respectiv (1.19) devin:
H11 H 21 0
n H1 H2 0
(1.22)
Similar, n cazul n care densitatea de sarcin de volum a
mediilor n contact este finit atunci
S lim V h 0,
h0
V
iar condiia la limit (1.20) devine:
D1n D2n 0
(1.23)
Singurul mediu care are conductivitate infinit este
conductorul perfect. Pentru ca J C E s fie finit trebuie ca E 0
i prin dualitate i H 0 (cmpul electromagnetic nu ptrunde
deloc un conductor perfect). Astfel, la interfaa dintre un dielectic
(mediul 1) i un conductor perfect (mediul 2) condiiile la limit
devin:
PP 0
E11 0 sau n E1 0 D11 0
MP 0
H11 J S sau n H1 J S B11 J S / 1
PP 0
D1n S sau n D1 S E1n S / 1
MP 0
B1n 0 sau n B1 0 H1n 0
(1.24)
Interfaa cu asemenea condiii la limit (componenta
tangenial a intensitii cmpului electric i componenta
normal a intensitii cmpului magnetic) se numete perete
electric. De foarte multe ori n tehnica microundelor se
aproximeaz conductoarele bune (ptrunse pe o distan foarte
mic de cmpul electromagnetic, deci care prezint pierderi) cu
conductoarele perfecte (care sunt lipsite de pierderi).
Dualul peretelui electric este peretele magnetic pe care
componenta tangenial a intensitii cmpului magnetic i
componenta normal a intensitii cmpului electric sunt nule.
2. Ecuaia undelor
(1.25)
Aplicnd operatorul primelor dou ecuaii ale
sistemului (1.25) obinem:
E j ( B)
H j * ( E)
(1.26)
Dublul produs vectorial se dezvolt n:
( ) E ( E) j ( B)
( ) H ( H) j * ( E)
E ( E) j ( B) 2 * E
j * E
H ( H) j * ( E) 2 *
j B
(1.27)
n cazul n care mediul este lipsit i de sarcini electrice (
v 0, J C 0 ), adic D 0 (deci E 0 ) i B 0 (deci H 0),
ecuaiile (1.27) devin:
E 2 * E 0 E 2 * E 0
H 2 * H 0 H 2 * H 0
(1.28)
where ais the attenuation constant and bis the phase constant. In the case of
a plane wave propagating into the z direction, we have
2Exz 2 g2Ex 0 (2.65)
leading to
Ex (z ) E e gz E e gz (2.66)
In the time domain
Ex (z , t ) E e az cos ( vt bz ) E e az cos ( vt bz ) (2.67)
In the case of a good conductor, that is, when sve, we obtain
the propagation constant as
ds 1 a 2vms(2.69)
Example 2.1
Find the attenuation of a 4 mm-thick copper layer at 10 GHz.
Solution
At a frequency of 10 GHz the skin depth in pure copper ( s5.8 107 S/m,
mm0 ) is only 6.6 107 m. Therefore, at this frequency a uniform
electromagnetic shield made of pure copper of thickness of 4 mm (6 skin
depths) provides an attenuation of about 20 log (1/e )6 6 8.68 dB 50 dB.
In a general case, each field component can be solved from the general
Helmholtz equation:
2Eix 2 2Eiy 2 2Eiz 2 g2Ei 0, i x , y , z (2.70)
The solution is found by using the separation of variables. By assuming that
Ei f (x ) g ( y )h(z ), f fg ghhg2 0 (2.71)
where the double prime denotes the second derivative. The first three terms
of this equation are each a function of one independent variable. As the sum
of these terms is constant ( g2 ), each term must also be constant.
Therefore, (2.71) can be divided into three independent equations of form f
/f gx2 0, which have solutions as shown previously.
2.5 Polarization of a Plane Wave
Electromagnetic fields are vector quantities, which have a direction in space.
The polarization of a plane wave refers to this orientation of the electric field
vector, which may be a fixed orientation (a linear polarization) or may change
with time (a circular or elliptical polarization).
The electric field of a plane wave can be presented as a sum of two
orthogonal components
E (E1ux E2uy ) e jkz (2.72)
where ux and uy are the unit vectors in the x and y direction, respectively. In
a general case this represents an elliptically polarized wave. The polarization
ellipse shown in Figure 2.6(a) is characterized by the axial ratio Emax /Emin ,
tilt angle t, and direction of rotation. The direction of rotation, as seen in the
direction of propagation and observed in a plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation, is either clockwise (right-handed) or
counterclockwise
(left-handed).
Figure 2.6 Polarization of a plane wave: (a) elliptic; (b) linear; (c) clockwise circular; and
(d) counterclockwise circular.
Special cases of an elliptic polarization are the linear polarization, Figure
2.6(b), and circular polarization, Figure 2.6(c, d). If E1 0 and E2 0, we have
a wave polarized linearly in the x direction. If both E1 and E2 are nonzero but
real and the components are in the same phase, we have a linearly polarized
wave, the polarization direction of which is in angle
tarctan (E2 /E1 ) (2.73)
In the case of circular polarization, the components have equal amplitudes
and a 90phase difference, that is, E1 jE2 E0 (E0 real), and the electric
field is
E E0 (ux juy ) e jkz (2.74)
or
E E0 (ux juy ) e jkz (2.75)
The former represents a clockwise, circularly polarized wave, and the latter a
counterclockwise, circularly polarized wave. In the time domain the circularly
polarized wave can be presented as (clockwise)
E(z , t ) E0 [ux cos ( vt kz ) uy cos ( vt kz p/2)] (2.76)
and (counterclockwise)
E(z , t ) E0 [ux cos ( vt kz ) uy cos ( vt kz p/2)] (2.77)
At z 0, (2.76) and (2.77) are reduced to
E(t ) E0 [ux cos vt uy cos ( vt p/2)] (2.78)
2.6 Reflection and Transmission at a Dielectric Interface
Let us consider a plane wave that is incident at a planar interface of two
lossless media, as illustrated in Figure 2.7. The wave comes from medium 1,
which is characterized by e1 and m1 , to medium 2 with e2 and m2 . The
planar interface is at z 0. The angle of incidence is u1 and the propagation
vector k1 is in the xz -plane. Part E1from the incident field is reflected at an
angle u1and part E2 is transmitted through the interface and leaves at an
angle of u2 .
Figure 2.7 Reflection and transmission of a plane wave in case of an oblique incidence
at an interface of two lossless media: (a) parallel polarization, and (b) perpendicular
polarization.
According to the boundary conditions, the tangential components of the
electric and magnetic field are equal on both sides of the interface in each
point of plane z 0. This is possible only if the phase of the incident,
reflected, and transmitted waves change equally in the x direction, in other
words, the phase velocities in the x direction are the same, or
v 1sin u1v 1sin u1v 2sin u2(2.79)
where v 1 and v 2 (vi v/ki ) are the wave velocities in medium 1 and 2,
respectively. From (2.79) it follows
u1u1 (2.80)
which means the angle of incidence and angle of reflection are equal, and the
angle of propagation of the transmitted wave is obtained from
where n1 er1 and n2 er2 are the refraction indices of the materials.
The reflection and transmission coefficients depend on the polarization of the
incident wave. Important special cases are the so-called parallel and
perpendicular polarizations; see Figure 2.7. The parallel polarization means
that the electric field vector is in the same plane with k1 and the normal n of
the plane, that is, the field vector is in the xz -plane. The perpendicular
polarization means that the electric field vector is perpendicular to the plane
described previously, that is, it is parallel to the y -axis. The polarization of an
arbitrary incident plane wave can be thought to be a superposition of the
parallel and perpendicular polarizations.
In the case of the parallel polarization, the condition of continuity of the
tangential electric field is
E1 cos u1 E1cos u1E2 cos u2 (2.83)
which leads, with the aid of (2.80) and (2.82), to
The magnetic field has only a component in the y direction. The continuity of
the tangential magnetic field leads to
(E1 E1)e1 E2e2 (2.85)
From (2.84) and (2.85) we can solve for the parallel polarization the reflection
and transmission coefficients, rand t, respectively:
rE1
E1 e2e1sin2 u1 e2e1cos u1 e2e1sin2 u1 e2e1cos u1(2.86)
tE2
When the angle of incidence is 90, that is, when the incident wave
approaches perpendicularly to the surface, it holds for rand tthat
1 rt (2.88)
In case of the perpendicular polarization, the boundary conditions lead to
E1 E1E2 (2.89)
(E1 E1)e1 cos u1 E2e2 cos u2 (2.90)
from which we can solve for the perpendicular polarization
Figure 2.8 shows the behavior of the reflection coefficient as a function of the
angle of incidence for both polarizations, when n1 n2 , that is, e1 e2 . In
case of the parallel polarization, the reflection coefficient is equal to zero at
Brewsters angle
Using Poyntings vector we can calculate the power flow out of the closed
surface S
Po 12Re R SE H* ? d S (2.98)
Pl 12 E VsE2 dV v2 EX
V e0 erE2 m0 mrH2 C dV (2.99)