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http://www.scribd.com/doc/17064878/Remote-
Controlled-Fan-Regulator
Thyristors or silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR) are find many uses in electronics, and in
particular for power control. Indeed thyristors have been called the workhorse of high power
electronics. Here the silicon controlled rectifiers are able to switch large levels of power are used
in a wide variety of different applications. Thyristors even finds uses in low power electronics
where they are able to find applications in many circuits from light dimmers to power supply
over voltage protection.
Thyristor discovery
The idea for the thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) was first described by Shockley in
1950. It was referred to as a bipolar transistor with a p-n hook-collector. The mechanism for the
operation of the thyristor was analysed further in 1952 by Ebers. Then in 1956 Moll investigated
the switching mechanism of the thyristor. Development continued and more was learned about
the device such that the first silicon controlled rectifiers became available in the early 1960s
where it started to gain a significant level of popularity for power switching.
Structure of a thyristor
The thyristor consists of a four layer p-n-p-n structure with the outer layers are referred to as the
anode (n-type) and cathode (n-type). The control terminal of the SCR is named the gate and it is
connected to the p-type layer located next to the cathode.
Structure of a thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)
The level of doping varies between the different layers of the thyristor. The cathode is the most
heavily doped. The gate and anode are the next heavily doped. The lowest doping level is within
the central n type layer. This is also thicker than the other layers and these two factors enable a
large blocking voltage to be supported. Thinner layers would mean that the device would break
down at lower voltages.
In view of the very high currents and power levels that some thyristors are used to switch,
thermal considerations are of paramount importance. The anode of the SCR or silicon controlled
rectifier is usually bonded to the package since the gate terminal is near the cathode and needs to
be connected separately. This is accomplished in such a way that heat is removed from the
silicon to the package. Apart from the internal considerations, the external heat-sinking
considerations for the thyristor must be carefully implemented otherwise the device may
overheat and fail.
Thyristors are usually manufactured from silicon. There are two main reasons for this. One is the
voltage, current and thermal handling properties of silicon enable it to meet the requirements of
the power industry, and secondly silicon technology is well developed and very cheap to use.
Thyristor operation
In operation the SCR may be considered as two back to back transistors. The transistor with its
emitter connected to the cathode of the thyristor is a n-p-n device whereas the transistor with its
emitter connected to the anode of the SCR is a p-n-p variety. The gate is connected to the base of
the n-p-n transistor.

Equivalent circuit of a thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)

This arrangement forms a positive feedback loop within the thyristor. The output of one
transistor fed to the input of the second. In turn the output of the second transistor is fed back to
the input of the first. As a result it can be seen that the total current gain of the device exceeds
one. This means that when a current starts to flow, it quickly builds up until both transistors are
fully turned on or saturated.
When a voltage is applied across a thyristor no current flows because neither transistor is
conducting. As a result there is no complete path across the device. If a small current is passed
through the gate electrode, this will turn "on" the transistor TR2. When this occurs it will cause
the collector of TR2 to fall towards the voltage on the emitter, i.e. the cathode of the whole
device. When this occurs it will cause current to flow through the base of TR1 and turn this
transistor "on". Again this will now try to pull the voltage on the collector of TR1 towards its
emitter voltage. This will cause current to flow in the emitter of TR2, causing its "on" state to be
maintained. In this way it only requires a small trigger pulse on the gate to turn the thyristor on.
Once switched on, the thyristor can only be turned off by removing the supply voltage.
The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS
FET) is a device used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. The basic principle of the
device was first proposed by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925. In MOSFETs, a voltage on the
oxide-insulated gate electrode can induce a conducting channel between the two other contacts
called source and drain. The channel can be of n-type or p-type (see article on semiconductor
devices), and is accordingly called an nMOSFET or a pMOSFET (also commonly nMOS,
pMOS). It is by far the most common transistor in both digital and analog circuits, though the
bipolar junction transistor was at one time much more common.
The 'metal' in the name is now often a misnomer because the previously metal gate material is
now often a layer of polysilicon (polycrystalline silicon). Aluminium had been the gate material
until the mid 1970s, when polysilicon became dominant, due to its capability to form self-aligned
gates. Metallic gates are regaining popularity, since it is difficult to increase the speed of
operation of transistors without metal gates.
IGFET is a related term meaning insulated-gate field-effect
transistor, and is almost synonymous with MOSFET,
though it can refer to FETs with a gate insulator that is
not oxide. Another synonym is MISFET for metal–insulator–
semiconductor FET. Mini-MosFet Audio Amplifier

Including Preamp, Tone Controls, Regulated dc Power Supply

18 Watt into 8 Ohm - 30W into 4 Ohm loads

Power Amplifier Circuit diagram:

Power Amplifier Parts:

R1_______________2K2 1/4W Resistor
R2______________27K 1/4W Resistor
R3,R4____________2K2 1/2W Trimmers Cermet or Carbon (or 2K)
R5_____________100R 1/4W Resistor
R6_______________1K 1/4W Resistor
R7,R8__________330R 1/4W Resistors

C1______________22µF 25V Electrolytic Capacitor

C2______________47pF 63V Polystyrene or Ceramic Capacitor
C3,C4__________100µF 50V Electrolytic Capacitors
C5____________2200µF 50V Electrolytic Capacitor

Q1____________BC550C 45V 100mA Low noise High gain NPN Transistor

Q2___________IRF530 100V 14A N-Channel Hexfet Transistor (or MTP12N10)
Q3__________IRF9530 100V 12A P-Channel Hexfet Transistor (or MTP12P10)
Comments:
This project was a sort of challenge: designing an audio amplifier capable of delivering a decent
output power with a minimum parts count, without sacrificing quality.
The Power Amplifier section employs only three transistors and a handful of resistors and
capacitors in a shunt feedback configuration but can deliver more than 18W into 8 Ohm with
<0.08% THD @ 1KHz at the onset of clipping (0.04% @ 1W - 1KHz and 0.02% @ 1W -
10KHz) and up to 30W into a 4 Ohm load.
To obtain such a performance and to ensure overall stability of this very simple circuitry, a
suitable regulated dc power supply is mandatory. This is not a snag because it also helps in
keeping noise and hum of the preamp to very low levels and guarantees a predictable output
power into different load impedances. Finally, as the amplifier requires only a single rail supply,
a very good dc voltage regulator capable of supplying more than 2 Amps @ 40V can be
implemented with a few parts also.
Setting up the Power Amplifier:
The setup of this amplifier must be done carefully and with no haste:
1. Connect the Power Supply Unit (previously tested separately) to the Power
Amplifier but not the Preamp: the input of the Power Amplifier must be left
open.
2. Rotate the cursor of R4 fully towards Q1 Collector.
3. Set the cursor of R3 to about the middle of its travel.
4. Connect a suitable loudspeaker or a 8 Ohm 20W resistor to the amplifier
output.
5. Connect a Multimeter, set to measure about 50V fsd, across the positive end
of C5 and the negative ground.
6. Switch on the supply and rotate R3 very slowly in order to read about 23V on
the Multimeter display.
7. Switch off the supply, disconnect the Multimeter and reconnect it, set to
measure at least 1Amp fsd, in series to the positive supply (the possible use
of a second Multimeter in this place will be very welcomed).
8. Switch on the supply and rotate R4 very slowly until a reading of about
120mA is displayed.
9. Check again the voltage at the positive end of C5 and readjust R3 if
necessary.
10.If R3 was readjusted, R4 will surely require some readjustment.
11.Wait about 15 minutes, watch if the current is varying and readjust if
necessary.
12.Please note that R3 and R4 are very sensitive: very small movements will
cause rather high voltage or current variations, so be careful.
13.Those lucky enough to reach an oscilloscope and a 1KHz sine wave
generator, can drive the amplifier to the maximum output power and adjust
R3 in order to obtain a symmetrical clipping of the sine wave displayed.
Preamp Circuit diagram:

Preamp Parts:
P1______________50K Log. Potentiometer (or 47K)
(twin concentric-spindle dual gang for stereo)
P2,P3__________100K Linear Potentiometers
(twin concentric-spindle dual gang for stereo)

R1_____________220K 1/4W Resistor

R2_____________100K 1/4W Resistor
R3_______________2K7 1/4W Resistor
R4,R5____________8K2 1/4W Resistors
R6_______________4K7 1/4W Resistor
R7,R8,R13________2K2 1/4W Resistors
R9_______________2M2 1/4W Resistor
R10,R11_________47K 1/4W Resistor
R12_____________33K 1/4W Resistor
R14____________470R 1/4W Resistor
R15_____________10K 1/4W Resistor
R16______________3K3 1/4W Resistor (See Notes)

C1,C2,C9_______470nF 63V Polyester Capacitors

C3,C4___________47nF 63V Polyester Capacitors
C5,C6____________6n8 63V Polyester Capacitors
C7______________10µF 63V Electrolytic Capacitor
C8,C10__________22µF 25V Electrolytic Capacitors
C11____________470µF 25V Electrolytic Capacitor (See Notes)

Q1,Q3_________BC550C 45V 100mA Low noise High gain NPN Transistors

Q2___________2N3819 General-purpose N-Channel FET

Comments:
The Preamp sensitivity and overload margin were designed to cope with most modern music
programme sources like CD players, Tape recorders, iPods, Computer audio outputs, Tuners etc.
The source selecting switches and input connectors are not shown and their number and
arrangement are left to the constructor's choice.
To obtain a very high input overload margin, the volume control was placed at the preamp input.
After a unity gain, impedance converter stage (Q1) a negative-feedback Baxandall-type Bass and
Treble tone control stage was added. As this stage must provide some gain (about 5.6 times) a
very low noise, "bootstrapped" two-transistors circuitry with FET-input was implemented. This
stage features also excellent THD figures up to 4V RMS output and a low output impedance,
necessary to drive properly the Mini-MosFet Power Amplifier, but can also be used for other
purposes.

Regulated Power Supply Circuit diagram:

Regulated Power Supply Parts:

R1_______________3R9 1 or 2W Resistor
R2______________22R 1/4W Resistor
R3_______________6K8 1/4W Resistor
R4_____________220R 1/4W Resistor
R5_______________4K7 1/2W Resistor

C1____________3300µF 50V Electrolytic Capacitor (or 4700µF 50V)

C2,C5__________100nF 63V Polyester Capacitors
C3______________10µF 63V Electrolytic Capacitor
C4_____________220µF 50V Electrolytic Capacitor

D1_____Diode bridge 100V 4A

D2___________1N4002 200V 1A Diode
D3______________LED Any type and color

IC1___________LM317T 3-Terminal Adjustable Regulator

Q1____________TIP42A 60V 6A PNP Transistor

SW2_____________SPST Mains switch

T1_____________230V Primary, 35-36V (Center-tapped) Secondary,

50-75VA Mains transformer (See Notes)

PL1____________Male Mains plug with cord

Comments:
A very good and powerful Regulated Power Supply section was implemented by simply adding a
PNP power transistor to the excellent LM317T adjustable regulator chip. In this way this circuit
was able to deliver much more than the power required to drive two Mini-MosFet amplifiers to
full output (at least 2Amp @ 40V into 4 Ohm load) without any appreciable effort.
Notes:Q2 and Q3 in the Power Amplifier must be mounted each on a
finned heatsink of at least 80x40x25mm.
• Q1 and IC1 in the Regulated Power Supply must be mounted on a finned
heatsink of at least 45x40x17mm.
• A power Transformer having a secondary winding rated at 35 - 36V and 50VA
(i.e. about 1.4Amp) is required if you intend to use Loudspeaker cabinets of 8
Ohm nominal impedance. To drive 4 Ohm loads at high power levels, a 70 -
75VA Transformer (2Amp at least) will be a better choice. These transformers
are usually center tapped: the central lead will be obviously left open.
• For the stereo version of this project, R16 and C11 in the Preamp will be in
common to both channels: therefore, only one item each is necessary. In this
case, R16 must be a 1K5 1/2W resistor. The value of C11 will remain
unchanged.

Technical data:
Output power:

18 Watt RMS into 8 Ohm (1KHz sine wave) - 30 Watt RMS into 4 Ohm

Input sensitivity of the complete Amplifier:

160mV RMS for full output

Power Amplifier Input sensitivity:

900mV RMS for full output

Power Amplifier Frequency response @ 1W RMS:

flat from 40Hz to 20KHz, -0.7dB @ 30Hz, -1.7dB @ 20Hz

Power Amplifier Total harmonic distortion @ 1KHz:

100mW 0.04% 1W 0.04% 10W 0.06% 18W 0.08%

Power Amplifier Total harmonic distortion @10KHz:

100mW 0.02% 1W 0.02% 10W 0.05% 18W 0.12%

Unconditionally stable on capacitive loads

Preamp Maximum output voltage:4V RMS

Preamp Frequency response:flat from 20Hz to 20KHz

Preamp Total harmonic distortion @ 1KHz:1V RMS 0.007% 3V RMS 0.035%

Preamp Total harmonic distortion @10KHz:1V RMS 0.007% 3V RMS 0.02%

Bass control frequency range referred to 1KHz:±20dB @ 40Hz

Treble control frequency range referred to 1KHz:+18dB/-20dB @ 20KHz

Some of the projects for which pc boards are offered include the AMZ Mosfet Booster, Mini-Booster,
Multi-Purpose transistor board, Opamp Muti-Purpose, Voltage Doubler and Germanium Buffer. Complete
schematics and detailed instructions are included with every order.
Some of the projects that can be made with the pc boards:
• Jfet mu-follower boost
• Mosfet booster pedal
• Guitar Direct Box
• Dual Output Booster
• Boost and Buffer
• Dual Buffer
• Re-amplifying Interface
• Silicon Transistor Booster
• AMZ Muffer
• AMZ Muffmaster
• A Dirty Boost
• AC128 Germanium Transistor Booster
• PNP Rangemaster-type Treble Booster
• Germanium Transistor Buffer
• Jfet Transistor Booster
• Jfet Transistor Buffer/Line Driver
• Mosfet Transistor Booster (not the AMZ Mosfet Booster)
• Mosfet Buffer
• Power Supply Filter
• 9v-to-18v charge pump