Back to Basics
Select the
Right Impeller
Julian B. Fasano The key to effective, efficient mixing
Mixer Engineering Co.
is selecting the appropriate impeller.
F
ifty or 60 years ago, most industrial mixer manufac-
turers had only five or six impellers in their arsenal.
Over the years, research has shown that the impellers
design plays a large role in mixing efficiency. Today, mixer
manufacturers typically offer 20 to 30 different impellers.
Determining which is best for a particular mixing applica-
tion can be a challenge.
The most common mixing functions include:
blending
heat transfer
solids suspension/solids drawdown
gas dispersion
immiscible liquid-liquid suspension.
For each of these tasks, certain impellers tend to perform
best. The optimal type of impeller for a particular application
depends on whether the flow regime is turbulent, transi-
tional, or laminar. In immiscible liquid-liquid applications,
the best impeller class depends on the desired droplet size.
This article explains how an impeller functions,
describes the various classes of impellers, and recom-
mends which class of impeller to use for common mixing
applications.
Impeller basics
A rotating impeller creates a pressure differential on a
blade to achieve mixing and pumping. An impeller blade
rotating in turbulent or transitional flow develops a positive
pressure on the front side, or leading side, and a negative
pressure on the back side, or trailing side, of the blade
(Figure 1). The negative pressure on the back side of
the blade is responsible for about two-thirds of the fluid
pumped. Therefore, anything that raises this back side pres-
30 www.aiche.org/cep June 2015 CEP
sure will reduce the pumping capacity of the impeller.
Rotating impellers in turbulent flow form a trailing vor-
tex system on the back side of the blade (Figure 2), and these
trailing vortices disrupt the back side pressure. Figure 3
shows another way to visualize a trailing vortex system
with telltales (or streamers) on a pitched impeller blade in
turbulent flow. The trailing vortex system on the back side of
this impeller blade involves about one-half of the back-side
area, as indicated by the tangled telltales on the left side of
the blade.
The size of the trailing vortex coming off an impeller
blade determines how much the back side of the impeller
can pump: The larger the vortex, the lower the pumping
capability. However, impellers can be designed to minimize
the size of the vortex system on the back side of impeller
blades in turbulent flow. This can be observed in the high-
efficiency impeller in Figure 4 the trailing vortex system
is much smaller than the vortex system in Figure 3. The
straight telltales on the left side of the impeller blade indicate
a small trailing vortex system.
Negative Pressure
Positive Pressure
p Figure 1. As the impeller rotates, the front side of the blade pushes the
fluid, while the back side of the blade pulls the fluid to create pumping. The
red arrows indicate the direction of flow created by the positive pressure on
the front side of the blade and the negative pressure on the back side. The
blue arrows indicate the rotational direction of the impeller.
Copyright 2015 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
u Figure 2.
Rotating impellers
in turbulent flow
form a trailing
vortex system off
the edge of the
blades back side.
The red arrows
indicate the direc-
tion of the vortex
system's flow.

p Figure 3. This pitched impeller blade with telltales (black streamers)

An impellers Reynolds number, NRe, is defined as: shows the back side trailing vortex system. The tangled telltales on the left
side of the blade indicate a strong trailing vortex system.

where is the density, N is the impeller rotational speed,

D is the impeller diameter, and is the fluid viscosity.
For a mixing impeller, Reynolds numbers above 2,500
correspond to turbulent flow. Transitional flow occurs
at Reynolds numbers between 2,500 and 200. Reynolds
numbers between 200 and 10 characterize near-laminar flow.
Flow is laminar at Reynolds numbers less than 10.
Trailing vortices are largest in turbulent flow, smaller
in transitional flow, extremely small at Reynolds numbers
between 200 and 500, and nonexistent at Reynolds numbers p Figure 4. The system of trailing vortices formed by this high-efficiency
below 50. axial-flow impeller is smaller than that of a typical pitched-blade impeller
(such as the one in Figure 3).
Impeller classifications
The first step in selecting an impeller for a specific job
is understanding the characteristics of each impeller class.
Chord Angle and Attack Angle
Impellers are generally classified as axial-flow (e.g., high-
efficiency impellers), mixed-flow (e.g., pitched-blade impel-
T he chord line of an impeller blade is an imaginary
straight line that connects the leading and trailing tips
of the blade. The chord angle is the angle between the
lers), or radial-flow (e.g., 90-deg. paddle-style impellers). chord line and the plane of rotation. This angle can vary
A radial-flow impeller pumps radially at both high and from hub to tip of the blade (if the blade is twisted) or it
low Reynolds numbers. As an axial-flow or mixed-flow can be constant.
impeller is subjected to lower Reynolds numbers, it tends The attack angle is the angle between the vector of
to pump more radially, as shown in the computational fluid the incoming fluid and the chord line. The attack angle is
dynamics (CFD) vector plots in Figure 5 (1). typically smaller than the chord angle.
Every impeller has a power number, Np, defined as:
Wide-Blade
Hydrofoil Impeller

where P is the power. At Reynolds numbers above 10,000,

the power number is constant and is referred to as the
turbulent-range power number.
In applications such as blending and solids suspension, Attack
an impeller with a low power number tends to be more Chord Angle Angle Cho
rd L
efficient than one with a high power number. However, in Incomin
g Fluid
ine

applications that require gas dispersion, impellers with low Plane of Rotation
power numbers are not as efficient as impellers with high

Copyright 2015 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) CEP June 2015 www.aiche.org/cep 31
Back to Basics
Turbulent, Axial Flow
p Figure 5. A high-efficiency axial-flow impeller will pump more radially as it is subjected to lower Reynolds numbers. The impeller produces an axial-flow
pattern in turbulent conditions (left), a mixed-flow pattern under transitional conditions (center), and a radial-flow pattern at laminar conditions (right).
p Figure 6. A pitched-blade impeller typically has two to eight flat blades,
a width-to-diameter ratio of 0.150.30, and a 45-deg. chord angle.
power numbers. So, the application will determine whether
or not the impellers optimal power number is high or low.
Pitched-blade impellers. Pitched-blade impellers
(Figure 6) are often referred to as mixed-flow impellers. The
mean flow angle out of the impeller, measured from vertical,
is typically 3060 deg. The term mixed-flow refers to the
fact that the mean flow is neither vertical nor radial.
Pitched-blade impellers typically have two to eight
flat blades. The blades have a width-to-diameter ratio of
0.150.30, and the chord angles at the blade tip are generally
between 25 and 60 deg., but most commonly 45 deg. These
impellers are characterized by moderate turbulent-range
power numbers, typically 0.802.00, but most commonly
about 1.001.50.
Paddle impellers. Paddle impellers are also referred to as
radial-flow impellers because the mean flow angle out of the
impeller is mostly radial (i.e., 0 deg. relative to the impeller
rotational plane). There are two types of paddle impellers:
those that use a hub to support the blades (Figure 7a) and
those that use a disc to support the blades (Figure 7b).
32 www.aiche.org/cep June 2015 CEP
Transitional, Mixed Flow Laminar, Radial Flow
a.
b.
p Figure 7. Paddle impellers can have either hub-mounted (a) or disc-
mounted (b) blades.
Paddle impellers typically have two to eight flat blades
with width-to-diameter ratios of 0.150.30 and an attack
angle of 90 deg. from horizontal. They have high turbulent-
range power numbers, typically 2.005.50, and have a
pumping capability about 2040% less than a pitched-blade
impeller of the same horsepower at the same speed.
High-efficiency axial-flow impellers. Figure 8 presents
examples of high-efficiency axial-flow impellers. These
impellers are characterized by a relatively small number of
blades (typically three) and narrow blades with width-to-
diameter ratios of 0.150.20. They have low attack angles,
and their chord angles at the blade tip are generally
1525 deg.
Copyright 2015 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
 High-efficiency axial-flow impellers have low turbulent- a.
range power numbers, typically 0.200.35. The blades
have complex shapes, which makes these impellers more
expensive than flat-blade impellers. They typically have a
pumping capability about 70% greater than a pitched-blade
impeller of the same horsepower at the same speed.
Wide-blade hydrofoil impellers. Wide-blade hydrofoil
impellers (Figure 9) are characterized by a relatively small
number of blades, typically three or four; wide blades, typi-
cally with width-to-diameter ratios of 0.250.35; and chord
angles at the blade tip of 3040 deg.
These impellers have moderate turbulent-range power
numbers, typically 0.601.10. Their blades have complex
shapes, which translates into higher capital costs than those
of paddle impellers and pitched-blade impellers. They have
a pumping capability about 2040% greater than a pitched- b.
blade impeller of the same horsepower at the same speed.
High-efficiency radial-flow impellers. Paddle-style
impellers create large vortices when operated in turbulent
flow. High-efficiency radial-flow impellers (Figure 10)
generate dramatically smaller trailing vortex systems, or, in
some cases, no vortices.
High-efficiency radial-flow impellers most commonly
p Figure 9. Wide-blade hydrofoil impellers have width-to-diameter ratios
have six blades, but may have as few as four or as many as of 0.250.35 and typically have only three or four blades. Examples include
eight. The blades are concave on the forward side, and blade the Chemineer Maxflo W (a) and the Lightnin A315 (b).
heights are typically about 2030% of the impeller diam-
eter. These impellers produce near-perfect radial flow and
have high turbulent-range power numbers of 2.43.5. Their a.
pumping capability is about 5070% greater than a paddle
impeller of the same horsepower at the same speed.

a.

b.

b.

p Figure 8. High-efficiency axial-flow impellers have only a few blades,

typically three. The blades have complex shapes, which make them more p Figure 10. High-efficiency radial-flow impellers have concave blades
expensive than paddle impellers or pitched-blade impellers. Examples that are designed to minimize the trailing vortex system. Examples include
include the Chemineer HE-3 (a) and the Lightnin A310 (b). the Ekato Phasejet (a) and the Chemineer BT-6 (b).
Article continues on next page

Copyright 2015 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) CEP June 2015 www.aiche.org/cep 33
Back to Basics

a. c.

b.

p Figure 11. High-shear impellers trade off pumping for shear. There are three types of high-shear impellers: open (a), disc (b), and rotor-stator (c).

a. b. High-shear impellers. High-shear impellers

trade off pumping for shear. Operations that
require high shear typically require a high power
density as well. There are three styles of high-
Auger
shear impellers: the open impeller (Figure 11a),
the disc-style impeller (Figure 11b), and the
rotor-stator impeller (Figure 11c).
High-shear impellers operate at high speeds
of 3505,000 rpm, depending on size. They
operate at high power densities, sometimes as
high as 0.3 hp/gal. They have turbulent-range
power numbers from about 0.1 to 0.6.
Laminar-flow impellers. Most high-
viscosity fluids are rheologically complex and
p Figure 12. Helical-ribbon impellers are a type of laminar-flow impeller that can be manu- require special impellers for effective mixing.
factured with or without a center auger. The single helical-ribbon on the left (a) has a center These impellers are often referred to as close-
auger, while the double helical-ribbon on the right (b) does not.
clearance impellers, because they operate with
q Figure 13. The anchor impeller is a type a small gap between the impeller and the vessel
of laminar-flow impeller that provides high wall.
process-side heat transfer. One type of laminar-flow impeller is the
helical-ribbon impeller (Figure 12). Some
helical-ribbon impellers have a center auger (or
center screw), as shown in Figure 12a. If the
auger is too small, it will not provide as much
pumping as the ribbons, and the circulation
rate will decrease (2). To avoid this complexity,
most helical-ribbon impellers are manufactured
without a center auger (Figure 12b).
The anchor impeller (Figure 13), although
it is the least expensive, does not provide good
top to bottom fluid movement. As a conse-
quence, the blend time for anchor impellers is
p Figure 14. An auger impeller is a type
longer than for helical-ribbon impellers of the
of laminar-flow impeller that provides
efficient blending of viscous fluids in a same horsepower at the same speed. When heat
draft tube. transfer through the vessel wall is important,

34 www.aiche.org/cep June 2015 CEP Copyright 2015 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
 Table 1. Recommended impellers for miscible fluid blending. Table 2. Recommended impellers for solids suspension.
Fluid Reynolds Fluid Reynolds
Regime No. H/T Impeller Class Regime No. H/T Impeller Class
Turbulent > 2,500 1.50 High-efficiency axial-flow Turbulent > 2,500 1.00 High-efficiency axial-flow
< 0.50 High-efficiency axial-flow < 0.33 High-efficiency axial-flow
High-efficiency radial-flow High-efficiency radial-flow
Transitional 5002,500 < 0.75 High-efficiency axial-flow Transitional 5002,500 < 0.50 High-efficiency axial-flow
Pitched-blade Pitched-blade
< 0.33 High-efficiency axial-flow < 0.33 High-efficiency axial-flow
High-efficiency radial-flow High-efficiency radial-flow
Pitched-blade Pitched-blade
Paddle Paddle
10500 < 0.50 Pitched-blade 10500 < 0.50 Pitched-blade
Wide-blade hydrofoil Wide-blade hydrofoil
< 0.33 Pitched-blade < 0.33 Pitched-blade
Paddle Paddle
Laminar < 10 < 0.50 Anchor
Helical ribbon a slurry (i.e., applications in which solids must be suspended
0.50 Helical ribbon* and the contents blended to a uniform slurry consistency
*An auger impeller could also be used if little or no heat transfer through
within a specified period of time), when the level of agita-
the vessel wall is required. tion or the mean velocity required for blending is more than
six times than that required for suspending solids. Table 2
helical-ribbon and anchor impellers provide high process- recommends impellers for use in solids suspension.
side heat-transfer coefficients. Solid-suspension-dominated applications in laminar flow
The auger impeller (Figure 14) has been used effectively are very uncommon. Solids-settling velocities in laminar
when the ratio of the impeller diameter to the tank diam- flow are typically very low, and blending is the controlling
eter is in the vicinity of 0.5, but it does not produce good factor the particles, in essence, follow along with the flow.
velocities at the vessel wall. An auger impeller in a draft When the application also involves the drawdown of
tube is one of the most efficient methods for blending highly floating or hard-to-wet solids, the optimal impeller may or
viscous fluids (3). may not coincide with the recommended impeller classes
shown in Table 2. In those instances, refer to the mixer
Select the right impeller for blending miscible fluids manufacturers suggestion.
The most common mixing task is the blending of
miscible fluids. The right impeller for this depends on the Selecting the right impeller for dispersing gases
fluid regime (i.e., turbulent, transitional, or laminar). Table 1 Gas dispersion is especially important in the pharmaceu-
recommends the most effective impeller for miscible fluid tical industry, where it is used in fermenters, and in hydro-
blending based on the fluid regime, the Reynolds number, genation applications. Table 3 recommends impellers for
and the ratio of the liquid control height to the tank diameter dispersing gases in liquids.
(H/T) per impeller. The liquid control height is the height In gas dispersion, a key parameter is the aeration num-
that can be effectively controlled with a single impeller. For ber, NA, which is defined as:
applications with higher H/T values, use multiple impellers
of the same type.

Select the right impeller for suspending solids
Many applications require the suspension of solids to
a specific level of uniformity, ranging from off-bottom to
100% uniformity. In applications with viscous fluids, this
blending requirement will determine the most appropri-
ate impeller. The blending requirement may also dominate
impeller selection in applications that require the creation of
where Qg is the volumetric flowrate of gas at the impeller,
N is the impeller rotational speed, and D is the impeller
diameter.
High-efficiency radial-flow impellers can handle large
gas flowrates in turbulent flow with aeration numbers
as high as 2.5. In contrast, paddle impellers can typically
handle aeration numbers up to only about 0.4.
Article continues on next page

Copyright 2015 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) CEP June 2015 www.aiche.org/cep 35
Back to Basics

Table 3. Recommended impellers for gas dispersion.

Fluid Regime Reynolds No. H/T NA Impeller Class
Turbulent > 2,500 0.70 < 2.5 High-efficiency radial-flow lower impeller to provide dispersion, combined with
wide-blade hydrofoil upper impeller(s) to provide recirculation.
0.05 Wide-blade hydrofoil
High-efficiency radial-flow lower impeller to provide dispersion, combined with
wide-blade hydrofoil upper impeller(s) to provide recirculation
Transitional 5002,500 < 0.33 < 1.25 High-efficiency radial-flow or wide-blade hydrofoil lower impeller to provide disper-
sion, combined with wide-blade hydrofoil upper impeller(s) to provide recirculation
10500 < 0.33 < 0.05 Paddle
Wide-blade hydrofoil
Laminar* < 10 < 0.33 < 0.05 Paddle
Wide-blade hydrofoil
*This application area is extremely uncommon.

Select the right impeller for
blending immiscible liquid-liquid suspensions
A suspension is a mixture in which the dispersed
particles have Sauter mean diameters generally larger than
1 m. The Sauter mean diameter is defined as the diameter
of a sphere that has the same volume-to-surface-area ratio as
the particle of interest. Suspensions should not be confused
with emulsions, which contain colloidal particles that are
typically 1 to 1,000 nm in diameter. The particle size will
depend on power density (i.e., horsepower per unit volume),
Table 4. Recommended impellers for immiscible
the viscosity of each phase, and the surface tension between
the phases. Chapter 12 in the Handbook of Industrial Mixing
(4) is a good source for more detail on immiscible liquid-
liquid suspensions. Table 4 lists recommended impellers for
turbulent-flow and upper-transition-flow applications.
Care in impeller selection
The information presented here should be used only as
a guide and a starting point for impeller selection. At times,
process requirements may dictate the use of impellers that do
not coincide with the recommendations in this article. Seek
the advice of the mixer manufacturer. CEP

liquid-liquid suspensions in turbulent flow.

Sauter Mean Dia., m Impeller Class
JULIAN B. FASANO is President of Mixer Engineering Co. (Troy, OH;
140 High-shear Email: j.fasano@mixerengineering.com). He has 44 years of experience
in solving mixing problems for both process and mechanical design.
40100 Pitched-blade He worked for Chemineer, Inc., for 34 years, where he held positions
as Technical Director and Director of Engineering and Development.
Paddle He has authored over 95 technical papers on mixing. Fasano has a BS
> 100 High-efficiency axial-flow in chemical engineering from the Univ. of Dayton, an MS in chemical
engineering from Lehigh Univ., a PhD in materials engineering from the
High-efficiency radial-flow Univ. of Dayton, and an MBA from the Univ. of Dayton. He is a registered
Professional Engineer in the state of Ohio, and is a member of AIChE
and the North American Mixing Forum (NAMF).
Nomenclature
D = the impeller diameter
H = liquid control height
Literature Cited
N = impeller rotational speed 1. Dickey, D. S., and J. B. Fasano, How Geometry and Viscosity
NA = aeration number Influence Mixing, Chemical Engineering, 111 (2), pp. 4246
Np = the impeller's power number (Feb. 2004).
NRe = the impeller's Reynolds number 2. Nagata, S., et al., Mixing of Highly Viscous Non-Newtonian
P = power Liquids, International Chemical Engineering, 12 (1),
Qg = volumetric flowrate of gas at the impeller pp. 175182 (Jan. 1972).
T = tank diameter 3. Nagata, S., Mixing of High Viscosity Liquids, Kodansha Ltd.,
Tokyo, and John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY (1975).
Greek Letters 4. Leng, D., and R. Calabrese, Immiscible Liquid-Liquid Sys-
= fluid density tems, in Paul, E. L., et al., eds., Handbook of Industrial Mixing:
= fluid viscosity Science and Practice, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ (2004).

Copyright 2015 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)

36 www.aiche.org/cep June 2015 CEP