The Design-for-Manufacture of

NextGen Aerospace Composite Structures

Dr Zaffar M. Khan
Advanced Composites Research Center, AERO, Wah, Pakistan
zaffark@yahoo.com

Abstract
Stringent aerodynamic requirements of next generation aeronautical and space systems
dictate development of composite materials for their structures that are stronger than steel yet
lighter than aluminum. The development of composite structures involves integrated design and
manufacturing considerations through concurrent engineering. The concurrent design imply that
the materials qualification, design considerations, manufacturing process and mechanical testing
must be carried out simultaneously in an integrated manner for cost effective composite product
development.

If necessity is the mother of invention then aerospace industry is the mother of composite
technology due to its superior physical and mechanical properties. This paper examines the state
of the composite science and technology in aerospace industry with specific reference to the
existing practices, lesson learnt and assessment of advanced technologies under development.
This paper carries out evaluation of the design and manufacturing strategies for large composite
structures with the quest to minimize the gross take off weight. It evaluates the future technology
challenges associated with the application of composite materials to the primary structure of
advanced aerospace vehicles.

1. The Nature, Advantages and Growth Potential of Composite Materials:

High performance composites derive their structural properties from continuous, oriented
high strength fiber reinforcement commonly carbon, kevlar or glass in a binding matrix
which holds them together. The advantages of composites are maximum strength to weight ratio
which translates into greater payload, higher speeds, better fuel economy and superior flight

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performance. Furthermore they have excellent fatigue and corrosion resistance, good impact
resistance, design flexibility, lower part count, reduced radar signature and EM transparency.

In the past, aircraft designers proposed theoretical designs based on flying wings concept
that was impracticable because the materials needed to construct them did not exist. The
composite materials have turned this dream into reality by development of Boeing-Northrop B-2.
The aerospace composites demand stands at 37 million pounds and is poised to exceed 82
million pounds by 2017 an impressive 8% compound annual growth rate (CAGR). It is
anticipated that the growth of carbon reinforced composites will increase to 12% CAGR (50
million pounds) by 2017 as given in Fig (1) [1].

Fig (1): The aerospace composites growth forecast in million pounds [1].

The air transport sector has increased composite usage over the last few decades The
Airbus A320 in the late 1980s and the Boeing 777 increased the per-plane use of composites to
10-15% of the total structure weight. The largest single program will be the Boeing 787, which
will take up 23% of the 600 million pounds in composites required for aircraft production over
the next decade. The aeroengine GEnx will incorporate more than 1500 lbs of composites that
make up 13% of total engine weight. Other Boeing programs include B777 (7%) and B737 (7%).
The Airbus programs will also stimulate market growth, led by A320 (10%), A350XWB (7%),
A330/340 (7%) and A380 (7%). There are dozens of aircraft programs that make up remaining
quarter of the composite demand including the B747-800, A400-M, F-35 joint Strike Fighter,
Euro fighter, EMB170/190 and the V-22 tilt rotor helicopter as given in Fig (2)

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 Fig (2): The composite demand over 2007 2017 Airframe production...

1.1 Matrix Constituent: The matrix material is responsible for holding the reinforcement
together to allow effective distribution of load, protection of the reinforcement form self-
abrasion, externally induced scratches, environmental moisture, chemical corrosion and thermo-
mechanical stresses. Various types of matrices are used in composite systems such are inorganic,
metallic and organic matrices, which can undertake 60000F, 18000F and 3500F of temperature
respectively. The polymeric matrices are classified in thermoplastic and thermoset systems. The
tough thermoplastic resin i.e., Polyphenyl Sulphide, Polyvinyl chloride and Polyetheretherketone
can be re-melted and solidified repeatedly. The relatively brittle thermoset i.e., epoxies,
bismalimides, polyamides and phenolics are composed of molecular cross-links, which results in
higher degree of dimensional stability and thermal resistance. Until recently, the most common
matrix materials for aerospace application have been epoxy. Epoxy based matrices have good
adhesive strength, low shrinkage during cure, are resistant to weather and hydraulic fluid and
have large database.

1.2 Fiber Reinforcement: Long and continuous fibers are more desirable in aerospace
composites since they impart better mechanical properties. The fibers primarily determine the
longitudinal tensile/ flexural strength and stiffness of a composite system. . They can be glass,
quartz, aramid, polyethylene, carbon, boron or other more exotic fibers depending on load
conditions. The glass fibers are cheap but its higher specific gravity and poor stiffness do not
permit high performance application. The aramid fibers, composed of aromatic polyamides,
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provide exceptional impact resistance and tensile strength. Boron fibers have good mechanical
properties but are expensive and are difficult to manufacture. The aerospace grade carbon fibers
are generally produced by pyrolysis of PAN precursor in a process involving controlled
oxidation, carbonization, graphitization and surface treatment. Attempts are being made at Oak
Ridge research laboratories Tennessee to integrate the carbonization and graphitization phases
using UV radiation into a single step process as given in Fig (3) [2].

Fig (3): The development of integrated technologies for manufacturing carbon fibers.

Typical aerospace grade tow size ranges from 1K to 12K PAN based carbon fibers. The
tows are woven into plain, harness, satin and basket weaves architecture. The orientation,
stacking sequence and thickness of the plies play a predominant role in design and analysis of
composite products. The orientation of the fibers could be symmetric, asymmetric, balanced,
unbalanced, and anti-symmetric, cross ply or quasi-isotropic. A laminate is called symmetric
when each layer above mid-plane of laminate has a layer having identical thickness, orientation
and distance below the mid-plane. A laminate is balanced when it consists of pairs of + and
orientation of layers that have identical thickness and elastic properties. The quasi-isotropic
laminate has number of ply groups (m) spaced at orientation of 180 /m.

2. The Composite Design Considerations:

The thin laminate theory correlates the applied forces and moments to resulting strains
and curvatures in three dimensions (x, y and s) through stiffness matrix comprising of shear
coupling stiffness Ais, bending coupling stiffness Bij and torsion coupling stiffness Dis (i, j = x,y,s).

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 Nx A11 A12 A16 x0 B11 B12 B16 kx
0
A26
B26
N y = A12 A22 y + B12 B22 ky
N A16 A26 A66 0 B16 B26 B66 k
xy xy xy

Mx B11 B12 B16 x0 D11 D12 D16 kx

0
My = B12 B22 B26
y + D12 D22 D26 ky
M B16 B26 B66 0 D16 D26 D66 k
xy
xy xy

Q z
n n
1 1
Where Aij Qij k
zk z k 1 , Bij ij k
2
k z k21 , Dij
k 1 2 k 1 3

Q z
n

ij k
3
k z k31
k 1

Qij = Body stiffness and Zi is the distance from center of laminate to the fabric layer, kij is
curvature.
The relative position of each Kth lamina are integrate over thickness for determination of
laminate forces, (Nx, Ny, Nxy), and moments (Mx, My, Mxy) are shown in Fig (4).

Fig (4): Lamina Positions in

the Laminate for Integration
of Resultant Loads.

The shear coupling stiffnesses A16 and A26 couple in-plane deformations with in-plane
loading. They cause in-plane shear deformations under in-plane normal loading and in-plane
normal deformation under in-plane shear loading. These stiffnesses become zero for a balanced
or a crossply or a quasi-isotropic lay-up. For unbalanced laminates it is advisable to select the
stacking sequence that minimizes the shear coupling stiffnesses. The bending coupling stiffness
Bij, couples in-plane loading with out-of-plane deformation. It is responsible for laminate
warpage due to cool-down after curing and hygrothermal environment variations. It is therefore
desirable in general to eliminate this type of coupling by selecting a symmetric lay-up. In other

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cases of non-symmetric laminates, it is possible to minimize bending coupling by selecting an
appropriate stacking sequence. The torsion coupling stiffnesses D16 and D26 are responsible for
twisting deformation under out-of-plane flexure and produce interlaminar bending stresses.
These stiffnesses are zero only for anti-symmetric (special case of balanced) or crossply lay-ups.
In other cases it is possible to minimize the torsion coupling stiffnesses by a proper choice of
stacking sequence. The only lay-up for which all three types of coupling stiffnesses (A is, Bij, , and
Dis) are zero is the cross-ply symmetric lay-up, e.g. (0,90)s. One can design symmetric and
balanced laminates where Bij=0 and Ais=0, but in general Dis0. However, by increasing the
number of layers of symmetric, balanced angel plies configuration, D is can be minimized. The
positive feature of the unbalanced and/or unsymmetric laminate has been successfully utilized in
the forward-swept-wing airplanes like Grumman's experimental X-29 designed to twist under
flexture to counteract the detrimental aerodynamic effects as shown in Fig (5) [3,4].

Fig (5): The forward sweep composite wings on the Grumman X-29 experimental plane.

The twelve potential pitfalls in designing for manufacturing friendly composite are as follows
[5,6]:

(a) The layers in the laminates should be symmetric and balanced with respect to
geometric mid-plane.
(b) Laminates must be designed with three major fiber orientations: 0, 45, 90. The
0 plies to carry axial, 45 plies to carry shear and 90 plies for transverse loads.
(c) The laminates carrying predominately shear loads should be 10% 0s, 80% 45s
and 10% 90s.
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 (d) Laminates carrying predominately axial loads should be 60% 0s, 30% 45s, 10%
90s OR even a higher percentage of 0s.
(e) Laminates should have a minimum of 8% fibers in each major direction (0, 45,
90) to take care of inadvertent loads.
(f) 0 plies and 90 plies should be separated by a +45 or a -45 ply OR preferably
a +45 and a -45 ply to avoid Poisson mismatch during cure.
(g) Avoid stacking more than 3-4 plies in any one orientation to prevent delamination
(h) Avoid placing a stack of similarly oriented plies at the outer surfaces of laminates.
(j) 0, 45, 90 sequences or 0, 90 kevlar fabric are often used at the outer surfaces
to take up foreign body damage.
(k) Principle load carrying plies should be located toward the center of laminate.
(l) Avoid free edges to avoid inter-laminar stresses.
(m) Corrosion problems must be addressed during embedding metallic inserts in
carbon/ glass epoxy composites. Use of titanium fasteners is recommended.

3. Materials, Processing, Manufacturing and NDI:

The prepreg is laid according to specified orientations on a mold. It is wrapped in nylon
bag along with breather, bleeder, peel plies. The assembly is subjected to heat and pressure for
specific time duration in an autoclave or non-autoclave process. The polymer resin matrix cross
links to end product. The electron beam, X rays, microwave and ultraviolet curing promise near
net shape composite manufacturing without using molds. Filament winding, pultrusion, and other
techniques are utilized for development of special geometrical shapes.

The complexities of lightweight, built-up structures have led aerospace industry to

develop a building-block approach. This approach relies on tests of coupons, elements and
subcomponents to establish the effects of local details and internal load paths on structural
behavior. When each hierarchical level of detail is tested, the interactions between the local
elements are accurately represented in the structural design. The aerospace composites usage has
increased due to recent advances in automated technologies and processes such as automated
tape lay up machines, high speed fiber placement stitching machinery, vacuum assisted resin
transfer molding (VARTM) and resin film infusion (RFI) processes which have significantly

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lowered production cost. New thermosets and thermoplastics are being developed having
reduced curing temperatures for cost effective VARTM and RFI processes. The standard epoxies
have been toughened by introduction of CTBN rubber on micro and nano levels as second phase.
The epoxies have also been modified for high temperature applications. High performing
material systems such as Toray 800H carbon fiber and toughened epoxies is used to manufacture
the structural components of Boeing 777, European Fighter Aircraft and V-22 Osprey tilt rotor
aircraft. The maturity of RTM, VARTM and RFI have led to increased use of braided, woven and
knitted fiber perform and through the thickness stitching. The NDI methods for detection of
delamination, resin starvation, bondline voids and other defects include thermal, ultrasonic
(through and pulse echo), electromagnetic tomography and optical techniques. The Boeing
Company has determined ultrasonic through system to be the most effective method for crack
detection in sandwich structures. The Braggs Grating fiber optic sensors are embedded in
composite structure for online monitoring the control system, health management and flight
operations. Multi-parameter fiber grating system can be used to support the measurement of
corrosion, transverse/ axial strain, pressure and ice along a single fiber as shown in Fig (6) [7].

Fig (6). The multi-parametric fiber grating sensors to support diagnostics.

4. The NASA Technology Readiness Levels:

Future aerospace systems must be autonomous, evolvable, self sufficient, resilient and
highly distributed as shown in Fig (7). These characteristics are highly coupled and require
integration of composite technology with photonics and electronics to make them smart. NASA
uses a technology readiness level (TRL) scale from 1 to 9 to indicate the level of maturity of a
technology. TRL values of 1-3 indicate research levels, with TRL 1 being fundamental research.

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TRL values from 4 to 6 indicate technology development levels. TRL values from 7 to 9 indicate
advanced development level, TRL 9 signifying mature technology that is ready for actual
aerospace vehicles [8].

Fig (7): Major characteristics of future space system.

Application of composite materials for the primary structures, liquid hydrogen tank and
thermal protection system is projected to be most promising for weight reduction of single stage-
to-orbit, RLV. The NASA has evaluated various technologies options and roadmaps for
developing the enabling technologies. The technical evaluation indicated that extensive
development of structures and materials technologies is required to achieve TRL-9 for RLV as
shown in Fig (8).

Fig (8): Technology Assessment of Composite Parts in RLVs [5].

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 The current structural design and analysis methodologies used by the aeronautics industry
are still largely semi-empirical. Very accurate finite element methods and sophisticated computer
codes are required to calculate the stress, strain and displacement fields in complex structural
geometries. Superior graphical interfaces have significantly improved pre and post processing of
data files. Automated mesh generation, mesh refinement and automated adapted re meshing have
resulted in major efficiencies in model development time, analysis time, and accuracy of the
numerical solutions. Post processing algorithms and graphical interfaces have significantly
improved the ability of the analyst to interpret the results of the stress analysis. However, the
prediction of structural failure modes, ultimate strength, residual strength of damage-tolerance
structure, and fatigue life has remained elusive due to anisotropic properties. A rigorous
structural analysis suitable for predicting structural failure require the generation of high-fidelity
local stressed that can be used with failure criteria and damage models.

5. The Challenges and Opportunities of Composite Technology:

The most significant challenges to composite materials are its cost effective
manufacturing and prediction of damage initiation and growth, structural failure modes and the
residual strength of damaged structure. Current research is focused on optimization of composite
structural design and analysis tools to reduce dependence on the empirical design approach.
High-fidelity, physics-based structural analysis tools are under development using both
deterministic and nondeterministic computational methods. Next-generation structural design
tools are under development that exploits the revolution in information technology. The next-
generation design tools will use smart components to assemble finite elements analysis models.
Interface elements are under development that will provide seamless transitions between regions
of a finite element model with different mesh refinements. The advanced three dimensional
virtual reality capabilities will greatly enhance ability to interpret the results of structural
analyses These advanced methods not only automate model generation, but also facilitate the
implementation of global/ local modeling strategies that are essential for the prediction of
progressive failure mode and structural design as given in Fig (9).

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 Fig (9): The FEM modeling of composite structures from unit cell to laminate

6. The Impact of Nanocomposites on Aerospace Vehicles:

A paradigm shift has occured from conventional materials to nanostructured,
functionalized, self assembling and self healing materials. The breakthrough in synthesis of
nanopolymer has led to development of highly tailored composite materials having significantly
enhanced mechanical properties. The computationally designed materials have bridged the gap
between quantum physics and continuum mechanics on nano/ micro levels. Computer models
are generated that model relationship between the atomic structure of materials at the nanoscale
to the physical properties at the macro scale. These new computational tools have the potentials
to optimize material chemistry for specific application and justify the trade offs.

If single-walled carbon nanotubes are incorporated in matrix to form structural materials,

the resulting structures could be significantly lighter and stronger than those made from current
aluminum alloys and carbon fiber composite materials (CFRP). Properties of single-walled
carbon nanotubes (SWNTFRP) and multi-wall carbon nanotubes (MWNTFRP) have been
determined from computer simulations using quantum/ continuum mechanics, atomistic
simulation and experimental measurements based on Atomic Force Microscopy and Raman
spectroscopy. The comparison of dry weights of relaunch vehicle using aluminum, CFRP and
SWNTFRP show that it is possible to achieve 82% reduction in weight by replacing the
aluminum components of the airframe structure with the SWNTFRP composite materials The
computer simulation results and the experimental studies show that single-walled carbon

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nanotubes possessed elastic moduli in excess of 145 Msi (1 TPa), and strengths approaching 29
Msi (200 GPa) that can be utilized for development of paper thin ribbon for space elevator to
deploy the payload from ground to low earth orbit by squeezing it between sets of electrically
driven rollers.

A state of the art smart structure in next generation aerospace structure feature a load
bearing carbon fiber composite structure having embedded piezoelectric discs for sensing
purpose and a multitude of embedded shape memory alloy wires for actuation purpose through
micro processors in smart composite structure. Research is in progress on embedding the
material functions of sensor, actuator and structure at atomic level. For example, the carbon
fibers are coated with piezoelectric materials to synthesize a smart composite material on micro
or nanoscale. Similarly electro-rheological fluids may be filled in hollow nano carbon tubes for
sensing and structural reinforcement respectively. These attributes permit a structure to be
synthesized with self adaptive smart abilities as shown by blended wing all composite next
generation aircraft in Fig (10) [9].

Fig (10): The next generation all composite blended wing commercial liner.

7. Conclusion:
As the structural complexity increases, the coupling between design, analysis and
manufacturing processes becomes inextricably intertwined and multi disciplinary. Therefore the
integration of actuators, sensors, processors, and structures for smart nano/ microstructure
applications mandates the evolution of sophisticated manufacturing process-driven design,
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analysis, and synthesis methodologies such as Micro Electro Mechanical Systems. The
molecularly designed nanocomposites such as Single/ Multiple Carbon Fiber Nanotubes have the
promise to be much lighter yet stronger. The advancements in design and manufacturing
techniques at the atomic level will diminish the boundaries between sensors and actuators. These
attributes permit a substance to be synthesized for self-adaptive abilities at the nano/ micro level.
The application of fiber optic neural sensors in composites has led to emergence of biomimetics,
neuromimetics and neuromorphic. The integration of composites with bio, nano and info
technologies will certainly enable the mankind to mimic the birds flight for enhanced structural
reliability, survivability and integrity.

8. Bibliography:
[1]: Kevin Michaels, A Fast Changing Market, JEC Composites Magazine/ No41 Jun 2008,
pp 34-36
[2] Trewin E. M. & Turner R.F., Carbon Fiber Properties and Manufacture, Caurtaulds Ltd
File No: 76 &77.
[3] Micheal W. Hyer, Stress Analysis of Fiber Reinforced Composite Materials, McGraw-
Hill International Edition, 1998.
[4] Zaffar M. khan, Impact of Composite materials on Engineering Industry, Science
Technology and Development, Vol. 13, No. 1, Jan-Mar, 1994.
[5]: S. T. Peters, Ten Common Mistakes in Composite Design and Manufacturing and How to
avoid them, SAMPE Vol. 42, No. 5, Sep/Oct, 2006, pp 53-59
[6] Isaac M. Daniel and Ori Ishai, Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Oxford
University Press, 1994.
[7] Gerard F. Fernando, Fiber Optic Sensor System for Monitoring Composite Structures,
Reinforced Plastics, Dec 2005, pp 41-49.
[8] Charles E. Harris et al, Design and Manufacturing of Aerospace Composites Structures:
State-of-the-Art Assessment, AIAA Journal of Aircraft Vol: 37, Number: 4, pp 545-559.
[9] B.S. Thompson, Biomimetic Materials: Was Leonardo Mistaken?, SAMPE Journal Vol.
32, No.1, Jan/ Feb 1996.

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