BAAL (DEITY) [Heb bacal]. Canaanite storm and fertil-
As we shall see, the situation is
ity god. The name, which means "lord," is an epithet of
the god Hadad (lit. "thunderer"). Well-known from the
OT, he is now extremely well-attested in the Ugaritic texts,
in addition to being mentioned in other ancient texts.
A. Baal in Extrabiblical Texts
1. The Ugaritic Texts
2. Later Phoenician Sources
B. Baal in the OT
1. Israelite Worship of Baal
2. OT Use of Baal Motifs
A. Baal in Extrabiblical Texts
1. The Ugaritic Texts. This deity is first attested in the
Ebla texts from the second half of the 2d millennium B.C.,
where he appears as 'a-da, and in the Egyptian Execration
Texts of about 1800 B.C., but it is the Ug mythological texts
from Ras Shamra on the Syrian coast which shed the most
light on him. He is clearly the most active and prominent
of all the Canaanite deities, even though El is technically
the supreme god, to whose ultimate authority Baal is
subordinate. The Ug texts depict him primarily as the
great storm god: the fertility of the land depends on the
rain this god supplies. His character is well-represented on
a famous stele discovered at Ugarit, which shows him
standing (on mountains or clouds?) brandishing a club in
his right hand and a lance in his left, the upper part
having the form of a tree or stylized lightning (cf. ANEP,
pi. 490). In one of the Baal myths, the god uses 2 clubs,
clearly symbolizing thunder and lightning, to defeat Yam.
While Baal is regularly spoken of in the Ug texts as the
son of Dagon, a god who otherwise is only rarely men-
tioned there (e.g., KTU 1.2.1.19; 1.5.VI.23-24 = CTA
2.1.19; 5.IV.23-24), he is also referred to as the son of the
supreme god II (cf. KTU 1.3.V.35; 1.4.1V47 = CTA
3.VE.43; 4.IV.47). How these statements are to be recon-
ciled is not completely certain. They could reflect diver-
gent traditions, but it is more likely that Dagon is under-
stood to be literally his father, and that Baal was also the
"son" of El in the sense that he was a descendant of El (his
grandson?), a member of the pantheon of gods which had
its ultimate origin in El.
We come now to Baal's consorts. In the Ug texts it is the
goddess Anath who appears as Baal's primary consort. It
is she who goes searching for him after his descent into
the underworld and participates in his conflict with Mot,
for example. Astarte also appears as his consort, though
I 545
she is not so prominent.
reversed in the OT: Anath appears only as the name of
Shamgar's father and vestigially in place names (Anathoth
and Beth-Anath), whereas Astarte, her name distorted to
Ashtoreth or often Ashtaroth (the plural form), appears
frequently even though we are not told much about her.
Moreover, Asherah is often paired with Baal in the OT,
suggesting that she too is considered to be Baal's consort,
a point discussed later in greater detail. Returning to
Anath, it is curious to note that she is constantly referred
to as "the virgin Anath." It is not to be understood from
this that she never had sexual intercourse with Baal;
rather, the title appears to be explained by an Egyptian
reference to her as the goddess who conceives but never
bears (Papyrus Harris).
According to the Ug texts, Baal's dwelling was on Mt.
spn, probably to be vocalized $apan (some scholars call it
Zaphon following the Heb vocalization). The mountain in
Hittite is called Hazzi, whence its classical name Casius. It
is located about 40 km N of Ugarit, at Jebel el-Aqrac, 1,759
m above sea levelappropriately enough, the highest
mountain in Syria. The mountain's location to the N of
Canaan accounts for the apparent derivation of the Heb
word for "north" (sdpon) from its name. Echoes of its
mythological sense are found in Ps 48:3Eng 48:2, where
the term is applied to Zion, and also in Isa 14:13. There
were also various places in Egypt called Baal-zephon, one
of which is mentioned in connection with the Exodus
deliverance in Exod 14:2.
The god Baal in the Ugaritic texts has a number of
epithets. The mostc frequently occurring are ^aPiyn bH "the
victor Baal," rkb rpt "rider of the clouds," and zbl bH ^ars
"the prince lord (Baal) of the earth." Suggested echoes of
the latter 2 expressions in the Bible are discussed below.
Although,the god Baal is mentioned in many Ug texts,
one work in particular is of central importance, the Baal
cycle on 6 tablets in KTU 1.1-6 ( = CTA 1-6). This is
broadly divisible into 3 main sections: (i) the conflict be-
tween Baal and Yam ("Sea") in KTU 1.1-2 ( = CTA 1-2);
(ii) the building of Baal's house (palace/temple) in KTU
1.34 ( = CTA 3^4); and (iii) the conflict between Baal and
Mot ("Death") in KTU 1.5-6 ( = CTA 5-6). The following
is a summary of the main points made in these 6 tablets
concerning Baal.
(i) The god Yam sends messengers to El and the assem-
bly of the gods on Mt. LI, demanding that Baal be given
up to him. Baal refuses to be given up, and eventually a
battle takes place between Baal and Yam. Yam at first
BAAL (DEITY)
appears victorious, but in the end Baal defeats Yam with
the help of two clubs made by the craftsman god Kothar-
and-Hasis, and Baal is proclaimed king.
(ii) A king must naturally have a palace, and so the 2d
main division is to a considerable degree taken up with the
building of Baal's palace. Anath first demands a palace for
her consort from El, using threats, but is unsuccessful.
Subsequently, following the urging of Baal and Anath,
Athirat requests El to grant Baal a palace; unlike Anath
she is successful. Kothar-and-Hasis builds the palace, and
particular interest centers on the question of constructing
a window for the palace, which Kothar-and-Hasis urges on
Baal. Baal first declines this but eventually comes round to
the idea.
(iii) The 3d section concerns the conflict between Baal
and Mot. Mot uses threats to bring Baal, together with his
accompanying meteorological phenomena, down into the
underworld, which is Mot's realm. This duly takes place
and a period of dryness comes over the earth. El and
Anath each engage in ritual lamentation over Baal's dis-
appearance. Athtar is nominated to be king in Baal's place
by Athirat, but he is not tall enough to occupy Baal's
throne, so he descends from it. There is a scene in which
Anath destroys Mot, the various verbs employed suggesting
that she is treating him as if he were corn. El then has a
dream in which he sees the fertility of the earth restored,
which gives him confidence that Baal is now alive again.
Baal smites the sons of Athirat and ascends his throne.
Then we read that in the 7th year Mot complains about his
fate at the hands of Baal, and a scene follows in which Baal
and Mot struggle with each other. After the intervention
of Shapash (the sun goddess), Mot concedes defeat.
One problem concerns the relationship between Baal's
conflict with Yam and the creation of the world. In the OT
we find the conflict with the waters associated with the
creation of the world on a number of occasions (cf. Pss
74:12-17; 89:10-15Eng 89:9-14, etc.). Similarly in the
Babylonian text Enuma dish, Marduk's defeat of the sea
monster Tiamat is connected with the creation of the
world. No such conflict occurs in the Baal-Yam text, but
the OT and Babylonian parallels nevertheless cause some
scholars to assume this connection. There does not seem
to be room in our Ug Baal-Yam text for an account of the
creation of the world, although it is possible that there was
also a primeval conflict between Baal and Anath, on the
one hand, and Yam, Leviathan, etc., on the other, which
was a prelude to El's creation of the world. Various Ug
texts may allude to this (KTU 1.3.III.39-46; 1.5.1.1-3;
1.82.1-3; 1.83.3-10 = CTA 3.IIID.36-43; 5.1.1-3; UT
1001.1-3; 1003.3-10; cf. KTU 1.6.VI.51-53 = CTA
6.VI.50-52).
There has been considerable discussion whether the'
Baal cycle and, in particular, the Baal-Mot cycle reflects
the seasonal cycle of an ordinary agricultural year or a 7-
year (sabbatical) cycle. The chief proponent of a cyclic
seasonal interpretation of the whole of the Baal epic is J.
C. de Moor (1971), who compares the allusions in the
various sections with current climactic conditions known
from Syria today. However, there are a number of objec-
tions to the details of de Moor's thesis, as for example his
reordering of the tablets so that the first 3 are to be read
in the sequence 3, 1, 2. Thus, tablet 3 is related to the
546 I
autumn, tablets 1 and 2 to the winter, tablets 4 and 5 to
the spring, and tablet 6 to the summer. However, de Moor's
reordering creates a problem in connection with the build-
ing of Baal's house, which de Moor has to suppose was
begun, then abandoned, and only later completed. An-
other problem is that de Moor sometimes advocates novel
and debatable translations, e.g. shrr "be dust colored"
instead of "be hot."
It would be incorrect, however, to reject all seasonal
elements in the work. The crucial passage concerns An-
ath's destruction of Mot, where she is clearly treating him
like corn. Why would a whole series of agricultural images
be used if, as some suppose, we simply have a picture of
destruction and nothing more? We read that Anath "seized
divine Mot, with a blade she split him, with a sieve she
winnowed him, with fire she burnt him, with millstones
she ground him, in a field she sowed him . . ." (KTU
1.6.II.30-35 = CTA 6.II.30-35). From this it would ap-
pear that Mot symbolizes the corn in some way, clearly
indicating a seasonal rather than a sabbatical cycle. There
would be no corn to be symbolized in a period of famine
as presupposed by the sabbatical-cycle view, and in any
case, nothing else in the text suggests a famine. How then
are we to understand the reference to "the 7th year" (KTU
1.6.V.8-9 = CTA 6.V.8-9)? This is not entirely clear, but
proponents of a sabbatical rather than a seasonal interpre-
tation of the Baal-Mot cycle appear to overlook the fact
that the destruction of Mot and the resurrection of Baal
take place only after "months" have passed (cf. KTU
1.6.II.26-27 = CTA 6.II.26-27) and that the reference to
the 7th year occurs after this. The text clearly is therefore
not saying that Baal is in the underworld for 7 years.
(Contrast the Hadad text, KTU 1.12.11.44-45 = CTA
12.11.45-46, and the Aqhat text, KTU 1.19.1.42-44 = CTA
19.1.42-44, where Baal does disappear for 7 or 8 years.)
One considerably disputed subject is the relation be-
tween Baal and El. Is Baal in conflict with El or are the two
gods in harmony? The latter would appear to be nearer
the truth, though there are signs of tension. The extreme
claim, made, for example, by M. H. Pope (1955: 2732),
the Baal deposed El, on the analogy of Zeus' dethroning
of Kronos, and that there may be a reference to this in the
fragmentary and obscure KTU 1.1 .V (= CTA 1 .V) is cer-
tainly false. El remains throughout the supreme deity
(L'Heureux 1979: 1-108) and there are allusions which
make it almost certain that Baal was appointed king by El
(d.KTU 1.3.V35-36 = CTA 3.VE.43-44; 4.IV.47-48)just
as other deities were. Moreover, although Mot is called
"the beloved of El," El does lament when he hears of Baal's
death (KTU 1.5.VI.11-25 = CTA 5.VI.11-25) and rejoices
when he has his vision of Baal's resurrection, following the
destruction of Mot (KTU 1.6.III.4-21 = CTA 6.III.4-21).
Moreover, Shapash says that El will take away Mot's throne
if he goes on opposing Baal (KTU 1.6.VI.22-29 = CTA
6.VI.22-29). Again, although Yam is called "the beloved of
El" and El appears prepared to give up Baal to Yam's
messengers, the context suggests that this was due to fear
on El's part (cf. KTU 1.2.1.21-24 = CTA 2.1.21-24). To be
sure, there are signs of tension between El and Baal, and
open hostility does seem to be present in KTU 1.12 ( =
CTA 12), the so-called Hadad text, where El is ultimately
responsible for the devouring beasts which lure Baal to his
I 547 BAAL (DEITY)
death. This, however, belongs to a work separate from the manifestations of the Virgin Mary within Roman Catholi-
main Baal cycle: in this latter there are references indicat- cism. The OT itself speaks a number of times of "the
ing hostility between Baal and the sons of Athirat (KTU Baals" (Judg 2:11; 3:7; etc.). It is not clear whether this is
1.6.1.39-43; 1.6.V.1 = CTA 6.1.39-43; 6.V.1), though not a way of speaking of the different local manifestations of
with El himself. Baal or whether it is speaking of Canaanite deities more
2. Later Phoenician Sources. In the Phoenician inscrip- generally. We have the same problem over the references
tions, various manifestations of the god Baal are attested, to "the Ashtaroth" (Judg 2:13; 1 Sam 7:4; etc.), which
e.g., Baal-Shamem (KAI 4.3), Baal of Lebanon (KAI 31.1, could mean local manifestations of Astarte (Ashtoreth) or
2), Baal of Sidon (KAI 14.18). In Punic inscriptions the Canaanite goddesses generally (cf. Akkadian Hani u istardti,
leading deity is called Baal-hammon (e.g. KAI 102.1; "gods and goddesses").
103.1), and it is widely believed that he is to be equated Reading the OT, it becomes clear that it was the Baal
with El, largely because he was called Kronos by classical cult that provided the greatest and most enduring threat
writers. However, it seems likely, as the name suggests, that to the development of exclusive Yahweh worship within
this deity was actually a form of Baal: "Baal of the incense ancient Israel. The fact that the Israelites were settled
altar" (an incense altar features in a number of depictions among the Canaanites, for whom the worship of Baal was
of his cult). Sometimes he is simply called Baal in Punic so important, and that Palestine is a land utterly depen-
texts (he is never called El), which suggests that Baal is the dent for its fertility upon the rain, which was held to be
god's name and that it is not simply an epithet meaning Baal's special realm of influence, accounts for the tempting
"lord." Moreover, in Latin inscriptions he bears the epi- nature of this cult as well as the strength of the OT polemic
thets frugifer and deus frugum (e.g. C1L 8.4581), indicatingagainst it.
a fertility god, and his consort Tinnit is equated with At the time of the entry into the promised land we hear
Astarte (Baal's wife) in a text from Sarepta in Phoenicia of the temptation to participate in the cult of Baal-Peor at
(Pritchard 1978: 105). Finally, there is evidence that Mt'. Peor in the land of Moab (Num 25:1-9; Deut 4:3; Ps
Kronos could, on occasion, denote Baal as well as El, and 106:28; Hos 9:10). Subsequently, during the period of the
in Hannibal's oath in his treaty with Philip V of Macedon, Judges, Israel worshiped the Baals (Judg 2:11, 13; 3:7;
recorded in Polybius 7.9.2-3, Baal-hammon actually ap- 10:6, 10; 1 Sam 7:4; 12:10). The text recounts that Gideon
pears to be called Zeus. It was probably the fact that pulled down an altar of Baal and cut down an Asherah
Kronos devoured his own children that encouraged his (Judg 6:25-32). During the Divided Monarchy Ahab mar-
equation with Baal-hammon, the god of child sacrifice. ried Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal, king of the Sidonians,
Philo of Byblos in his Phoenician History clearly hasand worshiped Baal. He erected an altar for Baal in the
knowledge of the god Baal, but what he says is far removed house of Baal, which he built in Samaria and made an
from the authentic Baal of the Ug texts. In addition to Asherah (1 Kgs 16:31-33). Ahab's promulgation of the
Beelsamen (i.e. Baal-Shamem), who is equated with the Baal cult provides the background for the famous con-
sun, Baal appears in Philo both under the name of Zeus frontation between Elijah and the prophets of Baal on Mt.
Belos, who is one of Kronos' (El's) children, and also under Carmel in 1 Kings 18. Unlike Elijah, Ahab clearly did not
the name of Demarous (= Zeus = Adodos, i.e., Hadad). see his promulgation of Baal as being incompatible with
We read that "greatest Astarte and Zeus," called both Yahweh worship; in fact, Ahab's sons Ahaziah and Jehoram
Demarous and Adodos, king of gods, were ruling over the bear Yahwistic names. (On the identification of Ahab's
land with the consent of Kronos (Attridge and Oden 1981: Baal, see below.) Ahaziah is said to have worshipped Baal
55). We may compare the picture in the Ug texts, where (1 Kgs 22:53)indeed, we read that he consulted Baal-
Baal's kingship seems to be exercised under the authority zebub, the god of Ekron, when he was ill (2 Kgs 1:2-16), a
of El. It is also stated that "Demarous advanced against name (lit. "lord of the fly") which looks as though it is a
Pontes, but Pontos routed him (Attridge and Oden 1981: distortion of Baal-zebul ("Baal the Prince," cf. Ug zbl bH
53). This allusion is possibly a reflection of Baal's conflict and NT Beelzebul). Ahab's other son, Jehoram, is said to
with Yam (Sea), though it should be pointed out that have put away the pillar of Baal which his father had made
whereas Baal defeated Yam, Pontos routed Demarous! (2 Kgs 3:2), though he is still regarded by the Deuterono-
Although Muth (= Mot) is mentioned, Philo of Byblos mist as an evil king (2 Kgs 3:2-3). It is clear, however, that
displays no knowledge of the Baal-Mot cycle with its ac- Baal worship persisted, for Jehu was later ruthlessly to
count of Baal's death and resurrection. massacre the Baal priests, prophets, and worshipers in the
temple of Baal as well as destroy the temple itself and the
B. Baal in the OT pillar of Baal within it (2 Kgs 10:18-27). This act was later
1. Israelite Worship of Baal. Prior to the discovery of to receive the condemnation of the prophet Hosea (cf. Hos
the Ug texts it was sometimes thought that there were 1:4). In addition to the N kingdom (2 Kgs 17:16), Manas-
various and quite-separate gods called Baal. This idea was seh is singled out as worshipping Baal (2 Kgs 21:3), but
encouraged by the presence in the OT of various com- Josiah in his great reformation put an end to his cult (2
pound place names involving Baal, e.g. Baal-peor, Baal- Kgs 23:4-5). Among the canonical prophets it is Hosea
hermon, Baal-meon, Baal-hazor, Baal-gad, etc. However, and Jeremiah who seem most exercised by the Baal cult
with the discovery of the Ug texts it became clear that (e.g., Hos 2:10Eng 2:8; 13:1; Jer 2:8; 23:13).
there was one great Canaanite storm-and-fertility deity In the postexilic period we do not hear of Baal, apart
Baal-Hadad of cosmic stature, so that we must assume that from a reference in Zech 12:11 to the Aramean cult of
these OT allusions refer to particular local manifestations Hadad-rimmon in the plain of Megiddo. Also we need to
of this one god. We may compare the variety of local remember that Antiochus IV Epiphanes rededicated the
BAAL (DEITY)
temple in Jerusalem in 168 B.C. to Zeus Olympios, who was
a Hellenistic form of Baal-Shamem. "The abomination of
desolation" (siqqus somem or siqqus misomem) in Dan
11:31; 12:11 is a play on the name of the god Baal-
Shamem.
Some discussion of the identity of the Baal propagated
by Ahab and Jezebel is necessary. It has often been thought
that this is a different god from the one presupposed
elsewhere in the OT, and is rather to be equated with the
Tyrian deity Melqart. This view, however, is to be rejected
(Mulder 1979). It is not until a 2d century B.C inscription
from Malta that we find Melqart referred to as Baal ("the
Baal [or lord] of Tyre," KAI 47:1). There is every reason
to believe that Jezebel's Baal was in fact Baal-Shamem,
another Tyrian deity who is in fact identical with the Baal
attested elsewhere in the OT. (i) The Baal of 1 Kings 18 is
clearly a god who was believed to bring lightning and rain;
classical sources, however, reveal that Melqart was thought
of as being asleep during the winter months when these
phenomena abounded, (ii) The treaty between Baal king
of Tyre and Esarhaddon king of Assyria in the 7th century
B.C. clearly distinguishes Baal-Shamem and 2 other Baal
deities, who manifest themselves in the storm, from the
god Melqart (ANET, 534). (iii) The god of Carmel, where
the contest takes place in 1 Kings 18, was always equated
with Zeus. Now it was Baal-Shamem who was regularly
identified with Zeus, Melqart being rather equated with
Herakles.
Because the god Baal was so detested by the biblical
tradition, the word boset "shame" has sometimes been
substituted for the god's name by a scribe. This is the case
in Jer 3:24; 11:13; and Hos 9:10. This substitution also
occurs in various personal names: cf. Ish-bosheth (2 Sam
2:10) for Eshbaal (1 Chr 8:33; 9:39), Mephibosheth (2 Sam
4:4; 9:6; etc.) for Meribaal (or Meribbaal) (1 Chr 8:34;
9:40), and Jerubbesheth (2 Sam 11:21) for Jerubbaal (Gid-
eon, Judg 6:32). Similarly Astarte (Ashtart) is distorted to
Ashtoreth, reflecting the vowels of the word boset, and
Molech is probably a comparable distortion, the original
form perhaps being Melek.
The worship of the Baals in the OT is sometimes associ-
ated with that of the Ashtaroth (Judg 2:13; 10:6; 1 Sam
7:4; 12:10), which must reflect the fact that Astarte was
one of Baal's consorts in Canaanite religion. More curious
is the repeated pairing of Baal and Asherah (cf. Judg 3:7;
6:25-32; 1 Kgs 16:32-33; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16; 21:3), since
in the Ug texts Asherah (Athirat) was the consort of El, not
of Baal. Did Baal take over Asherah as his consort? The
Hittite-Canaanite Elkunirsa myth (ANET, 519), with its
evidence of Asherah's (ASertu's) flirting with the storm
god and alienation from El (Elkunirsa), might possibly
lend support to this. Alternatively, the pairing of Baal and
Asherah may be a sign of confusion on the part of the OT;
or again, perhaps this pairing is not intended to imply that
one was the consort of the other. Certainty is not possible.
As for Anath, who appears prominently as a consort of
Baal in the Ug texts, she appears in the OT only vestigially
in the place names Anathoth and Beth-Anath, and as the
name of Shamgar's father.
There is evidence from the OT that Yahweh and Baal
could be equated in syncretistic circles. One may compare
the personal name Bealiah, lit. "Yahweh is Baal" (1 Chr
548 I
12:6Eng 12:5), and Hosea's declaration, "And in that
day, says the Lord, you will call me 'My husband,' and no
longer will you call me 'My Baal' " (2:18Eng 2:16). This
9:27;
syncretism made the Baal cult all the more insidious from
the point of view of the Yahweh purists. The Baal cult or
Baalized Yahweh cult is associated in the OT with the high
places (bamot), whose characteristic appurtenances include
pillars (massebot), i.e., symbols of the male deity, Asherim
(wooden cult symbols of the goddess Asherah), and altars.
These are sometimes spoken of as being situated "on every
high hill and under every luxuriant tree" (cf. 1 Kgs 14:23).
Although there are no indications of this in the Ug texts,
it seems likely from a number of OT allusions that sacred
prostitution formed part of what was involved in the
fertility cult of Baal. That sacred prostitutes existed in
Israel is clear from a number of allusions, cf. Hos 4:14,
where hazzonot "the prostitutes" are mentioned parallel
with haqqidUbt (lit. "the holy ones") in a cultic context, and
Gen 38:21-22, where Tamar is described as a qHesa,
whereas in v 15 she is called a zona. This makes it clear
that the word qidesd refers to a sacred prostitute. The
masculine form qddes "male cult prostitute" occurs in 1
Kgs 14:24; 15:12; 22:46; 2 Kgs 23:6-7; and Deut 23:17.
The fact that "harlotry" and "adultery" constitute such a
common metaphor for apostasy to Canaanite worship in
the OT is perhaps accountable for in the light of sacred
prostitution's role within the Baal cultcf. Hos 5:3-5;
6:10; 7:4; Jer 2:20; 3:2-4, 9:1(Eng 9:2); Ezekiel 16 and
23. In fact it is not always clear whether the terminology is
literal or metaphorical.
2. OT Use of Baal Motifs. That Yahweh was seen as Baal
in some circles is shown by Hos 2:18Eng 2:16, which
criticizes those who refer him as "my Baal," and by the
personal name Bealiah (1 Chr 12:6Eng 12:5), as'noted
above. However, the OT opposes the equation of Yahweh
with Baal (Hos 2:18Eng 2:16), in contrast with its atti-
tude to El, whose identification with Yahweh is admitted
(Exod 6:3). But it is clear that the OT does nevertheless
ascribe certain Baalistic functions to Yahweh. For example,
there are a number of references in the OT to Yahweh's
conflict with the dragon and the sea (e.g., Ps 74:12-15; Isa
27:1; Job 7:12). As at Ugarit the sea conflict is associated
with the deity's kingship (cf. Ps 74:12-15; Isa 27:1; Job
7:12). Following Baal's victory over the sea his palace/
temple was built for him, and similarly in Exod 15:17 we
read of the establishment of Yahweh's sanctuary, described
in terms reminiscent of Baal's, following his victory at
(rather than with) the sea. In Daniel 7 the imagery of the
one like a son of man coming with the clouds of heaven,
enthroned by the Ancient of Days and victorious over the
beasts of the sea, ultimately derives from the figure of
Baal, "rider of the clouds," whose kingship resulted from
his victory over the sea, and was subordinate to the su-
preme god El, "father of years."
Yahweh's manifestation in the storm is sometimes de-
picted in terms reminiscent of Baal. Thus, in Psalm 29 we
find not only the theme of Yahweh's kingship and his
conflict with the waters (vv 3, 10), reminiscent of Baal, but
also a glorious theophany in the thunderstorm, with seven
thunders (vv 3a, 4a, 4b, 5, 7, 8, 9) which are doubtless
related to Baal's "seven lightnings . . . eight storehouses of
thunder" (KTU 1.101.3-4 = Ugaritica V.3.3-4) ("seven/
I 549 BAAL (PERSON)
eight" appears to mean "seven"). It is doubtful, however, Pritchard, J. B. 1978. Recovering Sarepta, a Phoenician City. Prince-
whether the expression rokeb bd'drdbot used of Yahweh in ton.
Ps 68:5Eng 68:4 is to be rendered "rider on the clouds" Smith, M. S. 1986. Interpreting the Baal Cycle. UF 18: 313-39.
on the analogy of Baal's Ugaritic epithet rkb 'rpt, contrary Zijl, P. J. van. 1972. Baal. A Study of Texts in Connexion with Baal in
to a widely held view. The expected translation of the the Ugaritic Texts. AOAT 206. Neukirchen-Vluyn.
Hebrew expression would be "rider through the deserts," JOHN DAY
since 'arabd regularly means "desert" in the OT, and it
should be noted that this fits the context in the Psalm,
dealing as it does with the wilderness wanderings. (Cf. too BAAL (PERSON) [Heb ba'al]. This name is shared by 2
Isa 40:3, bd'drdbd mesilla "a highway in the desert" with Pspeople in the Hebrew Bible, both preexilic figures men-
68:5Eng 68:4, sollu. larbkeb bd'dbdt "raise a highway for tioned only in 1 Chronicles. The name's interpretation is
him who rides through the deserts.") Probably the Hebrew debated: some understand it as a reference to the Syro-
expression is to be understood as a deliberate distortion of Canaanite deity Baal (IPN 120-22), while others claim that
Baal's epithet rkb 'rpt. ba'al is "master," and is an appellation of YHWH (Gray
Various other imagery ultimately related to Baal has also 1896: 141-46). Each o these interpretations is based on
been taken up in the OT. Allusion has already been made different understandings of preexilic Israelite religion,
to the use of the term sapbn to denote Yahweh's dwelling especially the extent to which it was monotheistic, polythe-
place in Ps 48:3Eng 48:2 and Isa 14:13, though the istic, or syncretistic. The evidence is inconclusive; accord-
context of the latter passage possibly indicates mediation ing to 2 Sam 5:20 a place was named Baal-Perazim, "Baal
of the imagery through the Jebusite cult of El-Elyon (cf. has broken through" because "the LORD has broken
Isa 14:14). The imagery of Baal's death and resurrection through my enemies before me, like a burstingflood,"and
appears to have left its mark on the book of Hosea. It has according to 1 Chr 12:6Eng c
12:5 one of David's heroes
long been noted that the imagery of the death and resur- was named Bealiah (be alyd) which may fit either "Baal is
rection of Israel (a metaphor for its exile and restoration) Yah(weh)" or "Yahweh is the master." The name of one c
of
in Hos 5:12-6:3 appears to reapply the imagery of a dying David's heroes alternates between Beeliada, bHyd "Baal
and rising fertility deity, in view of the reference to the knows" or "attends to" (1 Chr 14:7) and Eliada, Hyd' "God
coming of the rain in the context of resurrection in Hos knows" or "attends to" (2 Sam 5:16; 1 Chr 3:8). This
6:3. What appears not to have been noticed is the relevance interchange could either suggest that Baal is being used as
of the parallel imagery of death and resurrection applied an appellation of YHWH, who is "master," or that among
to Israel in Hosea 13-14, which is introduced with the certain groups, the deities Baal and YHWH were syncre-
words "but he (sc. Israel) incurred guilt through Baal and tistically identified, a process that is strongly suggested by
died" (Hos 13:1). This strongly suggests that the imagery Hosea, especially 2:18Eng 2:16 ("And in that day, says
of Israel's death and resurrection has been consciously the LORD, you will call me, 'my husband,' and no longer
appropriated from the Baal cult, against which the will you call me, 'my Baal.' "). Whether or not the personal
prophet is clearly polemicizing throughout his preaching. name Baal is a pagan theophoric name depends on the
In these and other ways Baalistic imagery is appropriated extent to which ancient Israel was polytheistic; Kaufmann
by the OT. (For further discussion see Mulden and de (1972) and more recently Tigay (AIR, 157-94) claim that
Moor, ba'al, TDOT2: 181-200). preexilic Israel was not polytheistic, while Smith (1971:
13-56) and others (e.g., Freedman AIR, 315-35) claim
Bibliography that it was.
Other biblical names have the element Baal in them
Attridge, H. W, and Oden, R. A. 1981. Philo of Byblos: the Phoenician
History. CBQMS 9. Washington. (TPNAH, 54-63). These names are from the period of
Day, J. 1985. God's Conflict with the Dragon and the Sea: Saul and David,
Echoes of a and one of the editors of the book of
Canaanite Myth in the Old Testament. Cambridge. Kings has changed the Baal element in them to boset,
Eissfeldt, O. 1932. Baal Zaphon, Zeus Kasios und der Durchzug"shame."der Names with the element Baal are also attested to
Israeliten durchs Meer. Beitrage zur Religionsgeschichte5 des
times for the later preexilic period in the extrabiblical
Altertums 1. Halle. epigraphic corpus, 4 times in the Samaria ostraca, and
once Cultures.
Habel, N. C. 1964. Yahweh versus Baal: a Conflict of Religious in an inscription from Mesad Hashavyahu (Tigay
New York. 1986: 65-66). None of these attestations clarify whether
the element ba'al refers to the divinity or should be ren-
Kapelrud, A. S. 1952. Baal in the Ras Shamra Texts. Copenhagen.
L'Heureux, C. 1979. Rank among the Canaanite Gods: El, dered Ba'al,"master,"
and as an appellation for YHWH.
the Repha'im. HSM 21. Missoula. 1. A Reubenite according to the genealogy of 1 Chr 5:5.
Margalit, B. 1980. A Matter of "Life and Death": A Study ofThisthe Baal-
genealogy lists the descendents of Joel, whose exact
Mot Epic (CTA 4-5-6). AOAT 206. Neukirchen-Vluyn. relationship to Reuben is not known. According to v 6,
Moor, J. C. de. 1971. The Seasonal Pattern in the UgariticBaal'sMythsonofBeerah was exiled to Assyria by Tiglath-pileser
Ba'lu. AOAT 16. Neukirchen-Vluyn. III, in the 2d half of the 8th century B.CE. However, "son"
. 1972. New Year with Canaanites and Israelites. 2 in vols.these genealogies often indicates a linear descendent,
Kamper
Cahiers 21-22. Kampen. rather than a "son" of the next generation, so it is difficult
Mulder, M. J. 1962. Ba'al in het oude Testament. The Hague.to date when this Baal lived. The presence of the poten-
. 1979. De naam van de afwezige God op de Karmel. tially problematic
Onderzo ek name Baal within this genealogy proba-
naar de Baal van de Karmel in I Koningen 18. Leiden. bly attests to its antiquity (Williamson Chronicles NCBC,
Pope, M. H. 1955. El in the Ugaritic Texts. VTSup 2. Leiden.85). The genealogy in vv 4-5 shares the names Joel and