FAO Forage Profile - Botswana

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles
BOTSWANA
by
Jeremy Burgess
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FAO 2006
3
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 5
The agriculture sector of the economy 5
Farm tenure 6
Farm sizes 6
Socio-economic and marketing issues 6
2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY 7

Major topographic features 7
3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES 10

Climate 10
Agro-ecological zones 12
Vegetation 15
Current land systems 15
Main vegetation zones and grassland types 15
Regional vegetation distribution 15
4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 16

Production statistics 20
A summary of beef statistics and production systems 22
Drought effects on the cattle population 22
Stocking rates 22
Production systems 22
Commercial production 22
Limitations to livestock production 23
Livestock disease 24
Available land is now running out 24
Current social and economic conditions affecting livestock producers 25
The future? 26
Livestock types and marketing 26
Diversification into wildlife and eco-tourism products, plus limitations 28
5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE 28

Natural pastures 28
Limitations of the forage resource 28
6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF FODDER RESOURCES 29

Improved pastures and sown forages 29
Crop residues 29
Pastures research summaries for 19701990 30
7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL 32
8. REFERENCES 33
4 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
9. CONTACTS 35
APPENDIXES 36
APPENDIX 1. Detailed regional vegetation associations 36
APPENDIX 2. A brief palaeo-history of the land formation processes that have created
the current land-systems 44
APPENDIX 3. The development of the livestock sector in Botswana, 1895 to 1965 45
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 5
1. INTRODUCTION
Botswana is a land-locked country,

with South Africa to the east and
south, Namibia to the west and north,
Zambia to the north and Zimbabwe
to the northeast. It lies between
approximately 20 to 29.15E and 18
to 27 S (see Figure 1). The country
covers approximately 582 000 km2.
Mean altitude above sea level is
approximately 1000 m. According to
the World Factbook the July 2006
estimated population was 1 639 833
with a 0.04% growth rate.
A large part of the country at
17% (104460km) is national parks,
game, forest and private reserves.
The pastoral land includes virtually
all that outside national parks, game
and forest reserves, major cities and
towns.
The area under crops varies from
year to year, as the country is prone
to drought on a regular basis; even Figure 1. Location of Botswana within southern Africa
in good years the crop area is only [Source: The World Factbook]
around 0.65% of the land area. There
is also a disparity between areas planted and areas harvested in most years, since the harvest depends on
the rainfall during the growing season.
The agriculture sector of the economy

The agriculture sector of the economy is driven largely by the international beef market including South
Africa and the European Community. There is very little commercial crop production, and most crops
are produced for subsistence, or for sale locally. A list of typical agricultural enterprises is given below:
(i) Large stock: Beef ranching and traditional cattle post production systems; game ranching; feedlots;
dairying.
[Cattle post production systems refer to unfenced rangeland where there are central watering
points. The cattle owner, or more often a herdsman, lives in a small hut near a borehole, and provides
water to livestock. The water is most commonly pumped from a borehole, but in areas where there is a
shallow water table such as in pans and dry river beds water is taken from hand dug wells. The post
often has a holding kraal, which was traditionally made of thorn fence, or upright tree trunks dug into the
ground. Nowadays, the kraals are most commonly built with poles and wire as in commercial ranching.
The cattle are let out in the day-time, and may roam for several days before returning to drink. In winter
when temperatures are mild, and in the rainy season, cattle can wander far from their home kraal. Goats
and sheep are generally found closer to the kraals, and tend to return every night, while non-lactating
cattle tend to stay out from time to time except where there are large predators. Cows with calves at
foot tend to remain closer to the kraal, as the calves are kept in the kraal until they are old enough to
fend off predators mainly jackals but in some areas they are also preyed upon by larger predators such
as leopard, lion, wild dog and cheetah. The cows with calves also stay closer as they need to drink water
more regularly than dry cows and other types of livestock. Cattle posts also have donkeys - mainly for
transport, and sometimes horses.]
(ii) Crops and forestry: Forestry; dryland/rainfed cropping e.g. sorghum, millet, maize, sunflower,
melons; Irrigated farming e.g. vegetables; flood recession, &/or molapo farming similar to irrigated
farming using residual soil moisture (this is arable farming in drainage lines and depressions where
flooding is seasonal or, in the desert areas, where soils have higher moisture storage capability). In the
north, there are ephemeral rivers that flow and dry up as the flood waters recede, on an annual basis;
people then plant grains and vegetables in the soils that still retain moisture at relatively shallow depths,
within the root zones of the crops; horticulture and hydroponics extensive rural vegetable and fruit
growing, and intensive nursery plant production in urban areas.
i. Specialist systems: apiculture; ostriches; fisheries; aquaculture; crocodile farming.
ii. Small stock and poultry: small stock; pigs; poultry.
iii. Subsidiary industries: slaughterhouses and abattoirs; tanneries.
Farm tenure
Farm tenure systems vary from tribal/traditional land use holdings, to leasehold, to freehold. Tribal and
leasehold land returns to the state after the period defined in the lease agreement. In the case of tribal
land, fields and boreholes may be passed down from one generation to the next, but if not used regularly,
the right may be withdrawn by the District Land Board. Leasehold land is normally held for 50 years,
with option to renew after that period, while freehold land is held in perpetuity, or for 999 years. The
tenure systems affect the value of the land, with significant increases in value the longer the lease. The
reverse can be said for the amount of input required in obtaining the land. Freehold and leasehold land
requires Government authorization, while tribal land only requires approval from the District Land
Board.
Farm sizes
1. Crop farm sizes are highly variable: small fields in the seasonal river flood zones are around
0.5 ha5 ha; dryland cropping areas and many irrigated farms are around 420 ha; while large,
commercial crop lands in the northeast of the country on seasonal floodplains with black cotton soil
range from around 2000 to 5000ha.
2. Commercial livestock farms: small farms holdings for intensive production of small stock,
chickens, pigs and dairy vary from 1 to 20 ha, mostly around 4 ha; Ranches vary from around
1600ha (4km x 4 km), to over 100000ha; many of the large ranches are on freehold land.
3. Tribal ranches and cattle posts: tribal grazing lands policy ranches (TGLP) are standardized at
8km x 8km (6400ha), although this size may be reduced in areas where surface water is abundant,
normally to around 6km x 6km. The standard size is a function of water allocation policy by the
Department of Water Affairs. Many ranches depend on deep boreholes, and draw-down profiles on
these boreholes show that 8km between boreholes is the closest distance at which boreholes do not
affect one another in the arid and semi-arid sandveld areas. Cattle posts are mainly places where the
use of a borehole, or a well in a river or in a pan, has been authorized by the local Land Board; they are
rarely fenced as it is common land. In cattle post conditions, livestock can come and go, as and when
they need drinking water. In the Kalahari areas cattle are sometimes found up to 30 km and further
from their home well; during the wet summer period because they drink from puddles and pans. They
also wander extensively in the cooler winter when grazing and forage are scarce, depending on wild
melons and tubers for moisture. In some locations, traditional livestock owners form syndicates to
own a borehole and run livestock jointly. This generally occurs where individuals have only a few
animals each and it is cost effective to pool their resources.
Socio-economic and marketing issues

The major socio-economic issues affecting farmers are the remoteness of farms from major centres and
the difficulty in obtaining water. Irregular rainfall leads to very low crop yields, except where crops are
grown on receding flooded areas. Water from deep Kalahari boreholes is often too salty for irrigation.
Farmers in the remote areas have very few facilities such as transport and telephones, and supplies and
marketing costs are prohibitively high. Traditional farmers do not own resources against which financing
can be offset, so they tend to run their affairs at very low input costs.
The Botswana Government does have schemes, however, that provide assistance to low-income
farmers; these include assistance for livestock purchase, breed improvement and subsidies for purchase
of seeds, ploughing and weeding. A key issue, however, is that these schemes are used mainly by those
who are aware of them and people who need the financial assistance the most may lose out to better
educated and more aware people who reside in the urban centres, have steady jobs and employ people
from remote areas to run their farms for them for meagre wages. Remote area traditional farmers
therefore tend to be subsistence/self-sufficient producers who rely mainly on livestock for barter, social
custom and cash when they need it.
Many people in remote areas survive by harvesting products such as timber, firewood and edible
plants. They also obtain medicinal plants from the grazing land. These people have tended to be
seasonally nomadic but, with the advent of fenced land, people with nomadic lifestyles have been
compressed into smaller and smaller areas. This has been exacerbated by the perceived need to provide
primary health and educational facilities to nomadic peoples. Such issues have produced major conflicts
of interest between traditional groups, who wish to retain their culture, and the Government, who feel
that the provision of essential services at reasonable cost has higher priority than facilitating very small
groups to continue their nomadic lifestyles while providing essential facilities at prohibitively high costs.
Commercial producers often have their own transport, but until recently, when long stretches of the
national road network were tarred, it had been expensive to transport cattle to the main commercial
abattoir located in the southeast of the country. The tarring of the major roads has reduced both the road
transport costs, and damage to livestock carried to the major abattoirs in large trucks.
2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY
Much of the country is covered by sandy soils. The eastern areas have hills and drainage depressions that
feed the Limpopo River. These soils are mainly sandy loams to sandy clay loams, with shallow skeletal
soils where heavy, sporadic rainfall washes newly formed soil materials into lowlying areas and down
drainage lines. The soils are thus mainly alluvial and /or colluvial.
The west is covered almost entirely by deep sands forming the Kalahari Desert, which accounts
for about two-thirds of Botswana and comprises sandy soils to 120m depth. The area supports mainly
scrub patches of short, close-canopy woodland, scattered shrubs and grassland and there are virtually no
perennial open surface water bodies. Water is obtained by drilling boreholes to a depth of around 200 m,
where it is found in fossil, underground tanks. In some areas in the extreme west boreholes go as deep
as 500 m; current research efforts are aimed at drawing water from as deep as 1 km below the surface.
The soils of the Okavango Delta and surrounds are predominantly silty sands with some organic/
humic content. As the rivers that flow out of the Okavango Delta disperse into the Makgadikgadi Pans
areas, the soils become fine sands with high sodicity on the seasonally flooded flats and fine silt sands
on the dry ancient lacustrine shoreline areas.
For full details of the soils of Botswana and soil fertility in Botswana see Figures 2 and 3.
Major topographic features

Much of the country is flat, with gentle undulations and occasional rocky outcrops. In the northwest the
Okavango River drains inland from Angola, to form the Okavango Delta. In the central northeast is a
large flat plain overlying layers of calcrete which border the Makgadikgadi Pans. The Pans themselves
are flat open expanses of sand that are seasonally inundated by shallow (saline) waters fed by local,
internally draining rivers mainly from the northeast, but occasionally from the west.
In the east, the country is drained by the Limpopo. Here the land rises to about 1200m and gradually
descends to about 900 m in the Limpopo Valley, before dropping to only 500 m in the eastern-most
region, at the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashe rivers.
Botswanas main land systems are shown in Figure 4.
Figure 2. Soil map of Botswana
Figure 3. Soil fertility in Botswana

Figure 4. Botswanas land

systems
Legend for the land systems map

Colour code Basal soils Colour code Basal soils Colour code Basal soils
Aeolian sand deposits Amphibole-rich, Major lake and

meta-basic rocks depression
deposits
Basalt
Superficial
lacustrine deposits
Superficial aeolian sand on sandstone
deposits on calcrete Sandstone
Superficial aeolian sand
deposits on sandstone Vlei (seasonal
and other sedimentary marsh) deposits
rocks
Granitic gneiss
Superficial aeolian sand
deposits on basalt and
Recent alluvial
sedimentary rocks
deposits
Superficial aeolian sand Dolerite
deposits on dolomite
and other sedimentary
rocks Dolomite and
sedimentary rocks
Partly submerged
aeolian sand deposits Acid volcanic lavas
Granite
Sedimentary rocks
Fossil alluvial
deposits

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES
Climate
Botswana is close to the subtropical high pressure belt of the southern hemisphere. The climate is driven
by two distinct climate zones with the majority falling under the Zaire Air Boundary climate zone to the
north. This system brings the summer thunderstorms and heavy downpours of rain. A small part, mainly
in the southwest, is influenced by the South Atlantic Oscillatory climate system, which moves in and
out of the country from the west and south west, generally bringing very cold spells and winter rain.
Mean rainfall ranges from 650mm in the extreme northeast to 250mm in the extreme southwest.
A secondary maximum mean of 550mm occurs in the higher areas in the southeast and a secondary
minimum of 350mm occurs on the lowest areas of the Limpopo valley. The country is prone to drought.
Temperature variations are extreme throughout the year. They also vary greatly within the daily cycle
and according to location, vegetation cover, wind reach and the presence of any large water bodies.
In winter, from around mid-May to mid August, the coldest areas are in the southern half, with lowest
temperatures being experienced in lowlying areas such as depressions and along drainage lines. There
are few clouds in winter and the air is generally clear resulting in warm days, with temperatures in the
low 20s, but dropping to ~0C, in the early hours of the morning. In summer temperatures vary from
~1215C during the early morning, to ~3040C by late afternoon in the hot, dry season (generally
from mid-September to late October), but the maximum temperatures remain ~2530 C during the
rainy season. Temperatures in the northern and in the western desert areas can rise to the mid to upper
40s in the late dry season, prior to the rains.
Figure 5 shows four maps of maximum and minimum temperature in Botswana.
Humidity. The country experiences very few cloudy days, having around 290300 sunshine days per
year. Humidity is therefore extremely low, particularly in the dry months, (~0%), rising to an average
of around 65%, in the rainy season. Average annual evaporation is ~2000mm, which exceeds annual
precipitation by a factor of 4 to 8 (depending on the location).
Effects of topography on the climate. The factors that affect the local climate are the locations of the
oceans that surround southern Africa; the nearest is the South Atlantic, to the west, across the Kalahari-
Namib Desert. The Indian Ocean lies to the east, across South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique.
Within Botswana there are few topographic features that affect rainfall, other than the ranges of hills
along the southeast area of the country, with a second range in the E central part of the country. The least
harsh climate is in the north and northeast, associated with the Chobe and Zambezi river front on the
northern border, and in the Okavango Delta, which has areas of permanent and temporary swamps and
seasonally flooded plains. The harshest climate is in the southwest.
Rainfall. The relatively flat nature of the country, with very few large open surface water bodies
(except in the Okavango Delta, in the northwest), results in few orographic effects generating rainfall,
except in a few localized areas, particularly in the southeast. The country has an arid, summer rainfall
climate (November to April), consisting generally of scattered, high intensity, short-duration thunder
showers. This rainfall occurs as a result of the Zaire Air Boundary moving southwards, and channeling
moist, upper air from the Indian Ocean across Zimbabwe and northern RSA, into northern and eastern
Botswana. There are some anomalies, which can be associated with cyclones coming off the major
oceans. Prolonged, general rain, which can last several days, generally comes from the Indian Ocean to
the east, in summer, and from the south Atlantic Ocean, to the west, in winter. There is also a commonly
occurring, mini-drought period, from about mid-January to late February. For rainfall isohyhets see
Figure 6.
Annual rainfall varies in a cyclical pattern with drought occurring regularly in almost all parts of
the country. For livestock, drought conditions are when the rainfall is 40% less than the local average.
Drought has been defined in Bhalotra (1985) as: Meagre and highly variable rainfall, both in time
Mean maximum June temperatures Mean minimum July temperatures
Mean maximum October temperatures Mean minimum October temperatures
Figure 5. Maximum and minimum temperature in Botswana
and space, combined with high evapotranspiration rates, make Botswana a water-short country where
drought is a recurring hazard and raising of crops a gamble (even) in the rainy season. Hydrologically,
it is the rapid depletion of surface water in rivers, lakes and reservoirs. Agriculturally it occurs where
there is inadequate soil moisture to support the growth of crops and other plants to maturity. During
drought cycles, which may last around 1520 years, drought occurs in about two out of every three years.
The cycle then moves into an above average rainfall cycle, where drought can still occur in 1 out of 3
to 4years. This cycle also lasts about 15years. Long-term climate changes have been modelled by the
Department of Geological Sciences, Wits University, RSA.
Wind speed is relatively low, at around 45 km/hr, for most of the year, except prior to local
thunderstorms. The wind generally comes from the east to northeast in the summer but veers mainly to
the west to southwest during the period around rainfall occurrences.
Figure 6. Hydrometeorological map of

Botswana (isohyets in millimetres)
Agro-ecological zones
Reference should be made to the map (Figure 7) showing land suitability for rainfed agriculture. The
more detailed key for the map is also given below in Table 1.
The following information can be directly interpreted from the map:
i. Classes of potential dependable yield based on average of crops considered and the proportion of
productive land within the map.
ii. Additional land constraints and hazards.
The agricultural zones are very closely linked to the land systems. The four basic land systems (FAO,
1990) are: aeolian deposits, or sandveld; soils on rocky areas, or hardveld; lacustrine or ancient lake-
beds, and recent alluvial soils.
A detailed listing of potential yields of sorghum, maize, millet, cowpea and groundnut is given for
each mapping unit and data are summarized in Table 2.
The 4 major land systems can be further sub-divided, as shown in Table 3 (which as well as the parent
geology of the soils [basal soils] also indicates the landforms [landscape type] and the major agricultural
enterprises for each zone).
Table 2. Potential yields
Yield class Indicative potential dependable yields (kg/ha)1
Sorghum Maize Millet Cowpea Groundnut
A 1 500 1 770 1 340 1 740 1 070 1 270 300 355 790 1 000
B1,2 1 220 1 460 1 050 1 440 860 1060 260 310 700 890
C1,2 980 1 180 800 1 180 670 880 220 270 630 800
D1,2,3 720 950 560 810 450 670 190 240 550 730
E1,2,3 470 680 260 550 250 450 140 190 410 620
F1,2,3 270 520 120 420 150 370 70 130 170 440
Unreliable 0 0 0 0 0
Dominantly unsuitable 0 370 0 320 0 270 0 80 0 240
Entirely unsuitable 0 0 0 0 0
1
80% of dependable yields for all mapping units in yield class fall within stated ranges.
Figure 7. Land suitability for rainfed crop production
Table 1. Detailed key for the land suitability map

Table 3. Land systems and the associated soils, landscape types and agricultural enterprises
Land Basal soils Landscape type Major agricultural enterprises
system
Sandveld Aeolian sand Flat to undulating plains, sometimes Wildlife mainly in reserves, but increasingly on
deposits with sand dune systems and fossil river fenced game ranches,
valleys and pans
Livestock both on common (tribal) land and in
Superficial aeolian Flat to almost flat plains fenced farms and ranches,
sand deposits on
Cropping few, small and low output arable
calcrete
fields mainly producing sorghum, groundnuts
Superficial aeolian Almost flat to undulating plains and melons, particularly on the lower slopes of
sand deposits on ridges and sand dunes, and along the bottoms
sandstone and other of drainage lines where the soils are not too
sedimentary rocks salty
Superficial aeolian Flat plains with minor valleys and ridges Forest reserves on State Lands
sand deposits to low hills
on basalt and
sedimentary rocks
Superficial aeolian Almost flat to gently undulating plains
sand deposits on
dolomite and other
sedimentary rocks
Partly submerged Almost flat to gently undulating, with
aeolian sand deposits parallel sand dunes and/or major pans
Hardveld Amphibole-rich, Undulating plain with occasional hill Livestock communal (tribal) grazing areas and
meta-basic rocks ranges fenced freehold and leasehold ranches
Basalt Plateaux, escarpments and almost flat Wildlife on game reserves and conservancies
plains with associated alluvium/colluvium
Forest reserves on State Lands
Sandstone Varied, from flat to undulating with Cropping on fenced tribal land, and on
infrequent hills and rock outcrops, leasehold farms, using lower lying areas with
through to hilly escarpments and fossil alluvial soils. Main crops are sorghum, melons,
river valleys millet, dry beans/cow peas, groundnuts and
Granitic gneiss Gently undulating to undulating with sunflowers
eroded valleys, to rugged hilly areas, Also irrigated vegetables mainly melons,
with flat areas incised by drainage lines maize, sorghum and millet, and dry beans
Dolerite Hills with flat alluvium and almost flat to
gently undulating pediments
Dolomite and Hills with associated almost flat to gently
sedimentary rocks undulating pediments
Acid volcanic lavas Hills with undulating pediments
Granite Almost flat to gently undulating plain with
rock outcrops (kopjies)
Sedimentary rocks Hilly dissected plateaux with pediments
and associated alluvium
Lacustrine Major lake and Flat to almost flat salt pans prone to Livestock grazing on common (tribal) land
depression deposits flooding, plains with major pans, ancient
Wildlife in common lands areas
lake beds with shorelines and plains,
and fossil lagoons
Superficial lacustrine Flat to almost flat plains Livestock grazing on common (tribal) land
deposits on
Wildlife in common lands areas
sandstone
Vlei (seasonal marsh) Flat plains Wildlife on State Lands
deposits
Intensive cropping on leasehold farms mainly
sunflower, cotton, maize, millet and sorghum
Alluvium Recent alluvial Flat to almost flat river floodplains Cropping Small-scale village fields using
deposits to fans, fans with sand ridges, delta flood recession agriculture, growing vegetables,
floodplains and perennial swamps> melons, maize, sorghum and millet, groundnuts
and dry beans/cow peas
Fossil alluvial Flat to gently undulating river and delta
deposits floodplains Some commercial irrigation farming on freehold
farms e.g. in the Limpopo and other river valley
systems growing citrus, and mixed vegetables
Livestock mainly common-land grazing on
delta floodplain fringes
Some dairying
Commercial ostrich farming
Some wildlife ranching
Wildlife on the delta floodplains
Vegetation
The vegetation of the country has been variously described and descriptions are given here according to
current land systems, soil-vegetation associations and broad vegetation types.
Current land systems

Broad soil and vegetation types mapping
The land systems of Botswana have been described in several major reports as well as in further reports on
various parts of the country, with aspects relating to environment (e.g. DHV, 1980; Ecosurv, 1997; FAO
1990a; FAO, 1990b; FAO, 1991; Moyo et al. 1993), and agricultural production (Sims, 1981; FAO, 1992).
Main vegetation zones and grassland types

The main vegetation zones in the Kalahari Ecosystem are shown on the vegetation types map, Figure8
(taken from Thomas and Shaw, 1991), which gives type descriptions of the different zones in the
sandveld areas. The hardveld zones are described in the text in Appendix 1, as taken from FAO (1991),
Contribution to the Vegetation Classification of Botswana.
Regional vegetation distribution

Botswana has been divided into 13 regions after a rough comparison of its geology, geomorphology and
botany (see Appendix 1, Figure 13). This section comprises a description of the vegetation of each region;
general outlines of structural vegetation types and dominant and prominent species are mentioned. The
vegetation of Botswana changes from the southwest to the northeast from (low) shrub savannah to tree
savannah and woodland due to the increasing precipitation towards the northeast. Simultaneously an
increase in tree species diversity is observed to the northeast. Some 70% of the countrys surface soils
consist of wind-blown sand deposits. The most widespread sandveld association is found in the centre of
the country and consists of Terminalia sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii and Acacia erioloba. This reaches
its southern limit around the Tropic of Capricorn. To the east it extends towards the hardveld and the
The blank zone in the figure represents the hardveld areas, which are described in the text taken from FAO, 1991.
Figure 8. Main vegetation zones in the Kalahari ecosystem

northern boundary is formed by the mopane-line south of the Makgadikgadi Pan system. In the west
the association is found along the Namibian border up to the Caprivi Strip. Typical sandveld species
are Acacia haematoxylon, A. luederitzii, Boscia albitrunca, Terminalia sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii,
Bauhinia petersiana and Baphia massaiensis. Acacia haematoxylon is only found in the southwest of the
country. Terminalia sericea and Lonchocarpus nelsii occur mainly north of the line Ncojane-Hukuntsi-
Werda, while Bauhinia petersiana and Baphia massaiensis appear north of 20S. The vegetation of the
Chobe Region is also on sandveld. Offshoots of the miombo woodlands invade the country from Zambia
and Zimbabwe. The vegetation in this area can be considered as a transition between the northern
miombo woodlands and the southern Kalahari savannahs. Representative hardwood species are:
Baikiaea plurijuga, Pterocarpus angolensis, Guibourtia coleosperma, Amblygonocarpus andongensis,
Erythrophleum africanum, Brachystegia sp., Julbernardia globiflora and Isoberlinia sp.
The vegetation of the hardveld in the east is more diverse than the sandveld, because of a larger
range in parent material, soils and climate. The hardveld carries a variety of associations with most
frequent species: Peltophorum africanum, Acacia tortilis, Combretum apiculatum, A. nigrescens and
Colophospermum mopane in the north. The Makgadikgadi lacustrine system is mainly covered by
grasslands with halophytic species, of which Odyssea paucinervis is dominant. Panicum coloratum var.
Makgadikgadiensis and Cenchrus ciliaris also form a major part of the grass association. These two
species have been developed as fodder grasses and are used in fodder species trials by the Department of
Agricultural Research. Islands of Hyphaene palms are common, as well as Adansonia digitata (Baobab)
trees, either solitary or in clumps.
The Okavango Delta forms a very complex ecosystem itself. Swamp, island and floodplain
associations can be recognized. Most typical species are Cyperus papyrus, Phragmites australis and a
variety of aquatic species in the swamps, Phoenix reclinata, Hyphaene petersiana, Ficus sycomorus,
F. verruculosa, Garcinia livingstonei, Lonchocarpus capassa, Diospyros mespiliformis, Combretum
imberbe and Syzygium guineense on the islands and grass- and sedgelands on the floodplains.
Colophospermum mopane (mopane) is one of the most typical tree and shrub species of hot, low-
lying, eastern and southern Africa. It often occurs in pure stands and grows on a large variety of soils
with textures ranging from sand to clay and depths from shallow to deep. Colophospermum mopane only
occurs in northern Botswana. A mopane-line has been established, which demarcates the occurrence
of this species; a line between Martins Drift and the Mokgware Hills forms the southern boundary.
The mopane-line can be followed from the Mokgware Hills in northeastern direction until a point west
of Serule; from there it runs to the northwest to an area south of Sowa Pan and Ntwetwe Pan up to
Lake Xau in the west. The mopane-line surrounds the Pans and the associated shoreline features in the
west, which are free of the species. At 18.5 S, it runs eastwards to the Zimbabwean border. Just north
of Stoffels Pan, mopane reoccurs and the line runs south of the Mababe Depression, via the eastern
bank of the Thamalakane River towards Lake Ngami. From there it runs south of the Okavango Delta,
surrounding the perennial swamp. Colophospermum mopane occurs along the delta fringes and on the
fossil alluvium. The mopane-line excludes the dune system located along the Caprivi Strip (although
the species is recorded in some interdune depressions, Smith 1984, op. cit.) and hits the Kwando River
at the Namibian border.
FAO Vegetation Map 1991. The FAO (1991) vegetation map shows vegetation associations according
to structure and dominant plant species associations. These are shown in Figure 9, and the general
descriptions are given in Tables 4 and 5.
Table 4. Vegetation structure and abbreviations
O One/ semi-natural vegetation SLO Open low shrub savannah SAO Open savannah
S Swamp SS Shrub savannah ST Tree savannah
GR Grassland SSD Dense shrub savannah STD Dense tree savannah
FL Forbland SSO Open shrub savannah STO Open tree savannah
SH Shrubland SA Savannah W Woodland
SL Low shrub savannah SAD Dense savannah F Forest
SLD Dense low shrub savannah
Figure 9. Vegetation map of Botswana

(FAO, 1991)
Table 5. Legend for the vegetation map of Botswana (FAO, 1991)

Major vegetation Vegetation association Vegetation structure Map
grouping unit
A. Sandveld Acacia haematoxylon, O, GR, SL, SLO, SS, SAO A1a
Rhigozum trichotomum
Acacia mellifera, A. leuderitzii O, GR, SS, SSO, SA, SAO A2a
Boscia albitrunca
Terminalia sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii / Acacia erioloba GR, SL, SS, SSO, SA SAD, A3a
SAO, ST
Terminalia sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii / Acacia SS, SA, ST A3b
erubescens
Terminalia sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii / Acacia tortilis, SS, SA, SAO A3c
Catophractes alexandri
Terminalia sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii / Combretum SS, SSD, SA A3d
species
Terminalia sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii / Pterocarpus GR, SS, SSD, SA, SAD A3e
angolensis
Terminalia sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii / Baphia SA, ST A3f
massaiensis
Terminalia sericea, Baphia massaiensis, Peltophorum SA, SAD, SAO A4a
africanum,
Combretum hereroense
Catophractes alexandri, Rhus tenuinervis SS, SSO A5a
Table 5 Contd
B. Hardveld Peltophorum africanum, Acacia tortilis / A. karroo, SS, SSD, SSO, SA, SAD, B6a
Ziziphus mucronata SAO, ST, STO
Peltophorum africanum, Acacia tortilis / Terminalia sericea SS, SA B6b
Combretum apiculatum, SS, SA, ST B7a
Acacia nigrescens, A. tortilis
Colophospermum mopane, Acacia nigrescens / SS, SA, ST B8a
Combretum apiculatum, A. tortilis
Colophospermum mopane, Acacia nigrescens / Burkea STO B8b
africana
Colophospermum mopane, Acacia nigrescens / SA, SAO, ST B8c
Combretum imberbe
Acacia mellifera, A. erioloba, Terminalia prunioides, SA, SAO, ST B9a
Catophractes alexandri
C. Miombo Pterocarpus angolensis, SA, ST, W C10a
Baikiaea plurijuga
D. Recent Lacustrine Odyssea paucinervis S, GR, SSO, SAO D11a
Sesbania spp., Asclepias fruticosa FL D12a
E. Fossil Lacustrine Colophospermum mopane, Acacia nilotica, Combretum GR, SS, SAO, ST E13a
spp.
F. Recent Alluvium Acacia tortilis, Cynodon dactylon, Cenchrus ciliaris, GR, SAO F14a
Combretum imberbe

Acacia tortilis, Combretum erythrophyllum, Lonchocarpus SSO, STO F14b

capassa

Acacia tortilis, Phragmites australis, A.. erioloba, S, SS, SA F14c
Terminalia prunioides
Combretum imberbe, Acacia erioloba, Colophospermum GR, SA, W, F F15a
mopane
G. Transition Hardveld Terminalia sericea, Acacia tortilis, Ziziphus mucronata SSO, SAO G16a
Terminalia sericea, Acacia tortilis, A .mellifera SA G16b
Acacia erubescens, A. tortilis, SSO, SA, SAO G16c
Boscia albitrunca
H. Mopane Dominated Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia sericea / SSD, SSO, SA, SAD, SAO, H17a
Combretum imberbe ST, STD, STO, W

Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia sericea / SS, SA H17b

Sclerocarya caffra

Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia sericea / Hyphaene SSO, SA H17c
petersiana, Adansonia digitata
Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia sericea / SA, SAO, W H17d
Dichrostachys cinerea

Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia sericea / SS, SSD, SA, SAD, ST, W, F H17e
Lonchocarpus nelsii
Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia prunioides GR, SA, SAD H18a
Colophospermum mopane, Combretum species SS, SSD, SA, ST, F H18b
Colophospermum mopane, Acacia tortilis SS, SH, W H18c
I. Wetland Imperata cylindrica, Setaria sphacelata, Hyparrhenia GR, W, F I19a
rufa association and Hyphaene petersiana, Garcinia

livingstonei / Phoenix reclinata, Ficus verruculosa
association
Hyphaene petersiana, Lonchocarpus capassa, Phoenix GR, SA I20a
reclinata,
Imperata cylindrica, Setaria sphacelata, Hyparrhenia S, GR,SA, SAD, ST, F I20b
rufa association and Hyphaene petersiana, Garcinia
livingstonei / Lonchocarpus capassa, Acacia nigrescens
association and Phragmites australis, Schoenoplectus
corymbosus, Cyperus articularis association
Cyperus papyrus, Miscanthus junceus, association and, S, GR, SA, W, F I21a
Hyphaene petersiana, Garcinia livingstonei / Phoenix
reclinata, Ficus verruculosa association
J. Non-vegetated areas Lake and salt pans O
1. Open grassland in the Western Kalahari 2. Okwa Valley
3. Acacia regenerating on old arable lands (in the 4. Mopane (Colophospermum mopane), on badly
hardveld) near Gaborone eroded gravelly soils in the northeast Central District.
5. Bare sands and fringing salt tolerant grasses in the 6. Wildebeest and zebra on the sweeping grasslands of
great Makgadikgadi Pans in N Central Botswana the Western Makgadikgadi Pans area
7. Okavango Delta from the air dry season 8. Sandveld woodland in Central Botswana
Figure 10. Some photographs of different vegetation systems in Botswana

Photos by Jeremy Burgess
4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Ruminant livestock production systems are dominated by cattle and small-stock (goats and sheep). The
sector is divided into traditional systems, mixed smallholder systems and commercial producers.
Traditional systems are dominated by the cattle-post system, where a farmer, or group of farmers
water livestock at a central watering point (most often a well, or a borehole), and the livestock wander
freely over the grazing land around the watering point. There are some areas where transhumance is still
practised, mainly in the eastern hardveld. People there usually practise crop and livestock production.
Arable land is fenced, but livestock are permitted onto the land once the crops have been harvested.
Many members of the family move from the villages to their lands during the ploughing, planting and
harvesting period, and go home during the fallow season when livestock are run by herders who remain
in the grazing areas.
Mixed smallholder systems are an integral part of the traditional livestock sector. People who live in
areas where surface water is available, either on a year-round, or a seasonal basis, have some livestock
and some small fields. This is most noticeable in the northwest, the north and the eastern parts where
there are seasonal and perennial rivers. Much of the land is either freehold, or reserve land in areas
where there is perennial water, so very little traditional production comes from watering livestock from
perennial water sources.
Livestock are normally grazed in the dry areas away from the rivers, but watered from wells, either
in dry, sandy river beds, or from wells. Crop production is normally from small plots on river banks
that are thorn fenced, and watered from wells. Fields are sometimes in river beds and are supplied with
residual moisture in the river soils.
Landless systems are barely feasible in these modern times. This is because there is an increasing
pressure for allocated land from people with expectations of a higher standard of living than is afforded
under the traditional village life. The few, scattered small groups of semi-nomadic people have tended
to become sedentary around boreholes provided by Government. Here they are provided with primary
health, and education for their children. It is expected that much traditional knowledge that has been
passed orally from generation to generation will be lost for coming generations. Without documentation,
a whole knowledge-system based on natural products found in the range may soon be lost forever.
Commercial systems are practised mainly on leasehold and freehold land. Most commercial farmers
are relatively wealthy as they have access to finance and the commercial marketing sector. Within the
commercial sector, productions systems include intensive livestock production systems, such as feedlots.
Stall-feeding, tethering and other systems are rarely used, except in one or two instances where dairy
cows are kept in extremely dry conditions, and are fed with green silage and imported grains and fodder.
Production statistics
The most recently available census material is from the Central Statistics Office, (CSO, 1996). Relevant
information shows that there were 121317 agricultural holdings in 1996. Of these there were: 2249000
cattle in 59588 cattle holdings, comprising:
Traditional Sector Offtake = 7.8%; 59 509 in the traditional sector, owning approximately
2 190 000 head. There was a severe decline in cattle numbers and cattle holdings in 1996, due to
slaughter of ~350 000 head in Ngamiland (NW Botswana), due to an outbreak of contagious bovine
pleuro-pneumonia (CBPP). Approximately 1270 farmers lost all their cattle.
Commercial Sector Offtake = ~1418%; 79 respondents in the commercial sector owning about
58 505 head; It was suggested, however, that some 141 commercial farmers did not respond to the
Government questionnaire, and these non-respondents owned a further 88465head of cattle.
Figure 11 shows the fluctuation in livestock numbers over time, and Table 6 draws on the FAO
statistical databases to show livestock numbers (slightly different than the 1996 data quoted from CSO
[1996]), production and import and export data from 1996 to 2005.
Goats. 2 205 million goats [1996 data] in 89 603 holdings, comprising: Traditional Sector Offtake
= 7.7%; 89546 in the traditional sector, owning approximately 2190000 head. Commercial Sector
Offtake = ~1418%; 57 respondents in the commercial sector owning about 5636 head. It was suggested,
Figure 11. Livestock population
Table 6. Botswana statistics for livestock numbers, beef, veal, sheep, goat meat and milk production,
beef and veal exports, cattle imports and mutton and lamb and milk imports for the period 19962005
Item 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Cattle nos. (,000,000) 2.25 2.21 2.35 2.58 2.50 2.50 3.06 3.10 3.10 3.10
Sheep nos. (,000) 349 409 393 369 370 306 273 300 300 300
Goat nos.(,000,000) 2.21 2.62 2.20 2.00 1.90 1.89 1.68 1.70 1.85 1.95
Beef and veal prod. (,000Mt) 44.1 38.2 37.3 26.6 29.0 33.8 31.0 26.9 31.0 31.0
Sheep meat prod.(,000Mt) 1.61 1.92 1.78 1.75 1.82 2.10 1.96 1.82 1.81 1.81
Goat meat prod. (,000 Mt) 6.12 7.08 6.00 5.52 5.28 5.28 4.68 4.68 5.10 5.40
Milk prod.(,000 Mt) 98.4 100.1 98.2 101.8 105.4 105.4 105.4 105.4 105.4 105.4
Beef and veal exports (,000 mt) 13.43 15.80 18.0 14.6 15.3 20.5 8.6 9.0 10.5 n.r.
Cattle exports head 1153 886 427 91 78 99 7 44 0 n.r.
Cattle imports (,000) 13.95 10.01 13.39 13.09 14.45 3.33 0.15 1.47 2.00 n.r.
Milk, fresh imports(,000Mt) 14.58 25.02 17.04 82.14 49.07 49.67 20.93 22.38 22.38 n.r.
Mutton and lamb imports (Mt) 321 282 202 455 305 777 816 554 554 n.r.
n.r. = no record
(FAO Database 2006)
however, that some 103 commercial farmers did not respond to the Government questionnaire, and these
non-respondents owned a further 113245 head of goats.
Sheep 349000 sheep [1996 data] in 27227 holdings, comprising:

Traditional Sector- Offtake = 6.7%; 27236 in the traditional sector, owning approximately 344811
head.
Commercial Sector Offtake = ~1418%;41 respondents in the commercial sector owning about
3 757 head. It was suggested, however, that some 79 commercial farmers did not respond to the
Government questionnaire, and these non-respondents owned a further ~8000 head of sheep.
Camels There are few hundred (~300) camels in the country. These are survivors of stock that were
imported in the early 1900s for police patrols in the southwestern desert areas.
Non-ruminant livestock This refers mainly to donkeys and horses, but includes pigs. Equines are
important as transport in rural areas. Donkeys are also used for ploughing and pulling carts, which are
mainly used to carry water and firewood. Donkeys; 335809 head in 54140 holdings. Horses; 4707
head over 1123 holdings (that responded to the CSO questionnaire). (The previous census had recorded
much higher numbers of holders and animals with 34650 head, over ~8640 holdings reported.) Pigs
2658 head, over an unspecified number of holdings.
A summary of beef statistics and production systems

There are currently around 2.5 to 3.1million head of cattle in Botswana: two cattle per member of the
human population. There are also nearly as many goats. [FAO figures in Table 6 are somewhat lower.]
Drought effects on the cattle population

In the late 1970s there were around 3000000 head, of which 1000000 died during the droughts of the
early to mid 1980s. However, the numbers soon rebuilt, much of which can be attributed to an expansion
of the drilling of boreholes in areas which were only historically used seasonally, under high rainfall
conditions. This expansion was followed by another short, but extreme drought in the early 1990s, which
accounted for another die-off of around 1000000 head of cattle.
Stocking rates
On a country-wide basis stocking rates are highly variable, ranging from around 8 ha/livestock unit
(LSU), in the higher rainfall areas of the southeast, to as much as 60ha/LSU in the arid western areas.
Stocking rates vary with climatic cycles, increasing in high rainfall periods, and declining dramatically
during drought periods.
Production systems
Beef is produced in two distinct sectors: freehold land owners produce commercially, and the traditional
sector that operates on communal land. About 6070% of the national herd is owned by about 10% of
producers from the commercial sector; the remainder is owned by 90% of producers who have small
herds ranging from about 10 to 40 head of cattle.
Commercial production
Beef production is generally off the range, where animals are weaned into fattening camps, and
either sold directly to the abattoir at around 23 years, or finished in feedlots. Many commercial
ranchers, nowadays, favour a three-way cross using Brahman, Hereford and one other European breed.
Commercial cows are crossed with pure-bred bulls, to maintain a uniform calf crop. All bull-calves, and
poorer heifers are weaned and grown out for slaughter; while the best heifers are kept as replacements.
Heifers generally calve when 27 to 33 months. Breeding cows are generally culled when they fail to
produce a calf after one and a half to two seasons. Cull cows are fattened on summer grazing, and sold
before the dry season.
In commercial herds where young stock are removed from the range after weaning, more range is
available for breeding cows and production rates are higher than standard, off-range production systems.
The off-range production systems tend to run at around 30% cows, 30% young stock (12 years old)
and 30% calves (<1year old), with the remaining 10% being replacement heifers and bulls. The feedlot
system runs off an approximate ratio of 50% breeding cows to 40% calves (<1 year old) and 10% bulls
and replacement heifers. The negative side to this latter system is the vulnerability of the herd to drought,
and the need to slaughter a large proportion of the breeding herd at below premium beef grades and
prices.
Grazing management in the commercial beef sector. The commercial beef sector favours rotational
grazing and rotational-rest systems, by which an area is grazed until there is very little forage left before
cattle are moved to a new paddock, or camp. The cattle are kept in separate herd categories, so that
breeding cows are kept apart from young, immature bulls and steers, and heifers. Breeding generally
occurs in two seasons, with the majority of calves arriving in the mid-rainy season, and a smaller,
secondary crop arriving in late summer. The secondary crop is a result of cows missing one or two heat
periods due to stress, particularly in drought years.
In communal lands livestock production systems some borehole owners run cattle for commercial
gain, without fencing. In many instances they have private ranches as well as boreholes, and transfer
stock from one to the other depending upon grazing conditions. This is commonly termed as dual
grazing and traditional producers are attempting to have it outlawed.
Traditional production. Traditional cattle production systems provide more than beef, including milk
and draught. Cattle are used for barter, for bride-price negotiations, for feasts at marriages, funerals and
other important functions. Historically, cattle were used far more for transport and ploughing but this has
been largely replaced by the tractor.
Due to inbreeding and breeding of cross-bred animals the traditional herd is highly variable in cattle
colour, size and shape. Animals tend to grow slowly and, at the butcher/abattoir, tend to be older and
have a lower grade than commercially grown beef animals.
Traditional beef sector. In communal lands grazing systems, or traditional livestock production, herds
are run as a single entity, generally with no fencing and with the water supply as its focal point. Water
comes from shallow wells in dry river beds, boreholes, and from seasonal pans, shallow depressions with
clayey bottoms that fill with rainwater during the summer. Some pans are several kilometres across and
hold water well into the winter.
In the arid to semi-arid, sandy conditions of the Kalahari, where many traditional herds are kept, there
is normally a circular area of up to 1.5km from the central water point from where the animals have to
walk long distances to find suitable grazing. This circular area is referred to by local researchers as a
piosphere, and is clearly visible on satellite imagery.
Traditional cattle breeds, or types that are either long and rangy, or small and light boned, fare better
in the Kalahari conditions than the squared-off, heavy-bodied commercial beef types, which do better on
the eastern side of the country, where the ground is firmer and the soils more fertile.
Intermediate management systems. A system of ranch allocation was introduced in the late 1970s,
called tribal grazing lands policy ranches (TGLP). These ranches were allocated in blocks, according to
applications from Botswana citizens wishing to enter livestock production. The ranches of approximate
size 8 x 8 km had to be fenced, and a borehole drilled for water. Within the ranches, owners were
encouraged to fence subdivisions, as and when they could afford to do so. In many instances these
ranches failed. The commonest cause of failure has been persistent drought and poor management,
which resulted in the deaths of a large proportion of the livestock in these remote ranches. In the 1980s,
drought was so severe that many ranchers opened the gates to their farms, and let stock go to wherever
they could feed. TGLP owners who persist in using grazing outside of their allocated ranches are also
targeted as proponents of dual grazing rights.
Limitations to livestock production

Irregular fodder production. The greatest limitations to livestock production are the quality and
quantity of forage and grazing, as affected by the highly variable rainfall. The supply of fresh drinking
water both to livestock and to the producer is also a limiting factor. The irregularity of rainfall, both in
time and its highly scattered nature, means that fodder production is seasonal and local. In many parts
of the country, there has been a drought every second or third year over the past 20 years.
Fodder production is difficult to judge, in many years, as the grazing resource is dominated by annual
grasses that grow and set seed after rains but, once eaten, do not regrow. So extensive areas of grazing
are needed for relatively few cattle. Other problems with fodder production include the poor quality of
the grass.
Feasible stocking rates. Stocking rate estimates over the country vary from around 6 ha per livestock
unit (LSU) equivalent in productive areas, to over 40ha/LSU in unproductive areas. The arid areas have
been estimated to be able to be stocked at 120ha/LSU in reasonable rainfall conditions, and as much as
240ha/LSU in drought.
The introduction of fencing to traditional livestock areas restricts the movement of livestock, as they
search for grazing and forage over large areas. So on fenced grazing livestock either starve to death, or
have to be fed at great cost, during drought cycles. Most traditional farmers cannot afford drought feed
and lose their livestock.
Other factors affecting the grazing resource include sandy soils, which result in trampled plants being
physically removed from the soil and competition for grazing from gerbils and harvester termites. The
impact of harvester termites on a grazing camp, especially during drought, is quite phenomenal, as an
area of several hundred hectares can be completely denuded of grass in just a few days.
Poisonous plants. There are several plants in the livestock producing areas that are poisonous to
livestock and are responsible for high mortality rates at certain times of the year. Examples are
Dichapetalum cymosum, Pavetta harborii and Urginea sanguinea. Livestock tend to eat these plants in
the early summer as they produce green leafy material ahead of most palatable plants. The plants often
occur in the areas with deep sandy soils, where forage production is very low, so stock tend to be hungry
and less careful about what they eat.
Livestock disease
The most important restriction to commercial livestock production is the prevalence of foot and mouth
disease (FMD) in some areas. Livestock produced in FMD-affected areas can only be sold locally, while
those produced in FMD-free areas can be sold in the international markets. The country has been carved
into zones, according to FMD status. The zones are demarcated by long, double fences that prevent the
movement of cattle, other than through approved and manned gates.
Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is endemic in the areas north of Botswana. Other
economically important diseases of livestock are blackwater, heartwater, tuberculosis, botulism and
human tapeworm.
Apart from FMD, there was recently an outbreak of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), or
cattle lung disease, in the Ngamiland District, in the northwest of the country. The outbreak led to the
death of around 350000 head of cattle, which accounted for the entire herd in that district, according
to local press reports. Many of the animals, as for the recent foot and mouth outbreak in Europe and
UK, had to be put down and buried in mass graves. CBPP is endemic on Botswanas northern border
with Namibia and, as for FMD, has to be controlled through extensive fencing to subdivide communal
grazing areas, and strict livestock movement control. This accounts for a relatively large proportion of
the annual budget and staffing within the Ministry of Agriculture.
The effects of the eradication of the entire herd were felt in several ways. The initial impacts were the
shock to the livestock owners, who were given the options of a complete cash supplement, in lieu of their
lost livestock, or an option of 50% cash and 50% livestock replacement, as and when replacement stock
became available. It has impacted negatively on many, especially poorer, rural peoples livelihoods.
Many people work as herdsmen for wealthier farmers, under a system that is locally known as mafisa.
In developed countries, this system would equate to share-farming, whereby a herdsman looks after
many cattle, acquires some of the benefits of the many animals, including access to milk and meat, and
also improved breeding when his cows are mated by imported sire strains belonging to the wealthier
shareholder. In many instances, the mafisa herder may also slowly acquire animals from the majority
herd owner (shareholder), in lieu of cash payment, or wages for work done.
The loss of access to mafisa herding for many rural people is leading to demand for replacement
lifestyles, other forms of job creation, and also training for new skills.
The acceptance by many of cash in lieu of replacement livestock will also generate problems for
families who have spent their cash on capital assets, rather than on investments that will both appreciate
over time, and generate wealth for their children and further generations to come. The greatest impacts
of the CBPP outbreak may therefore only be felt in years to come.
Rather ironically, one of the areas worst hit by CBPP was around a group of villages that have been
suffering from overgrazing, excessive range deterioration and a correspondingly very high level of
susceptibility to drought. Following the eradication of livestock in that area, the recovery of the range
in the total absence of cattle has been extremely impressive. A (rectified) satellite image of the area
(Figure12), shows relatively good vegetation cover for the area in discussion.
Available land is now running out

A new factor that limits land allocation is the lack of available land for the creation of new ranches. It
has been estimated that only 4500 to 5500 additional ranches can be created within the available space
in the country. This situation may only be altered if standard ranch sizes are significantly decreased, or if
The boxed area indicates where severe

range degradation had occurred, but is now
recovering under significantly lower stocking
rates.
The image refers to grazing capacity, this
is short term, and should not be confused
with a suitable, annual carrying capacity for
each area.
Figure 12. BRIMP Imagery of grazing capacity during the rainy season 2000-2001
the system of land tenure is altered. Neither solution will be politically acceptable to current land-holders.
Alternatives to changes in the land tenure system include the development of more diverse systems, such
as mixed smallholder farming, communal game ranching and eco-tourism-based activities.
Communal lands in some areas have been subdivided and fenced in the recent past, to encourage a
shift from the traditional multi-use system, to a cash-trade oriented production system; this has brought
some dissension among people, mainly those in the lower income levels, because wealthier and better
educated people with more cattle tend to acquire the tribal ranches, but hang onto their traditional cattle-
post areas. This enables dual land owners to shift cattle to and from different systems, depending upon
climatic conditions.
Current social and economic conditions affecting livestock producers

New directions in economic diversification. Within Botswana, and also in the broader region, policies
and economic directions have been set in motion in recent years that conflict with the entrenched belief
that beef and other livestock are the answer to the lack of economic diversification.
On the one hand, there are traditionalists who are still pushing to have some parts of the country
divided and fenced into 6 x 6km to 8 x 8km commercial livestock producing ranches. The ranches would
in most cases be allocated to those who have the financial capacity to buy into ranching. This would
then be to the exclusion of the people who are currently using these areas, either for traditional livestock
production (which is subsistence production in about 7080% of all cases), or for subsistence livelihoods
from gathering veld products and small-game hunting (hares, wild birds, small antelope, etc.).
On the other hand, economic diversification is pushing towards eco-tourism and various intensive
agricultural systems including: horticulture, tree crops, small-stock and poultry production schemes.
Intensive agricultural systems call for allocation of land close to urban areas, for marketing purposes,
and the eco-tourism direction calls for wide open spaces, without fences. Jobs for people can then be
based upon what they are doing, but with additional economic incentives through sales and provision of
services and cultural entertainment.
At present, several large areas in the country have been demarcated for subdivision into ranches.
This will have negative socio-economic impacts on the people who currently use the land for raising
a few small and large-stock, and who rely on relatively large areas to roam and collect wild fruits and
other veld products. It is important; therefore, when decisions are made about the future that thought is
given to the customary land rights of various groups of people to ensure, for example, that their access
to harvesting veld products is maintained. It is also essential that the ecological and socio-economic
implications of any decisions are taken fully into account before they are implemented.
The impact of drought on producer success rates. Botswana has experienced 12 drought years in
the past 22, on a regular, cyclical basis. A Ministry of Agriculture review of cattle farmers in allocated
tribal (TGLP) ranches shows that around 30% have been economically successful, around 30%
have broken even, and the remainder have failed, i.e. the top third has had to support the remainder,
economically. It seems that the Government has been happily subsidizing the lower two-thirds, in order
to justify keeping the system going, and even introducing more ranches. Given the repeating drought
patterns of the past 22 years, forced enclosure of livestock, without the provision of buffer grazing
areas, will result in death of most of the stock. The alternative will be massive Government expenditure
on drought relief feed.
There is very little unallocated land within Botswana, and where Government allocated ranches are
being established, there are already losers. These are people who are being forced to move into fenced
areas that are many times smaller than the area of land they previously used (but more sparingly and in
a more ecologically sustainable way), or being left with nowhere to go but into small settlements.
Increased overseas demand for beef due to BSE. Were it not for the huge surge in demand for
Botswana beef from the UK, in particular, perhaps the Government would not be pushing for more
commercial-type ranches in the traditional lands areas of Botswana.
New ranches are not shaped to account for landscape and ecological variability. On top of the
negative social and economic problems that will arise directly from the process of land division and
allocation, there are ranches that are not shaped or sized according to environmental conditions. Very
often, the square shape of each of the ranches does not account for the annual cycle of range fodder that
comes from different parts of the landscape. Thus, some ranches have good summer grazing, and others
have good winter browse, but very few have a good mix of both. Consequently, the established carrying
capacity, as estimated by the experts, is generally inapplicable. In these instances the ranches need to be
significantly larger, or the owners should be prepared to later adjust the projected carrying capacity and/
or to buy in feeds on a regular basis.
The future?
If the traditional perception supersedes the new approach to land use with regard to allocating cattle
ranches in the remaining remote areas, there will be widespread land degradation. This will come
about, either through increasing desertification or through bush encroachment. Botswana will then be
a poorer place, both in terms of its social infrastructure, and also in terms of its biodiversity. The only
relief experienced in recent years is that farmers from some areas, who have failed, have had their farms
repossessed by the banks. Hopefully this has been a strong enough message to would-be farmers that
they should not enter into farming without making sure that they can remain economically viable.
As a country, Botswana needs to consider reviewing the whole land allocation process, and
re-examine the policy of allocating square blocks of land. Firstly, all land should be classified according
to its capability, and then it should be assessed according to its productivity, its location and who best
might use the land, either the commercial sector or the traditional sector.
Livestock types and marketing

Livestock production is dominated by beef in nearly all areas of the country, except the remote southwest
that produces mainly small stock. Goat breeds are generally indigenous, with the introduction of Boer
goats, which are large, heavy animals used for meat production, and quite recently some north European
and Scandinavian dairy breeds such as Swiss and Saanen. Sheep are mainly Fat-tailed and Dorper breeds
and crosses between the two. Karakul has been introduced into the very arid southwestern regions, but
has lost much of its popularity due to large-scale mortalities in some years, but more as a result of poor
marketing facilities for the product.
Other popular livestock production systems are pigs, dairy and most particularly poultry farming.
Many rural people, given a choice of meat, will opt for chicken rather than for beef. New production
systems that are being promoted and taken up in the rural areas are ostrich farming and bee-keeping.
Specialist production systems include dairy, fish farming and crocodile farming.
Cattle breeds. The beef sector has a highly cross-bred herd. This is due to the introduction of European,
African and Asian breeds in order to introduce improved production traits into the national herd.
Local cattle breeds include Tswana and Tuli. The latter is probably an off-shoot of the Nguni that
migrated northwards with people of Ndebele origin from South Africa in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. The Afrikaaner is still found in many cross-bred animals; it was introduced by early settlers
and traders who travelled mainly by ox-wagon. The Brahman is relatively hardy in the arid and semi-arid
conditions, is tick-proof, and tends to eat browse, grass and other herbaceous plants.
European beef breeds that have been introduced are many, from Hereford to Simmental, Aberdeen
Angus, to Charolais and Limousin. Dairy-beef types such as Red Sussex, Red Poll, Brown Swiss,
Murray Grey and Pinzgauer have been introduced, and common dairy breeds are Holstein, Friesland,
Ayrshire, Jersey and Guernsey.
Long-term trials have been conducted on different beef cattle breeds to compare the different
common production parameters, which include birth and weaning weights, growth rates, age at first
calving, calving intervals and calf mortalities, as well as finishing weights. It is interesting to note, from
long-term trials, that many foreign breeds out-perform the local breeds on single production parameters,
but over the long-term it has become evident that indigenous breeds consistently produce more viable
offspring under poorer climate and range conditions. Indigenous breeds therefore tend to show better
average performance than any single breed over the total range of production characteristics, and most
especially under the marginal conditions experienced by traditional livestock producers.
Market systems. Botswana beef and livestock products such as hides, horn and hooves are sold both
locally and overseas. A large proportion of Botswana meat is sold as boneless beef to the UK. The
proportion has been increasing ever since the BSE (mad cow disease) outbreak in the UK. A breakdown
of 19992000 beef sales is shown in Figure 13.
The commercial agriculture sector has been driven by the regional and international beef markets.
The sector has been severely hampered, however, due to the presence of foot and mouth disease,
specifically where cattle are likely to mix with cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in the northern areas
bordering with national parks and game reserves, and with the neighbouring countries of Zimbabwe and
Namibia (along the Caprivi Strip).
Foot and mouth is controlled through fencing subdivisions, which separate areas where FMD is
endemic from those areas where FMD can be excluded. FMD vaccinations are a possible way of
reducing the disease in areas where it is endemic.Livestock movements from FMD areas are carefully
controlled through a series of quarantine camps, and cattle from FMD areas are only slaughtered in the
national abattoirs during specified periods of the year. Meat from animals originating in FMD-prone
areas is marketed locally, whereas meat from the FMD-free zones is sold regionally and internationally.
Figure 13. Beef sales by category and destination

There are very strict regulations covering import and export of both livestock and fresh livestock
products both internally and across border, into neighbouring countries.
Lom and GATT agreements. Botswana, as a member of the ACP States, is a signatory to the Lom
Convention, and to the General Agreement on Trade Tariffs (GATT), which guarantee a market portion
in the EU for the sale of livestock products.
Diversification into wildlife and eco-tourism products, plus limitations

The limitations that have been experienced by many cattle producers, in conjunction with consultations
and research both in Botswana and internationally has led to the development of alternative income
generating activities off the range. In the areas not designated for national parks, forest reserves and
game reserves, this has included:
game farming, with seasonal photographic safaris, trophy and game meat hunting,
ostrich farming mainly for meat, skins and feathers to be sold overseas,
crocodile and fish farming,
eco-tourism in many forms including archaeology (e.g. the Tsodilo Hills, with over 3 000 rock
paintings), cultural and photographic safaris,
collection and sale of natural resource products such as honey, wild fruits and tubers, medicinal
plants, herbal teas and local delicacies such as Phane, which is a cooked and salted caterpillar.
Within the designated wildlife and reserve areas, the land has been divided, for administration
purposes into wildlife management areas (WMAs), and some of these have been subdivided into
controlled hunting areas (CHAs). The CHA label is a misnomer, because hunting is not permitted in
many of them. These areas have been leased for the purpose of generating income through tourism
concessions with various permissible activities. These activities cover mobile and fixed safari camps for
purposes of viewing and photographing wildlife on land and water by vehicle, motor boat and canoe,
and experiencing the wilderness of areas such as the Okavango Delta, the Chobe National Park, the
Gemsbok Trans-Frontier National Park (linking adjoining parks in SW Botswana and NW South Africa),
the Makgadikgadi Pans and Central Kalahari Game Reserves.
5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE
The pasture resources of the country are almost entirely natural grasslands. Research was conducted over
the period 19701990 on improving natural pastures by introduction of high-value indigenous grasses
and legumes, as well as exotic legumes, to reinforce the range. Additional research was conducted on
supplementary fertilizer applications to the natural range to boost its productivity. These and other
research topics and findings are discussed in more detail in Section 6.
Natural pastures
Natural pastures cover almost the entire country. For details see the various vegetation and landscape
types described in Appendix 1.
Many grasses have a very short growing season, which is an adaptation to unreliable rainfall. Heavy
trampling by livestock, especially in sandy soils, tends to uproot herbaceous plants with shallow root
systems, leaving large expanses of bare soil until the next rains fall. Within the natural pastures, there are
abundant legumes (Papilionoideae family), and common trees such as the Acacia family are leguminous.
Limitations of the forage resource

The major limitation to forage production is the very low and erratic rainfall that occurs over almost the
entire country. Natural pastures are subject to extreme variations in climatic conditions, on a daily basis,
and also between seasons and between years. Diurnal temperatures vary by as much as 20C throughout
the year.
In many seasons the grazing is available in a brief flush, and then animals have to cover great
distances to find new grazing until more rain falls. Often, an area is likely to be grazed only once in a
year, although animals will come back and mop-up any standing stalks and grass tufts, once they have
exhausted all the more freely available material.
Many grass species are annuals, especially in the sandveld regions, where grass tufts are physically
pulled from the ground by non-selective grazers such as cattle. Then, in the subsequent and limited
rainfall periods, many grasses cannot cope with competition for moisture and light by woody plant
species that have established root systems. Grass yields are therefore extremely low, being in the order
of only 12tonnes/ha.
In addition, many grasses appear to be unpalatable, both to livestock and to wildlife. Some suggestions
for lack of palatability are high concentrations of acidity, high levels of silica, are too woody, or have
unpleasant taste due to the presence of aromatic compounds such as turpenes. Interestingly enough, it
is monogastric, as opposed to ruminant, livestock, such as horses and donkeys that fare better in these
conditions, as long as they are given adequate supplies of drinking water.
Some shrubs are browsed, but many are covered in protective thorns or spines, or have high levels of
tannins, aromatic and other unpalatable compounds in their leaves. Others are just too high to be reached
by most livestock. Leaves are most commonly eaten when they have fallen from the shrubs during the
winter and the early dry, summer season prior to the rains.
Another major limitation is the low soil phosphate levels throughout the country as a whole. Phosphate
is provided by commercial farmers, through the provision of mineral licks and in supplementary feeds
that include urea, which is provided most commonly in the form of chicken manure. Other limitations
include eradication of the most palatable and valuable plants in natural pasture due to heavy grazing.
Rainfall patterns are such that grazing and other forage is produced during the relatively short summer
rainfall period. Once the rains stop grass growth also stops; once grass reserves have been depleted, they
will not be available until the next rainy season.
Areas most prone to land degradation under sandy soil conditions are those surrounding the cattle-
post, and/or livestock watering point. These areas are sacrifice zones, which tend to become covered in
dense scrub and can extend as far as 11.5km in radius around each watering point.
There is a lack of surface water, and a dependence on deep boreholes for providing livestock drinking
water. Draw-down profiles on the groundwater supplies have shown that boreholes should not be located
any closer than 8 km from one another, in most areas of the country. This means that the smallest feasible
ranch size in such areas is 8 km by 8 km in extent.
The commonest limiting factors in natural pasture productivity are the short rainy season, high
surface water evaporation rates, and rapid soil moisture percolation rates to beyond most herbaceous
plant root zones. These all lead to interplant competition for moisture. In addition, there is competition
between classes of animals for the grass resources. Livestock not only compete amongst themselves for
grazing, but also with termites, rodents and large wild herbivores.
6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF FODDER

RESOURCES
Improved pastures and sown forages

Research has been conducted on improved pastures and sown forages, but these are rarely found, except
in research farms and on small dairy and ostrich farms.
Crop residues
These are widely used in the common/tribal lands areas. Also in the areas of the country that are suitable
for cropping, livestock are permitted onto arable lands areas once the crops have been harvested.
Pastures research summaries for 19701990

The Animal Production and Research Unit (APRU) summarized pastures research over a period of 20
years, from 1970 to 1990.
Factors limiting productivity from natural pastures 19721973

Pasture research work has been going on since 1937 in Botswana. A more comprehensive programme
was started in 1972, collecting basic data from all over the country on pasture productivity and animal
liveweights. Digestibility was found to be the major factor limiting liveweight gain in grazing animals
followed by crude protein content particularly during the dry season. Ranches on the hardveld had the
highest amount of phosphorus while sandveld areas had the lowest phosphorus content in herbage.
Overall, calcium and phosphorus content in herbage tended to increase during the wet season but was
lower during the dry season. Supplementation of growing steers with phosphorus therefore showed an
increase of 0.2 kg/day in growth rate. In the nine research ranches, grazing indices ranged from 4 kg to
more than 60 kg dry matter per kg liveweight. The variation in rainfall from year to year was the major
factor influencing the index. Forage selectivity by animals during grazing tended to be higher when the
crude protein level was below 5%.
Evaluation of grass species 19741977

Grasses or grass types (see Table 7) found in the sandveld were rarely found in the hardveld and vice
versa. On both the hard and sandveld, species fell into fairly distinct groups and greater differences were
observed during the dry season.
Although Cymbopogon excavatus has high crude protein and digestibility values, it is unpalatable to
cattle because of its bitter taste.
Bush clearing 19741979

Removal of bush was expected to have a beneficial effect on the botanical composition of the grass layer,
because of better access to sunlight and interception of rainwater. An experiment involving cleared,
partially cleared and uncleared areas (see Table 8) showed that cleared areas had consistently higher dry
matter yield than uncleared areas (20%); increased basal cover and yield of desirable species increased.
The extent of the benefit from bush clearing depended upon the degree of suppression of pasture
growth by trees. However, total clearing or eradication of bush may not be necessary as some of the
shrubs provide good browse for livestock.
Table 7. Better species for the two veld types
Techniques of bush control and clearing. This Crude protein
content %
study was aimed at determining the biological and Veld type Species
season Wet
economic efficiency of alternative methods for season Dry
control and eradication of woody plants. Brachiaria nigropedata 8.43 (42) 4.96
1. Mechanical and chemical methods involv- Sandveld
Digitaria milanjiana 7.86 (47) 5.26
Anthephora pubescens 8.17 (49) 4.27
ing physical removal of bush or trees using Cymbopogon excavatus 8.05 5.08
machinery (such as bulldozers, etc.) and Panicum maximum 10.42 (49) 8.76
chemicals are expensive. Environmen- Urochloa trichopus 10.71 (46) 7.83
Hardveld Cymbopogon excavatus 8.46 5.58
tal considerations should be given prior- Brachiaria nigropedata 8.52 (40) 5.23
ity where the use of chemicals to control Bothriochloa insculpta 7.46 5.34
or eradicate bush is considered, because of ( ) Mean annual values for Digestibility
possible effects on animals and vegetation.
2. Fire. Prescribed burning at intervals of seven Table 8. Yield and botanical composition
to ten years will control bush and will kill Dry matter Desirable Other
Treatment yield1 species2 species
bush up to a height of 2 m but additional kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha
control measures were required for coppice Cleared 2 041 464 540
regrowth. There should be enough vegeta- Uncleared 1 725 258 382
tion fuel to make this effective. Partially cleared 2 001 734 714
3. Goats. Goats effected significant reductions 1
Five year mean (19741979)
in bush density by browsing post-burning 2
1978/9 season only
regrowth. One goat per hectare can effect a 70% reduction in the density of Acacia and associated
woody species in four to five years.
Grazing systems 1975(continuing)

The use of multi-paddock grazing systems to bring about improvements in range and animal performance
is being investigated as a range management system for maintaining desirable grasses and controlling
encroachment of undesirable plants. Initial studies conducted in 19751979 showed relatively small
differences between systems in animal performance, botanical composition and basal cover. Greater
advantages are required from the multi-paddock systems to justify the fencing costs. A new trial was
started in 1979 and it incorporates three grazing systems: Continuous grazing; 3 paddocks per herd
(1month graze, 2 months rest); 9 paddocks per herd (4 days graze, 32 days rest).
In an attempt to effect stock control and grazing systems and management in communal areas, it was
decided that 12 grazing cells be established. Technical advice and monitoring of these trials were to be
provided by APRU. Two control cells were also established. This project, however, did not bring about
the expected outcome and the following conclusions were drawn: projects of this nature should operate
through local institutions; identification and recognition of a community or group grazing area boundary
is essential for voluntary stock control to succeed; the grazing cell concept was seen to benefit a few
people while reducing grazing for others. Work on control cell (Makhi II) is still continuing.
Western Kalahari Range ecology studies 19751979

Construction of commercial ranches in the Ncojane area for lease to cattle owners was a major part
of the first Livestock Development Project initiated in 1972. A pasture ecology project was therefore
established in 1975 to follow the ecological influence of cattle in the Ncojane grazing area.
Although no firm conclusions could be drawn from a five-year project, based on the experience of
the investigations certain recommendation were made:
a. Stocking rates were more important in grazing management in this fragile environment than were
grazing systems. Therefore continuous grazing at a moderate stocking rate would seem suitable.
b. Grazing pressure would be effectively controlled through better distribution of water points that
should not be more than 5 km apart based on observations made on grazing patterns around water
points.
c. Destocking during drought will be necessary.
d. It is essential that means to control stocking rates are developed for this area to avoid overgrazing.
Makhi II Grazing Systems Trial 1980 continuing

The results of this trial are inconsistent between years. During the first year, pasture condition in
continuous grazing was poorer than other systems but improved the following year. In the following
three successive years, the 9 paddock system was better than the other two. This was followed by better
conditions in the continuous grazing system. Continuous grazing may have a negative effect on pasture
condition in drought years, and extended drought periods affect liveweight gain, since the system does
not provide a rest period to allow vegetation regrowth.
Stocking Rate Trials 1980 continuing

Stocking rates of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 ha/LSU were used. Preliminary results indicate that good
herbaceous plants and litter increased with decreased stocking rate. As expected cattle liveweight
gains also increased with a decrease in stocking rate. The study is expected to look at the economic
implications of the stocking rates in the long term, i.e. as regards total production over time.
The issue of stocking rate is related to the concept of carrying capacity of rangeland, which is
estimated for extended periods of time. When such fixed rates are used over long periods, there will be
years of adequate rainfall where unused herbage will be wasted and there will be years below average
rainfall or drought where this will create temporary overstocked conditions. It is therefore better to view
grazing management in relation to annual productive potential, where stocking rates are dependent on
range condition thus eliminating possible underuse or overuse.
Reclamation of Degraded Rangelands 1982 continuing

The problem of rangeland degradation has been attributed mainly to lack of grazing management
and control of stock numbers particularly in the communal areas; this has resulted in degradation of
extensive grazing areas. Trials were established at Morale Ranch Western Kalahari (Tshane) communal
area grazing to study the processes of degradation and to develop effective and appropriate reclamation
methods. Also to evaluate the effects on herbaceous plants and livestock performance. The trail at Tshane
is looking at rehabilitation of an already degraded area while initial trials at Morale are monitoring the
process of degradation.
Results from Tshane indicated an increase in standing crop of good grass species with increase in
distance from the water point and forbs seemed to decrease with increased distance from water in the
exclosures (i.e. areas closed from grazing during the growing season). Significant differences in grass
cover were observed between exclosures and adjacent areas open to grazing (up to a distance of 14km
from water) at the end of the growing season. However, differences were less in areas further away from
the water source (i.e. 18km and more).
Morale Communal Grazing Simulation Trial 1984 continuing

Poor management and degradation have caused some concern about sustainability of communal grazing
lands. In order to make sound recommendations on how to reclaim degraded lands and establish appropriate
stocking rates and livestock management interventions, a degradation and phosphorus supplementation
study was initiated at Morale ranch. Steers were grazed at stocking rates of 3, 6, and 9ha/LSU continuously
in two blocks. Steers in one block were supplemented with phosphorus. The effect of stocking rate was
assessed on the standing crop of herbaceous plants and steer liveweight gain. The standing crop in 1985
was highest in the 9ha/LSU than other stocking rates and there were more materials lost from the initial
standing crop in 3ha/LSU than in the 6 and 9ha/LSU. The same trend was observed in 1987, 1988 and
1989. Cattle liveweight gain increased with lower stocking rates as expected. The highest liveweight gain
was observed at the 9ha/LSU with phosphorus supplementation. Phosphorus supplementation seemed to
have more advantages in stocking rates higher than 9ha/LSU in poor rainfall years.
Forage and Pasture 1976 continuing

Opportunities for fodder and pasture production in areas with high or average rainfall are more
appropriate when intensive or semi-intensive livestock production systems such as dairy are to be
established. Early work in Botswana prior to independence included: introduction of saltbush, cattle
melon and fodder cactus; cultivation of some indigenous grasses and introduction of some tropical
pasture legumes. Findings were not well documented and thus were not adopted by livestock producers.
Introduction of Fodder Species 1977 continuing

Introductions were done at Sebele, Mahalapye and Pelotshetlha. A total of 25 grass species and 77
legumes were introduced. Local grasses: Cenchrus ciliaris, Panicum coloratum, Eragrostis curvula,
Urochloa mosambicensis, Chloris gayana, Cynodon dactylon. Local legumes: Glycine wightii,
Indigofera sp., Desmodium, Dolichos lablab, Sesbania. Potentially useful legumes: include Indigofera,
Tephrosia, and Siratro
7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND

PERSONNEL
APRU - Botswana College of Agriculture. The Animal Production & Research Unit (APRU) is the key
body for range, pastures and forage research in Botswana. It is at the Botswana College of Agriculture,
Sebele, Gabarone.
The APRU has several outstations, where livestock and range research are conducted on the different
range types, and with different livestock breeds and production systems. Key personnel here are:
Dr. Wanda Mphinyane Head of the Division Tel: 3153 068

e-mail: wmphinyane@gov.bw
Dr. Peter Wandera Pastures Research Tel: 3153 068

e-mail: pwandera@gov.bw
Ms. S Mangope Pastures and Forage, based Tel: 4712 711

at Mahalapye Research Station e-mail: smangope@gov.bw
Mr. K. Kaonga Pastures and Forage, based Tel: 4712 711

at Mahalapye Research Station e-mail: kkaonga@gov.bw
BRIMP Ministry of Agriculture. Another key unit is the Botswana Range Inventory and Monitoring
Programme, based in the Range Ecology Division, Department of Crops and Forestry, Ministry of
Agriculture, Gaborone. It draws from extensive databases, and is used to interpret satellite imagery and
draw on meteorological forecasts, to interpret trends in range productivity on a seasonal basis.
Contacts for BRIMP include:
Mr. Raymond Kwerepe Head of the Division Tel: 3950 511

e-mail: rkwerepe@gov.bw
Mr. Victor Tlhalerwa Principal Range Ecologist Tel: 3950 438

e-mail: vtlhalerwa@gov.bw
Ms. Neelo Sebele Senior Range Ecologist Tel: 3950 756

e-mail: nsebele@gov.bw
Mr. David Stimela BRIMP, GIS specialist Tel: 3950 662

e-mail: dstimela@gov.bw
FAO Botswanas Resident Contact

The FAO contact in Gaborone, who is also based at the Botswana College of Agriculture, Sebele, is Mr.
Poloko Nkepu, Tel: 3928 715.
8. REFERENCES
Large scale studies
APRU, ~1991. Twenty Years of Animal Production and Range Research in Botswana. 1970-1990. Ministry
of Agriculture.
APRU, 1978. An Integrated Programme of Beef Cattle and Range Research in Botswana, 1970-1977. Animal
Production and Research Unit, Ministry of Agriculture, Gaborone.
Bhalotra Y.P.R. 1985. Drought in Botswana. Dept. Met. Services. Ministry of Works, Communications &
Transport. Republic of Botswana.
BRIMP Botswana Range Inventory & Monitoring Project. Ministry of Agriculture, Gaborone, Botswana.
Jointly funded by DFID, UK.
Carney J.N., Aldiss D.T. and Lock N.P. 1994. The Geology of Botswana. Bulletin 37. Geological Surveys
Department, Ministry of Natural Resources and Water Affairs, Republic of Botswana. Govt. Printer,
Gaborone.
Cook H.J. 1978. Botswanas present climate and evidence for past change. Proc. Of Symposium on Drought
in Botswana. The Botswana Society, Gaborone, Botswana.
CSO, 1996. Agriculture Statistics:1996. Central Statistics Office, Gaborone. Republic of Botswana.
DHV Consulting Engineers, 1980. Countrywide Animal and Range Assessment Project. Seven Vols., with
Maps. DHV, PO Box 85, 3800 AB, Amersfoort, The Netherlands.
Ecosurv, 1997. Strategic Assessment of the South Western Wildlife System of Botswana: Rehabilitation
Measures. IFAD funded programs on SW Strategic Environmental and Countrywide Assessments.
Environmental Consultants, 1991. Central District Planning Study. Main Report, Vol. 1. MLGL&H/Central
District Administration. Gaborone.
FAO, 1990a. Soil Map of the Republic of Botswana. . Soil Mapping and Advisory Services Project. AG:DP/
BOT/85/011. Ministry of Agriculture, Gaborone Botswana/FAO/UNDP.
FAO, 1990b. Explanatory Note on the Soil Map of the Republic of Botswana. Soil Mapping and Advisory
Services Project. AG:DP/BOT/85/011, Field Document #30. Ministry of Agriculture, Gaborone Botswana/
FAO/UNDP.
FAO, 1990c. Land Systems Map of the republic of Botswana. Soil Mapping and Advisory Services Project.
AG:DP/BOT/85/011. Ministry of Agriculture, Gaborone Botswana/FAO/UNDP.
FAO, 1991. Contribution to the Vegetation Classification of Botswana. Soil Mapping and Advisory Services
Project. AG:DP/BOT/85/011. Field Document #34. Ministry of Agriculture, Gaborone Botswana/FAO/UNDP.
FAO 1992. Map of Land Suitability for Rainfed Crop Production, plus the Explanatory Note and Legend.
TCP/BOT/0053, Field Document #3.
FAO/UNDP Soils and Land Utilisation documents and maps:
Ministry of Agriculture, 1993. Monitoring and Progress Report 1991-1992/3. Ministry of Agriculture.
Moyo S., OKeefe P. and Sill M. 1993. The Southern African Environment: Profiles of the SADC Countries.
EARTHSCAN. ISBN 1353331719.
National Development Plan 8, 1997/98-2002/03. Ministry of Finance and Development Panning. Govt.
Printer, Gaborone.
Roe E. 1973. Development of Livestock, Agriculture & Water Supplies before Independence, in Botswana:
A short History and Policy Analysis. Cornell University and Ministry of Agriculture. Rural Development
Committee, Occasional Papers #10.
Sims D. 1981. Agro-Climatological Information, Crop Requirements and Agricultural Zones for Botswana.
Land Utilisation Divisions, Ministry of Agriculture, Gaborone.
Smith R.A. 1984. The Lithostratigraphy of the Karoo Supergroup in Botswana. Botswana Geological Survey
Bulletin. 26. 239 pp.
Thomas, D.S.G. and P.A. Shaw 1991. The Kalahari Environment. Cambridge University Press.
UNDP/FAO, 1982. Co-ordinator, Animal Production and Range Research. BOTS. AG:DP/BOT/74/002
Internal report. Rome 1982.
Weare, P.R. and A. Yalala. 1971. Provisional Vegetation Map of Botswana (First Revision). Botswana Notes
and Records 3:131147.
WMA studies including - various National Parks and Game Reserves,
General Reading
Botswana Notes and Records, published by the Botswana Society in Gaborone. (These journals cover issues
on the environment - plants and wildlife, agriculture, society, culture and cultural history, and new research
findings on Botswana related topics.)
IUCN 1990. The Nature of Botswana: A Guide to Conservation and Development. IUCN, Field Operations
Division, Gland, Switzerland.
Tlou T & Campbell A, 1984. History of Botswana. Macmillan, Botswana.
Recent Studies
Management of Indigenous Vegetation for the Rehabilitation of Degraded Rangelands in the Arid Zone
of Africa - Botswana, Kenya, Mali. A joint UNEP/GEF funded program, combining inter-regional
programs from the three countries, working through the three Governments. The study is a progression
from the Kalahari-Namib study within Botswana.
Policies
Ministry of Agriculture, 1974. Draft Livestock Development Policy. National Land Management &
Livestock Project. Animal Production Division, Ministry of Agriculture.
Conventions
RAMSAR www.ramsar.org/
Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD) < http://www.iisd.ca/linkages/vol04/enb04118e.
html >
International Biodiversity Convention: www.biodiv.org/
CITES www.cites.org/
Kalahari-Namib Project www.unep.org/geo2000/english/0147.htm
9. CONTACTS
Jeremy Burgess is a free-lance ecologist with wide experience of Botswana.
Address:
Plot 560, Lenganeng, Tlokweng - Gaborone.
Tel: 3930972, Cell: 71755933
e-mail: jburgess@info.bw
Acknowledgements
Several people gave freely of their time and resources, and without their help this profile would not have
been completed. Particular thanks are due to the following: (1) the BRIMP team, for their inputs and for
providing information on sources of materials, especially Victor Tlhalerwa, Principal Range Ecologist
and Deputy of the Range Ecology Section, Ministry of Agriculture who also provided valuable editorial
comments; also to David Stimela (GIS section) for providing the various digitized maps. (2) Mr S
Bings Bingana, of the Botswana National Productivity Centre, for providing time and material for the
socio-economic background, and also for the figures relating to BMC (Botswana Meat Commission)
statistics. (3) Dr. Wanda Mphinyane, for providing backdated copies of APRU (Animal Production
and Research Unit - Sebele) research summaries. (4) Finally thanks to Raymond Kwerepe, Head of
the Division of Forestry, Range Ecology and Beekeeping, for his time in editing and proofreading this
document.
[This profile was prepared in 2002 by the author and was edited by J.M. Suttie and S.G. Reynolds with
final inputs in the period JanuaryMarch 2003; livestock data in Table 6 were updated in October 2006
by S.G. Reynolds.]
APPENDIXES
APPENDIX 1. Detailed regional vegetation associations
The following sub-sections describe the vegetation according to region, as provided on the associated
map.
Region 1. Extreme South-West

Sandveld - Extremely Arid
This region forms a narrow zone along the Nossop and the Molopo from the Gemsbok National Park
via Bokspits to Khuis.
Along the Nossop bare rolling dunes are present.
Undulating to rolling dunes found further inland are covered by a vegetation mosaic varying in
structure from grassland to low shrub savannah and shrub savannah with as most conspicuous species
Acacia haematoxylon and the grasses Stipagrostis amabilis, S. uniplumis and Schmidtia kalahariensis.
The interdunes mainly support a shrub savannah characterised by Acacia haematoxylon and Rhigozum
trichotomum. The vegetation of this dune-interdune complex has an association of Acacia haematoxylon
and Rhigozum trichotomum.
Figure 14. Vegetation regions as taken from the FAO Soils Map
FAO, 1991. Contribution to the Vegetation Classification of Botswana
Region 2. South-West
Sandveld - Arid
Region 2 extends north from Region 1 and from the Molopo River via Phitshane, Jwaneng and Kang to
the Tropic of Capricorn.
Due to higher precipitation rates to the north, the shrub savannahs of Region 1 gradually change into
savannahs in Region 2.
The largest part of this sandveld region is characterised by a savannah with an Acacia mellifera, A.
luederitzii, Boscia albitrunca association.
Frequent pans are observed in the central and northern section of this zone. The pans are fringed by a
dense savannah and have a central area that is bare or is covered by grassland with species from genera
such as Sporobolus, Panicum, and Eragrostis.
In the south-east of the region a (open) shrub savannah has been established, belonging to the same
sandveld association. There the grass layer varies in coverage from 10-70%, and is dominated by
Eragrostis lehmanniana, Stipagrostis uniplumis and Anthephora pubescens.
In the west of this region (open) shrub savannahs are found, which form part of a Catophractes
alexandri, Rhus tenuinervis association.
The most eastern land systems are characterised by open shrub savannahs and open savannahs. They
occupy a floristic intermediate position between the Terminalia sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii / Acacia
erioloba sandveld association and the eastern hardveld associations Peltophorum africanum, Acacia
tortilis/A. karroo, Ziziphus mucronata and Peltophorum africanum, Acacia tortilis / Terminalia sericea.
Throughout the region several zones with superficial aeolian sand deposits can be recognised. These
areas are mainly characterised by shrub savannahs and savannahs which fit in the Acacia mellifera, A.
luederitzii, Boscia albitrunca association.
In the north, some isolated patches of shrub savannah and savannah occur that belong to a Terminalia
sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii / Acacia erioloba association (see Region 3).
Region 3. Mid-West
Sandveld - Arid to Semi-arid
This region is enclosed by the Tropic of Capricorn in the south, the Okwa/Quoxo valley system in
the north and east and the Namibian border in the west. A small zone extends southwards along the
international boundary to the Nossop. In this region the vegetation structure ranges from low shrub
savannahs to dense savannahs. The vegetation of the whole area is part of a Terminalia sericea,
Lonchocarpus nelsii, Acacia erioloba and A. leuderitzii association. Predominant grass species
include Anthephora pubescens, Eragrostis lehmanniana, Schmidtia kalahariensis, S. pappophoroides,
Stipagrostis uniplumis, Aristida congesta, Pogonarthria squarrosa.
Region 4. Okwa/Quoxo valley system

Sandveld - Fossil Valley Systems
This fossil river system, located in the centre of the country, is mainly covered by a shrub savannah and
savannah mosaic, which floristically belongs to the Terminalia sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii / Acacia
erioloba association. The grass layer is dominated by Aristida congests, Eragrostis lehmanniana,
Pogonarthria squarrosa, Schmidtia pappophoroides, Stipagrostis uniplumis.
Region 5. Mid-East
Sandveld - Shallow with Hardveld Interface
Region 5 is confined by the Quoxo in the west and the hardveld in the east and is roughly situated
between Letlhakane in the north and Dibete in the south. This region mainly consists of sandveld
vegetation types. Towards the boundary between the sandveld and the eastern hardveld transitional
vegetation types and one hardveld association occurs.
The principal vegetation structure in the sandveld is savannah. The savannahs belong to the
Terminalia sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii / Acacia erioloba association.
Hardveld land systems are located at the eastern fringe of the sandveld. They support a transitional
vegetation with elements of the sandveld association and species of the hardveld associations
Peltophorum africanum, Acacia tortilis / Terminalia sericea, and Combretum apiculatum, Acacia
nigrescens, and A. tortilis. A system of superficial aeolian sand deposits, mainly surrounded by hardveld
consists of the hardveld association Colophospermum mopane, Acacia nigrescens / Combretum
apiculatum, Acacia tortilis (see Region 6). The grass layer is dominated by Aristida congesta, Digitaria
milanjiana, Eragrostis pallens, Stipagrostis uniplumis., with 10-30% basal cover.
One land system is covered by a transition community with elements of the sandveld association and
the hardveld association Colophospermum mopane, Acacia nigrescens / Combretum imberbe, forming
an association of Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia sericea / Combretum imberbe. Part of this land
system is also characterised in places by a vegetation transition between sandveld and hardveld resulting
in a Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia sericea / Sclerocarya caffra association. The grass layer here
is dominated by Anthephora pubescens, Digitaria sp., Eragrostis pallens, and Stipagrostis uniplumis,
with 1070% cover.
The mopane-line roughly follows the boundary between sandveld and hardveld. It crosses land and
divides it in a southern part with typical sandveld vegetation and a northern zone with an association of
Colophospermum mopane and Terminalia prunioides. The grass layer is dominated by Cenchrus ciliaris,
Digitaria milanjiana, Eragrostis sp.
Region 6. Eastern Hardveld

Hardveld - with Minor Sandveld Intrusions
The eastern hardveld extends from approximately 26 south to 20 south and is confined by the sandveld
in the west and the international boundary in the east.
The hardveld has a vegetation cover ranging from shrub savannah over savannah to tree savannah. In
comparison with the sandveld, the hardveld is typified by a denser and taller vegetation. This difference
can be contributed to the heavier texture and higher nutrient content of the hardveld soils.
From south to north shrub savannahs decrease and tree savannahs increase. This tendency is probably
due to the increase of the precipitation towards the north.
In the hardveld two provisional alliances consisting of two and three associations respectively and
three independent association have been distinguished.
From 26 south to 23.5 south a Peltophorum africanum, Acacia tortilis alliance is found, consisting
of two associations:
The southern association is characterised by structures varying from shrub savannah and savannah to tree
savannah and the species Peltophorum africanum, Acacia tortilis/Acacia karroo, Ziziphus mucronata.
The northern association is typified by shrub savannahs and savannahs, marked by Peltophorum
africanum, Acacia tortilis / Terminalia sericea.
Between 23 south and 20 south a Colophospermum mopane, Acacia nigrescens alliance is present,
which consists of four associations:
The southern one is predominated by savannahs, which form a Colophospermum mopane, Acacia
nigrescens / Combretum apiculatum, A. tortilis association.
The eastern central section of this zone is covered by relatively tall (12-16m height), close-canopy
woodlands that are dominated by Acacia nigrescens and Sclerocarya birrea, with a secondary
woodland storey of (4-10m height) dominated by Combretum apiculatum. This vegetation associa-
tion coincides with shallow-basalt-derived soils that overlie a granitic parent geology.
vThe eastern land systems are covered by an association of open tree savannahs typified by Colo-
phospermum mopane, Acacia nigrescens / Burkea africana. B.africana is usually associated with
sandy soils, but occurs here, in pockets of deep sand, which are generally old drainage lines and
erosion surfaces that have infilled with sand.
In the north-western area of the hardveld and in some patches of the north- I east savannahs and
tree savannahs are found, which belong to a Colophospermum mopane, Acacia nigrescens / Com-
bretum imberbe association. The grass layer is dominated by Aristida congests, Eragrostis lehman-
niana, E. rigidior, E. superba, with 10-70% basal cover.
The hardveld land systems situated between 23.5 and 23 south, predominantly consist of savannahs,
which form an independent association of Combretum apiculatum, Acacia nigrescens, A. tortilis.
There is an intermediate land system between the Peltophorum africanum, Acacia tortilis /
Terminalia sericea association and the Combretum apiculatum, Acacia nigrescens, A. tortilis association
and can be classified as an Acacia erubescens, A. tortilis, Boscia albitrunca association. The grass layer
is dominated by Bothriochloa insculpta, Chloris virgata , Perotis patens, and Setaria sp., with 30-70%
basal cover.
There are two sandveld land systems that are included in this region, and which are typified by
a range of vegetation structures from open shrub savannahs to open tree savannahs. One system is
classified as an Acacia tortilis, Combretum erythrophyllum, Lonchocarpus capassa association, while
the other is classified as an Acacia erubescens, A. tortilis, Boscia albitrunca association.
The mopane-line separates the Combretum apiculatum, Acacia nigrescens, A. tortilis association
from the more northern located Colophospermum mopane, Acacia nigrescens alliance. The grass layer
is dominated by Aristida congest a , Cenchrus ciliaris, Chloris virgata, and Eragrostis lehmanniana,
with 1030% basal cover.
Region 7. Letiahau, Ghanzi, Hainaveld area

Northern Sandveld
Region 7 extends from the Okwa to the Boteti and is confined by the almost flat fossil lagoon in the east
and the international border in the west.
Both on the eastern and western side of the Ghanzi ridge, the sandveld is mainly characterised by
shrub savannahs and savannahs belonging to the Terminalia sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii / Acacia
erioloba association. Typical grass species include Anthephora pubescens, Aristida meridionalis,
Cenchrus ciliaris, Digitaria eriantha, Enneapogon cenchroides, Eragrostis lehmanniana, Pogonarthria
squarrosa, Rhynchelytrum repens, Schmidtia bulbosa, Stipagrostis uniplumis, Tragus berteronianus and
Urochloa mossambicensis.
Part of the land system consists of parabolic dunes and fossil rivers. The parabolic dunes carry a
continuity of Terminalia sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii, Acacia luederitzii. The fossil rivers provide
carbonate rich soils and favour the occurrence of the species Catophractes alexandri and Acacia tortilis.
The vegetation is dominated by Terminalia sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii, Acacia tortilis, Catophractes
alexandri association.
The Ghanzi ridge has a complex vegetation, which ranges in structure from shrub savannah and open
savannah to tree savannah. A compilation of the floristic characteristics leads to an association of Acacia
mellifera, A. erioloba, Terminalia prunioides, Catophractes alexandri.
Region 8. North-West
Northern Sandveld - Western Delta Fringes
This region is situated in the north-western corner of the country and extends from Lake Ngami in the
south to the Caprivi Strip in the north. Its eastern boundary is formed by the Okavango Delta, while the
Namibian border forms its western limit.
The area is predominated by savannahs and dense savannahs, although shrub savannahs and tree
savannahs occur as well.
In spite of the different parent materials (sandveld, alluvium and limited hardveld) the vegetation of
the region developed in a rather uniform way, according to associations on massive fossil sand dunes.
On the sandy soils of the dune system and the fossil alluvium the Terminalia sericea, Lonchocarpus
nelsii / Acacia erioloba association is found. Associated grass species include Anthephora pubescens,
Aristida meridionalis, Eragrostis sp., and Stipagrostis uniplumis.
There is an apparent division in the vegetation on the western side of the Delta with the boundary
occurring along a parallel with the Tsodilo Hills (Tlhalerwa, Pers. Comm.). The northern part is
predominated by the Miombo tree savannah on very deep sands, similar to the one found east of the
delta pan handle; e.g. the Pterocarpus angolensis association found along the Tamacha to Tsodilo road.
The vegetation described here is found south of the Miombo tree savannah. Ihe grass species Anthephora
pubescens is generally found south of the Nokaneng to Xangwa road, which is generally the boundary
between the Miombo tree savannah and the vegetation described here.
Lake Ngami only contains water during wet years. The lake shore and the lake bed (in dry years)
consist of a forbland of Sesbania sp., and Asclepias fruticosa. The forbland merges into a zone of
shrub and tree savannah on the flats, belonging to the Terminalia sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii I Acacia
erioloba association. Associated grass species include Aristida congesta, Cenchrus ciliaris, Cynodon
dactylon, and Panicum repens.
The mopane-line enters the region just north of Lake Ngami and runs around the Okavango Delta to
the north in the direction of Nokaneng. From Nokaneng up to Shakawe Colophospermum mopane only
occurs in a 5 - 15 km wide zone along the Okavango Delta and the Panhandle.
East of the mopane-line a mosaic of savannah and woodland is recognised typified a by Combretum
imberbe, Acacia erioloba, Colophospermum mopane association. This association is found on the
fossil delta floodplain towards the mainland edges. Associated grass species include Aristida congesta,
Cenchrus ciliaris, Cynodon dactylon, Echinochloa pyramidalis and Setaria sphacelata.
Region 9. Makgadikgadi system, Nxai Pan area

Makgadikgadi Pan System
This region comprises the lacustrine land systems belonging to the Makgadikgadi Pans and their
surroundings.
The Pans are dry and without any vegetation during the greatest part of the year. They are only
submerged a few months each year. The shallow coastal zones support a swamp vegetation characterised
by Scirpus maritimus. Grasslands typified by halophytic species such as Odyssea paucinervis and
Sporobolus spicatus surround the pans. The catena is divided, with the grass Cenchrus ciliaris as a
major dominant in the upper slopes of the catena, while Odyssea paucinervis and Sporobolus spicatus
predominate in the lower parts of the catena.
South of the Makgadikgadi Pans land system the mopane-line divides this land system in a northern
mopane free area and a southern mopane dominated zone.
The northern part is characterised by grasslands and occasionally open savannahs. Clumps of
Hyphaene petersiana and Catophractes alexandri are observed on calcareous substrates. Chrysopogon
montanus is a dominant grass species part of this association (Tlhalerwa, Pers. Comm.). The grasslands
with species Odyssea paucinervis, Sporobolus spicatus, Cymbopogon sp., Eragrostis rigidior and
Enneapogon desvauxii belong to the Odyssea paucinervis association.
The southern area is covered by grasslands and savannahs belonging to the Colophospermum
mopane, Terminalia prunioides association, which is also found in the bordering Region 5.
East and north of the grasslands that surround the Makgadikgadi Pan system a variety of vegetation
structures from shrub savannah to tree savannah are recognised. The vegetation belongs to a
Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia sericea alliance.
The eastern part of the land system is typified by shrub savannahs belonging to a Colophospermum mopane,
Terminalia sericea Sclerocarya caffra association. This land system consists of five different zones:
The grasslands around the Makgadikgadi Pans were mentioned above.
South of 20 south Hyphaene petersiana and Adansonia digitata are frequently observed. In this
area an association can be established, typified by Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia sericea I
Hyphaene petersiana, Adansonia digitata, belonging to the Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia
sericea alliance.
In the north a range of vegetation structures from shrub savannahs, savannahs to tree savannahs is
found, belonging to a Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia sericeaICombretum imberbe association.
Nxai Pan is covered by an open tree savannah. The landscape is characterised by grasslands of
Cenchrus ciliaris, Panicum repens, Odyssea paucinervis and Cymbopogon sp. and clumps of Aca-
cia tortilis trees.
East and west of the Boteti River a zone is found, which is covered by shrub savannahs and savan-
nahs belonging to the Terminalia sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii Acacia erioloba sandveld associa-
tion.
The floodplains and courses of the Boteti River are typified by a swamp vegetation and sedge- and
grasslands of Phragmites australis, Scirpus inclinatus, Cyperus articularis and Typha capensis.
The banks and terraces are covered by shrub savannahs and savannahs with Acacia tortilis, A.
erioloba, A. mellifera and Terminalia prunioides. An association of Acacia tortilis, Phragmites
australis, A. erioloba, Terminalia prunioides could be established for this land system.
Region 10. Mid-North

Northern Sandveld Bordering on Eastern Hardveld and the Delta in the West
This region, mainly sandveld, extends from Maun to Basotho and is located north of the Makgadikgadi
Pans system and south of the Chobe area.
Savannahs with a Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia sericea alliance are predominantly found
in the east and the centre of the region. The communities of the land systems Ar3 and Sa17 south are
classified as a Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia sericea, Dicrostachys cinerea association. The
vegetation is part of a Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia sericea I Lonchocarpus nelsii association.
There is a 10 km wide fringe along the Thamalakane River with woodland of the same alliance which
can be classified as a Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia sericea I Dicrostachys cinerea association.
A variety of structure types from shrub savannah and savannah to tree savannah and forest forming
a Colophospermum mopane, Combretum sp., association. Grass species found here include Aristida sp.,
Cenchrus ciliaris, Chrysopogon montanus, Digitaria milanjiana, Eragrostis rigidior, Schmidtia bulbosa,
and Urochloa trichopus.
The north-western area is covered by shrub savannahs and savannahs belonging to a Terminalia
sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii I Combretum sp. association.
In the north-eastern part of the region shrub savannahs and savannahs are found. Miombo species as
Pterocarpus angolensis and Ricinodendron rautanenii are invading from the north forming a Terminalia
sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii I Pterocarpus angolensis association.
Region 11. North-East

Sand Forest Region
This region occupies the north-eastern part of Botswana. It comprises the Chobe area, Kasane and the
Mpandamatenga plains.
The Chobe area is basically characterised by sand plains supporting savannahs, tree savannahs
and woodland with a floristic association of Pterocarpus angolensis, Baikiaea plurijuga in which
Colophospermum mopane frequently occurs.
This vegetation forms a transition between the northern miombo woodland, found in Zambia and
Zimbabwe, and the southern Kalahari savannahs. Other typical miombo species occurring in the Chobe
area are Ricinodendron rautanenii, Croton gratissimus, Guibourtia coleosperma, Burkea africana,
Brachystegia boehmii, Julbernardia globiflora and Isoberlinia sp.
The Mpandamatenga plains are characterised by grasslands, shrub savannahs and open savannahs
fringed by open savannahs and tree savannahs. The savannahs are part of a Colophospermum mopane,
Acacia nilotica, Combretum sp. association. Grass species found here include Andropogon sp., Cenchrus
ciliaris, Chloris gayana, Cymbopogon sp., Digitaria eriantha, Eragrostis sp., Hyparrhenia filipendula,
Panicum maximum, Perotis patens, Setaria sphacelata, and Sporobolus sp.,
The vegetation varies in places from (open) savannah and tree savannah to woodland, and can be
classified as part of the Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia sericea Combretum imberbe association.
A gently undulating basalt plain in the far east supports an open savannah and savannah vegetation,
which forms part of the Colophospermum mopane, Acacia nigrescens I Combretum imberbe hardveld
association.
Along the Chobe River grasslands are found on the floodplains. Savannahs and forest, in literature
often described as riverine woodland, are recognised on the banks. The riverine woodlands have a
Combretum imberbe, Acacia erioloba, Colophospermum mopane association with associated species
Lonchocarpus capassa and Croton megalobotrys. Grass species found here include Andropogon sp.,
Aristida sp., Cymbopogon sp., Dichanthium annulatum, Digitaria eriantha, Eragrostis sp., Hyparrhenia
filipendula, Panicum maximum, Perotis patens, Schmidtia bulbosa, Setaria sphacelata, and Sporobolus sp..
The Chobe Enclave is a marshy area with floodplains and islands. The islands are predominantly
covered by savannahs with an association of Hyphaene petersiana, Lonchocarpus capassa, Phoenix
reclinata, while the floodplains carry grasslands.
Region 12. Mababe, Kwando-Linyanti, Okavango

Alluvial Flood Plains
Region 12 is located in the north of the country and includes the Mababe Depression in the east, fossil
alluvium in the centre and longitudinal dune systems in the west. The region is bordered by the Caprivi
Strip in the north and by the Okavango Delta in the south.
The Mababe Depression can be divided in a clay rich central depression, a sandy terrace in the east
and a beach ridge in the west.
The centre is covered by a shrub savannah of Acacia tortilis, surrounded by shrubland and woodland
with associated species Colophospermum mopane, Acacia erioloba , A. nigrescens, Lonchocarpus
capassa, resulting in a Colophospermum mopane, Acacia tortilis association. Grass species include
Grass species found here include Aristida meridionalis, Digitaria eriantha, Eragrostis sp., Schmidtia
pappophoroides and Stipagrostis uniplumis.
On the terrace a dense shrub savannah with an association of Colophospermum mopane, Combretum
sp. is recognised. The beach ridge is covered by a sandveld savannah belonging to the Terminalia
sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii, Acacia erioloba association.
The Savute Marsh, which only floods in extremely wet years, is covered by grassland dominated
by Cynodon dactylon, surrounded by Acacia erioloba and A. nigrescens, forming an Acacia tortilis,
Cynodon dactylon, Cenchrus ciliaris, Combretum imberbe association.
The fossil lagoon sands around the Mababe Depression have a typical sandveld vegetation with
savannahs consisting of the Terminalia sericea, Lonchocarpus nelsii Acacia erioloba association.
The fossil alluvium from the Okavango Delta and the fluvially eroded longitudinal dune systems
are covered by shrub savannahs, (dense) savannahs and tree savannahs, which are part of the
Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia sericea Lonchocarpus nelsii association.
On the longitudinal dunes along the Caprivi Strip (dense) savannahs with Terminalia sericea and
Baphia massaiensis are well developed.
The interdunes are typified by an open savannah with as most characteristic species Peltophorum
africanum and Combretum hereroense. The vegetation of the entire dunefield can be classified as an
association of Terminalia sericea, Baphia massaiensis, Peltophorum africanum, Combretum hereroense.
The floodplains of the Kwando and Linyanti Rivers and of the Savute Channel are covered by
grasslands. The river banks and terraces support savannahs and forests, which can be classified as the
riverine woodland association of Combretum imberbe, Acacia erioloba, Colophospermum mopane.
Region 13. Okavango Delta

Okavango Delta and Associated Floodplains
Region 13 comprises the Okavango River (the Panhandle zone) and the Okavango Delta.
Five land systems have been observed in this region: permanent swamp, delta- floodplain, river
floodplain and two types of fossil alluvium respectively.
The permanent swamp and the delta-floodplain are characterised by the land elements swamp,
floodplains and islands. The swamp is typified by emergent, floating and submerged vegetation
communities, consisting of hydrophytic grasses, sedges and aquatic species. The floodplains con-
sist of grassland.
The swamp and floodplain communities can be grouped in an alliance of Cyperus papyrus,
Phragmites australis, Imperata cylindrica. This alliance comprises three associations: a perma-
nent swamp association of Cyperus papyrus and Miscanthus junceus, a delta-floodplain (seasonal
swamp) association of Phragmites australis, Schoenoplectus corymbosus, Cyperus articularis and
a floodplain association of Imperata cylindrica, Setaria sphacelata, Hyparrhenia rufa.
On the islands a variety of structural vegetation types is found: grassland, (dense) savannah, tree
savannah, woodland and forest. The central part of the islands may consist of halophytic grasslands
or savannahs, while the fringes support a much denser riverine vegetation.
The island vegetation can be classified in a Hyphaene petersiana, Garcinia livingstonei alliance,
which consists of two associations.
In the perennial swamp a Hyphaene petersiana, Garcinia livingstonei Phoenix reclinata, Ficus
verruculosa association is found.
The islands of the delta-floodplain belong to a Hyphaene petersiana, Garcinia livingstonei Lon-
chocarpus capassa, Acacia nigrescens association.
Peninsulas and large islands as the Mopane Tongue and Chiefs Island are mainly covered by a
mosaic of savannah and woodland, which form part of a Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia
sericea Lonchocarpus nelsii association.
On both sides of the Panhandle a zone of fossil river floodplain is recognised. The vegetation struc-
ture is varying from savannah to tree savannah, supporting a Terminalia sericea, Lonchocarpus
nelsii Baphia massaiensis association.
Along the Okavango River, floodplains and scattered islands occur. The floodplains are covered
with grassland belonging to the Imperata cylindrica, Setaria sphacelata, Hyparrhenia rufa asso-
ciation. The islands resemble the permanent swamp islands and support the same Hyphaene peter-
siana, Garcinia livingstonei I Phoenix reclinata, Ficus verruculosa association.
Along the borders of the Okavango Delta patches of riverine woodland occur, characterised by
the species Ficus sycomorus, Garcinia livingstonei, Diospyros mespiliformis, Acacia erioloba,
Combretum imberbe and Colophospermum mopane. Grass species found here include, Aristida
stipoides Eragrostis sp., Hyparrhenia rufa, Hyperthelia dissoluta, Imperata cylindrica, and Setaria
sphacelata.
APPENDIX 2. A brief palaeo-history of the land formation processes that have created
the current land-systems
Thomas & Shaw (1991) have written a fascinating book on the pre-historic land formations of Botswana,
with hypotheses on how the present land-forms have been derived from these.
Much of the Makgadikgadi pans area was a lake which was fed by several rivers including the
Okavango, Kwando, Chobe and possibly even the Zambezi. The lake then drained out through what
are now the Shashe and Motloutse river systems, that run eastwards into the Limpopo River. The major
rivers brought in massive quantities of sand from upstream, which began to fill the lake bed.
The western Kalahari Region was also once a massive, shallow inland lake, that also drained into the
Limpopo River through the Serorome Valley, on the tropic of Capricorn.
With a gradual change to a much drier climate (but with several periods of heavy rainfall interrupting
this period), and some major geological upheavals to the south east of the Makgadikgadi Pans, the ancient
lakes gradually dried up. Additionally, several major geological upheavals resulted in all but the Okavango
river turning to the North-east, to join the present Zambezi River, which is their current alignment.
After going through a process of looking rather like the Okavango Delta does today, the Pans cover
an area of open white sands with saline rich waters lying below the surface. It is this sub-surface salinity
that is a major determinant in the current landscape and vegetation associations that characterise the Pans.
To the west, climate change resulted in fine sands being blown in from the west, and deposited in an
almost flat layer of sand over several thousands of square kilometres. This layer was then reshaped by
subsequent wet and dry cycles to form the flat to rolling countryside, which is broken in places by fossil
drainage lines, ridges and ancient sand dunes. The sand dunes form in two ways, as linear dunes, and as
elliptical dunes, around existing major pan systems, in the South-west of the country.
The eastern side of the country is generally more broken with hills and drainage lines due to surface
uplifting. Many of the drainage lines, however, are dry for much of the year, and rivers and streams only
run during the rainy season.
Contribution of the land formation processes to the existing landscape

The Western portion of the country, is covered by a great depth of sand over a large part, and which is
up to 200m deep in places. In these areas, ground water is generally found at great depths, from 40m to
below 200m. The ground water is also very often too salty for people, and often even for livestock, to
drink safely and survive in the long term.
The inherent salinity of the ground water associated with rising and falling ground water levels
through long-term wet and dry cycles, over a very long period, has resulted in the formation of sub-
surface lenses. These lenses, have formed as water levels rise and fall, and minerals have been deposited
and then hardened into solid rock. The lenses are made primarily of calcrete (a form of limestone) and
silcrete (a form of limestone which has hardened by silica from the sand deposits). These lenses then
form a barrier to rainfall percolating down through the sand, which leads to the creation of scattered pans
and outcrops of exposed calcrete, mainly around the pans and along the rim of the fossil drainage lines.
The combined landscape formation factors have resulted in the development of vegetation systems
that can survive on very little rainfall, and livestock production strategies have historically been mostly
nomadic, to capitalise on localised rainfall and vegetation growth particularly in drainage lines, and
around pans.
In the east and northern parts of the country, people have been more settled, as rainfall is generally
higher, and surface water is available in places. In other places water can be found by digging shallow
wells in the sandy river beds, of the major drainage lines, or by drilling shallow boreholes into the banks
of these rivers.
More recently, deep boreholes have been drilled in the western and southern portions of the country
and these have enabled cattle posts to develop.
As more and more boreholes develop, however, there has been increased pressure on the range
resources. Ground water resources, are also becoming depleted in places, as extraction rates exceed
replenishment rates, and salinity levels increase as removal of fresh water layers result in an increase in
the levels of dissolved salts.
APPENDIX 3. The development of the livestock sector in Botswana, 1895 to 1965

[From Roe (1973)]
Chronology of Major Events, 18951965

1895/96. A devastating epidemic of rinderpest occurred, estimated to have killed up to 95% of the cattle
in the Protectorate. This decrease in the supply of cattle resulted in their price rising to new levels in
certain areas of the country.
1905. The Veterinary Department was established with a small staff; in 1913/14 there were still only one
veterinary officer and one stock inspector.
1910. The Bechuanaland Protectorate, Basutoland, Swaziland, and South Africa entered into a new
Customs Agreement (in force until 1969) which was to provide the Protectorate with access to the South
African markets for its main export, cattle.
19091912. A quarantine on the export of cattle from the Protectorate to South Africa was imposed
because of lung sickness. Some easing of these restrictions occurred with the opening up of the
Johannesburg municipal abattoir in 1912, but quarantine restrictions continued in some form until 1923.
The 1911 national census estimated the Bechuanaland cattle population to number 323911 beasts, an
increase of 133% over the estimated herd size of 1904.
19111919. The steady recovery in the national herd after 1895 was ended by recurring drought,
considered at that time to be the worst ever experienced by some tribes. It is thought, for example, that
one-third of the Bangwaketse livestock died in 1914.
19201924. A worldwide economic depression, a severe drought and a series of locust attacks served
to reduce cattle exports. The 1921 national census put the Protectorate cattle population at 495062, an
increase of 53% over the 1911 figure.
19221923. The staff of the Veterinary Department was increased to a chief veterinary officer, one
veterinary officer, a laboratory assistant, two stock inspectors, one scab inspector, and a clerk.
19241941. Cattle exports from the Protectorate to Johannesburg were subject to a number of severe
weight and supply restrictions, limiting the Protectorates ability to export. However, a number of
new markets opened sporadically during the period--Northern Rhodesia in 1930, Southern Rhodesia
commencing 1939, Angola between 1926-1930, Italy between 19251936, and the Belgian Congo
between 19211932--which reduced the overall impact of restrictions to the Johannesburg market.
1925. An agreement was signed between the Protectorate administration and the Imperial Cold Storage
and Supply company to erect a storage and refrigerating unit at Lobatse and the new factory was opened
in August, 1927, at a cost of some 40,000.2 Abattoir activity did not really commence until 1934/35,
primarily due to the restrictions and weight regulations on Protectorate cattle exports. Veterinary
restrictions, low producer prices, and weight and supply restrictions were constantly to plague the
operation of this Lobatse abattoir and by 1941 it had ceased operations altogether.
1926. A dairy inspector was engaged by the Protectorate administration, leading to a rapid development
in African dairy production up to the Great Depression.
1931-1938. These eight years were the worst in the economic history of the Protectorate. Between
193138, there occurred not only the worst drought up to that time (193335) and an as-yet unparalleled
economic depression, but also major outbreaks of foot and mouth disease (193334) and locust attacks
(193435). The cattle export industry basically collapsed. The amount and value of official cattle exports
from the Protectorate plummeted in the early 1930s, primarily as a consequence of foot and mouth
disease embargoes. The national cattle herd may have fallen from levels as high as 1.21.4million head
in the early 1930s to 540000 to 640000 in the mid- and late 1930s. It has been estimated that some
400 000 cattle died between 1933 and 1936 because of the drought, while at least a further 250 000
were lost due to illegal smuggling of cattle to the Union between 193538. The foot and mouth disease
embargoes on official cattle exports placed an incredible hardship on African producers. Tax rates were
reduced and tax collections fell.
During this period, the activities of the Veterinary Department increased. Over a million head of cattle
were inoculated during the foot and mouth campaign of 1933/34. In 1936, 66 African cattle guards were
appointed in order to detect and control outbreaks of disease. Livestock Improvement Centres were
started in several tribal areas, beginning in 1936. Similarly, in the late 1930s the Department appointed
a hide-and-skins officer to improve African production. Much of this development owed its impetus to
the recommendations of the Pim Report of March, 1933, on the economic and financial position of the
Protectorate.
19391950. The value of African livestock exports began increasing again, as the average price of cattle
began rising, with World War II further stimulating demand. In response, the Union of South Africa
lifted its weight restrictions on cattle imports from the Protectorate which grew substantially thereafter.
In 1939, net revenue from the major livestock exports was roughly 215 000; by 1950, it exceeded
1.4 million. Tribal innovations such as local cattle auctions became increasingly popular among a
few tribes during the 1940s. World War II and the post-War increase demand for livestock products
profoundly altered the structure of the territorys livestock industry. After 1950, the aggregate value of
livestock products exported from the Protectorate never fell below 1.5million.
19511959. This was a period of rapid and substantial infrastructure development within the
Protectorates cattle industry. In 1954, the Colonial Development Corporation completed a new export
abattoir at Lobatse and, thereafter, the value of carcasses exceeded the value of live cattle exports.
Between 1951 and 1957, the Veterinary Department field staff expanded considerably; a veterinary
school was established at Ramatlabama; and a system of cordon fences and quarantine camps was
constructed across the territory. In 1956, the European Advisory Council gave consideration to the
need for a second abattoir in the north of the Protectorate. In 1958, the Adviser on Cooperatives to the
Secretary of State for the Colonies visited Bechuanaland to investigate the feasibility of cooperative
cattle marketing.
While foot and mouth disease outbreaks occurred, reducing cattle exports and offtake at particular
times, the value of livestock exports increased between 1951 and 1959, from approximately 1.8million
to 2.5million. Cattle auctions became less popular during the 1950s, both because they were viewed
as too risky by Botswana and because the recurrence of foot and mouth disease tended to discourage
cattle speculation.
19601965. This period included not only continued outbreaks of foot and mouth disease, but also the
worst drought in the Protectorates history. Some 400000 head of cattle were said to have been lost in
the drought of 1965/66. In the early 1960s, U.K. veterinary authorities had agreed for the first time to the
importation of Protectorate cattle carcasses and by 1965 the value of these carcasses from the Lobatse
Abattoir had reached an all-time high of over 2.9million, with an official record offtake of 14.2% of
the national herd. In 1965 the Abattoir was nationalized, thereafter becoming known as the Botswana
Meat Commission. Livestock marketing Cooperatives were officially organized during 1965 as well.

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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY 7

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES 10

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 16

5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE 28

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF FODDER RESOURCES 29

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL 32

Botswana is a land-locked country,

The agriculture sector of the economy

Socio-economic and marketing issues

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

Major topographic features

Figure 2. Soil map of Botswana

Figure 3. Soil fertility in Botswana

Figure 4. Botswanas land

Legend for the land systems map

Aeolian sand deposits Amphibole-rich, Major lake and

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Mean maximum June temperatures Mean minimum July temperatures

Mean maximum October temperatures Mean minimum October temperatures

Figure 5. Maximum and minimum temperature in Botswana

Figure 6. Hydrometeorological map of

Figure 7. Land suitability for rainfed crop production

Table 1. Detailed key for the land suitability map

Current land systems

Main vegetation zones and grassland types

Regional vegetation distribution

Figure 8. Main vegetation zones in the Kalahari ecosystem

Figure 9. Vegetation map of Botswana

Table 5. Legend for the vegetation map of Botswana (FAO, 1991)

1. Open grassland in the Western Kalahari 2. Okwa Valley

Figure 10. Some photographs of different vegetation systems in Botswana

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Figure 11. Livestock population

Sheep 349000 sheep [1996 data] in 27227 holdings, comprising:

A summary of beef statistics and production systems

Drought effects on the cattle population

Limitations to livestock production

Available land is now running out

The boxed area indicates where severe

Current social and economic conditions affecting livestock producers

Livestock types and marketing

Figure 13. Beef sales by category and destination

Diversification into wildlife and eco-tourism products, plus limitations

5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE

Limitations of the forage resource

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF FODDER

Improved pastures and sown forages

Pastures research summaries for 19701990

Factors limiting productivity from natural pastures 19721973

Evaluation of grass species 19741977

Bush clearing 19741979

Grazing systems 1975(continuing)

Western Kalahari Range ecology studies 19751979

Makhi II Grazing Systems Trial 1980 continuing

Stocking Rate Trials 1980 continuing

Reclamation of Degraded Rangelands 1982 continuing

Morale Communal Grazing Simulation Trial 1984 continuing

Forage and Pasture 1976 continuing

Introduction of Fodder Species 1977 continuing

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND

Dr. Wanda Mphinyane Head of the Division Tel: 3153 068

Dr. Peter Wandera Pastures Research Tel: 3153 068

Ms. S Mangope Pastures and Forage, based Tel: 4712 711