Japan

This article is about the country. For other uses, see of increasing militarism.
Japan (disambiguation). The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into
Nipponredirects here. For other uses, see Nippon
part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end
(disambiguation). in 1945 following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki and the Japanese surrender. Since adopt-
Coordinates: 35N 136E / 35N 136E ing its revised constitution on May 3, 1947 during the
Japan (Japanese: Nippon [nipp] or Nihon occupation by the SCAP, Japan has maintained a unitary
[nih]; formally Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku, parliamentary constitutional monarchy with an Emperor
meaning State of Japan) is a sovereign island nation and an elected legislature called the National Diet.
in East Asia. Located in the Pacic Ocean, it lies o the Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7,
eastern coast of the Asian mainland, and stretches from the G8, and the G20 and is considered a great
the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and power.* [16]* [17]* [18] The country has the world's third-
Taiwan in the southwest. largest economy by nominal GDP and the world's fourth-
largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also
The kanji that make up Japan's name meansun origin.
can be read as ni and means sun, while can be read the world's fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest im-
porter. The country benets from a highly skilled work-
as hon, or pon and means origin. Japan is often referred
to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sunin force and is among the most highly educated countries
in the world, with one of the highest percentages of its
reference to its Japanese name.
citizens holding a tertiary education degree.* [19]
Japan is a stratovolcanic archipelago consisting of about
6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Although Japan has ocially renounced its right to de-
Kyushu and Shikoku, which make up about ninety-seven clare war, it maintains a modern *
military with the world's
percent of Japan's land area and often are referred to as eighth-largest military budget, [20] used for self-defense
home islands. The country is divided into 47 prefectures and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a developed country
in eight regions; Hokkaido being the northernmost pre- with a very high standard of living and Human Devel-
fecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one. The opment Index. Its population enjoys the highest life ex-
population of 127 million is the world's tenth largest. pectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the
* *
Japanese people make up 98.5% of Japan's total popu- world. [21] [22]
lation. Approximately 9.1 million people live in the city
of Tokyo,* [15] the capital of Japan.
1 Etymology
Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhab-
ited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period. The rst
written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from Main article: Names of Japan
the 1st century AD. Inuence from other regions, mainly
China, followed by periods of isolation, particularly from In ancient China, Japan was called Wo (pronounced
Western Europe, has characterized Japan's history. From Wa in Japanese). It was mentioned in the third cen-
the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by succes- tury Chinese historical text Records of the Three King-
sive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the doms in the section for the Wei kingdom, which is based
Emperor. on the earlier work Weile. Wa became disliked be-
Japan entered into a long period of isolation in the early cause it has* the connotation of the character , mean-
17th century, which was ended in 1853 when a United ing 'dwarf'. [23] The kanji has been replaced *
with the
*
States eet pressured Japan to open to the West. Af- homophone Wa (), meaning harmony. [24] [25]
ter nearly two decades of internal conict and insurrec- The Japanese word for Japan is , which is pro-
tion, the Imperial Court regained its political power in nounced Nippon or Nihon and literally meansthe origin
1868 through the help of several clans from Chsh and of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon
Satsuma, and the Empire of Japan was established. In the appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dy-
late 19th and early 20th centuries, victories in the First nasty, the Old Book of Tang. At the start of the seventh
Sino-Japanese War, the Russo-Japanese War and World century, a delegation from Japan introduced their coun-
War I allowed Japan to expand its empire during a period try as Nihon. Prince Shotoku, the Regent of Japan, sent a

1
 2 2 HISTORY

mission to China with a letter in which he called himself

'the Emperor of the Land in which the Sun rises'. Thus
Nihon might have originated in this period. The message
in Japanese addresses The Emperor of the land where
Sun rises sends a letter to the Emperor of the land where
Sun sets. Are you healthy?". This letter was sent in the
early period of the 7th century. The message is recorded
in the ocial history book of the Sui dynasty.
The English word Japan possibly derives from the histor-
ical Chinese pronunciation of . The Old Mandarin
or possibly early Wu Chinese pronunciation of Japan
was recorded by Marco Polo as Cipangu. In modern
Shanghainese, a Wu dialect, the pronunciation of charac-
ters Japan is Zeppen [zpn]. The old Malay word
for Japan, Jepang, was borrowed from a southern coastal
Chinese dialect, probably Fukienese or Ningpo,* [26] and
this Malay word was encountered by Portuguese traders
in Malacca in the 16th century. Early Portuguese traders
then brought the word to Europe.* [27] An early record
of the word in English is in a 1565 letter, spelled Gia-
pan.* [28]
From the Meiji Restoration until the end of World War
II, the full title of Japan was Dai Nippon Teikoku (
), meaning the Empire of Great Japan".* [29]
Today the name Nippon-koku / Nihon-koku () is
used as a formal modern-day equivalent simply mean-
ingthe State of Japan"; countries like Japan whose long
form does not contain a descriptive designation are gen- Emperor Jimmu ( Jinmu-tenn), the rst Emperor of
erally given a name appended by the character koku (), Japan dated as 660 BCE.* [32]* [33] In modern Japan, Jimmu's
meaning country, nationor state. accession is marked as National Foundation Day on February
11
The character nichi () meanssunorday"; hon ()
meansbaseororigin.* [30] The compound means
origin of the sunor sunrise, and is the source of
began to enter the Japanese islands, intermingling with
the popular Western epithet Land of the Rising Sun
the Jmon.* [37] The Yayoi period, starting around 500
.* [31] The reason Japan refers to itself in this way is that
BC, saw the introduction of practices like wet-rice farm-
Japan is east of China, and from China the sun rises from
ing,* [38] a new style of pottery,* [39] and metallurgy, in-
Japan.
troduced from China and Korea.* [40]
Japan rst appears in written history in the Chinese Book
2 History of Han.* [41] According to the Records of the Three King-
doms, the most powerful kingdom on the archipelago dur-
ing the 3rd century was called Yamataikoku. Buddhism
Main article: History of Japan was rst introduced to Japan from Baekje, Korea and was
promoted by Prince Shtoku, but the subsequent devel-
opment of Japanese Buddhism was primarily inuenced
by China.* [42] Despite early resistance, Buddhism was
2.1 Prehistory and ancient history
promoted by the ruling class and gained widespread ac-
*
A Paleolithic culture around 30,000 BC constitutes the ceptance beginning in the Asuka period (592710). [43]
rst known habitation of the Japanese archipelago. This The Nara period (710784) of the 8th century marked
was followed from around 14,000 BC (the start of an emergence of the centralized Japanese state centered
the Jmon period) by a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi- on the Imperial Court in Heij-ky (modern Nara). The
sedentary hunter-gatherer culture, who include ancestors Nara period is characterized by the appearance of a
of both the contemporary Ainu people and Yamato peo- nascent literature as well as the development of Buddhist-
ple,* [34]* [35] characterized by pit dwelling and rudi- inspired art and architecture.* [44] The smallpox epi-
mentary agriculture.* [36] Decorated clay vessels from demic of 735737 is believed to have killed as much as
this period are some of the oldest surviving examples of one-third of Japan's population.* [45] In 784, Emperor
pottery in the world. Around 300 BC, the Yayoi people Kanmu moved the capital from Nara to Nagaoka-ky be-
2.3 Modern era 3

fore relocating it to Heian-ky (modern Kyoto) in 794.

This marked the beginning of the Heian period (794
1185), during which a distinctly indigenous Japanese
culture emerged, noted for its art, poetry and prose.
Murasaki Shikibu's The Tale of Genji and the lyrics of
Japan's national anthem "Kimigayo" were written during
this time.* [46]
Buddhism began to spread during the Heian era chiey
through two major sects, Tendai by Saich, and Shingon
by Kkai. Pure Land Buddhism (Jdo-sh, Jdo Shin-
sh) became greatly popular in the latter half of the 11th
century.

Samurai could kill a commoner for the slightest insult and were
2.2 Feudal era widely feared by the Japanese population. Edo period, 1798

and the West. This allowed Oda Nobunaga to obtain Eu-

ropean technology and rearms, which he used to con-
quer many other daimys. His consolidation of power
began what was known as the AzuchiMomoyama pe-
riod (15731603). After he was assassinated in 1582,
his successor Toyotomi Hideyoshi unied the nation in
1590 and launched two unsuccessful invasions of Korea
in 1592 and 1597.

Samurai warriors facing Mongols during the Mongol invasions

of Japan; Suenaga, 1293
Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence
and dominance of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai.
In 1185, following the defeat of the Taira clan in the
Genpei War, sung in the epic Tale of Heike, samu-
rai Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed shogun by
Emperor Go-Toba, and he established a base of power in
Kamakura. After his death, the Hj clan came to power
as regents for the shoguns. The Zen school of Buddhism
was introduced from China in the Kamakura period
(11851333) and became popular among the samurai
class.* [47] The Kamakura shogunate repelled Mongol in-
vasions in 1274 and 1281, but was eventually overthrown
by Emperor Go-Daigo. Emperor Go-Daigo was himself
defeated by Ashikaga Takauji in 1336.
Ashikaga Takauji established the shogunate in Muro-
machi, Kyoto. This was the start of the Muromachi pe-
riod (13361573). The Ashikaga shogunate achieved
glory in the age of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, and the cul-
ture based on Zen Buddhism (art of Miyabi) prospered.
This evolved to Higashiyama Culture, and prospered un-
til the 16th century. On the other hand, the succeed-
ing Ashikaga shogunate failed to control the feudal war-
lords (daimys), and a civil war (the nin War) began in
1467, opening the century-long Sengoku period (War-
ring States).* [48]
During the 16th century, traders and Jesuit missionaries Adopting Western political, judicial and military insti-
from Portugal reached Japan for the rst time, initiating tutions, the Cabinet organized the Privy Council, intro-
direct commercial and cultural exchange between Japan duced the Meiji Constitution, and assembled the Imperial
Tokugawa Ieyasu served as regent for Hideyoshi's son
and used his position to gain political and military sup-
port. When open war broke out, he defeated rival clans
in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Tokugawa Ieyasu
was appointed shogun by Emperor Go-Yzei in 1603, and
he established the Tokugawa shogunate in Edo (modern
Tokyo).* [49] The Tokugawa shogunate enacted measures
including buke shohatto, as a code of conduct to control
the autonomous daimys;* [50] and in 1639, the isolation-
ist sakoku
( closed country) policy that spanned the two
and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as
the Edo period (16031868).* [51] The study of Western
sciences, known as rangaku, continued through contact
with the Dutch enclave at Dejima in Nagasaki. The Edo
period also gave rise to kokugaku (national studies),
the study of Japan by the Japanese.* [52]
2.3 Modern era
On March 31, 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry and the
"Black Ships" of the United States Navy forced the open-
ing of Japan to the outside world with the Convention
of Kanagawa. Subsequent similar treaties with Western
countries in the Bakumatsu period brought economic and
political crises. The resignation of the shogun led to the
Boshin War and the establishment of a centralized state
nominally unied under the Emperor (the Meiji Restora-
tion).* [53]
4 2
Emperor Meiji (18681912), in whose name imperial rule was
restored at the end of the Tokugawa shogunate
Diet. The Meiji Restoration transformed the Empire
of Japan into an industrialized world power that pur-
sued military conict to expand its sphere of inuence.
After victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894
1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (19041905), Japan
gained control of Taiwan, Korea, and the southern half of
Sakhalin.* [54] Japan's population grew from 35 million
in 1873 to 70 million in 1935.* [55]
Chinese generals surrendering to the Japanese in the Sino-
Japanese War of 18941895
World War I enabled Japan, on the side of the victori-
ous Allies, to widen its inuence and territorial holdings
in Asia. The early 20th century saw a brief period of
"Taish democracy (19121926)" but the 1920s saw a
fragile democracy buckle under a political shift towards
fascism, the passing of laws against political dissent and
a series of attempted coups. The subsequent "Shwa pe-
riod" initially saw the power of the military increased and
brought about Japanese expansionism and militarization
HISTORY
along with the totalitarianism and ultranationalism that
are a part of fascist ideology. In 1931 Japan invaded and
occupied Manchuria and following international condem-
nation of this occupation, Japan resigned from the League
of Nations in 1933. In 1936, Japan signed the Anti-
Comintern Pact with Germany, and the 1940 Tripartite
Pact made it one of the Axis Powers.* [56] In 1941, fol-
lowing its defeat in the brief SovietJapanese Border
War, Japan negotiated the SovietJapanese Neutrality
Pact,* [57] which lasted until 1945 with the Soviet inva-
sion of Manchuria.* [58]
Japanese ocials surrendering to the Allies on September 2,
1945, in Tokyo Bay, ending World War II
The Empire of Japan invaded other parts of China
in 1937, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War
(19371945). The Imperial Japanese Army swiftly cap-
tured the capital Nanjing and conducted the Nanking
Massacre.* [59] In 1940, the Empire then invaded French
Indochina, after which the United States placed an oil em-
bargo on Japan.* [60] On December 78, 1941, Japanese
forces carried out surprise attacks on Pearl Harbor,
British forces in Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong and
declared war on the United States and the British Empire,
bringing the US and the UK into World War II in the
Pacic.* [61]* [62] After Allied victories across the Pa-
cic during the next four years, which culminated in the
Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the atomic bombings
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan agreed to an
unconditional surrender on August 15.* [63] The war cost
Japan, its colonies, China and the war's other combatants
tens of millions of lives and left much of Japan's indus-
try and infrastructure destroyed. The Allies (led by the
US) repatriated millions of ethnic Japanese from colonies
and military camps throughout Asia, largely eliminating
the Japanese empire and restoring the independence of its
conquered territories.* [64] The Allies also convened the
International Military Tribunal for the Far East on May 3,
3.1 Climate 5

1946 to prosecute some Japanese leaders for war crimes. often known as the Japanese archipelago.* [69]
However, the bacteriological research units and members About 73 percent of Japan is forested, mountainous,
of the imperial family involved in the war were exoner- and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential
ated from criminal prosecutions by the Supreme Com- use.* [7]* [70] As a result, the habitable zones, mainly lo-
mander for the Allied Powers despite calls for the trial of cated in coastal areas, have extremely high population
both groups.* [65] densities. Japan is one of the most densely populated
In 1947, Japan adopted a new constitution emphasiz- countries in the world.* [71]
ing liberal democratic practices. The Allied occupation The islands of Japan are located in a volcanic zone on
ended with the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952* [66] and the Pacic Ring of Fire. They are primarily the result
Japan was granted membership in the United Nations in of large oceanic movements occurring over hundreds of
1956. Japan later achieved rapid growth to become the millions of years from the mid-Silurian to the Pleistocene
second-largest economy in the world, until surpassed by as a result of the subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate
China in 2010. This ended in the mid-1990s when Japan beneath the continental Amurian Plate and Okinawa Plate
suered a major recession. In the beginning of the 21st to the south, and subduction of the Pacic Plate under the
century, positive growth has signaled a gradual economic Okhotsk Plate to the north. The Boso Triple Junction o
recovery.* [67] On March 11, 2011, Japan suered one of the coast of Japan is a triple junction where the North
the largest earthquakes in its recorded history; this trig- American Plate, the Pacic Plate and the Philippine Sea
gered the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, one of the Plate meets. Japan was originally attached to the eastern
worst disasters in the history of nuclear power.* [68] coast of the Eurasian continent. The subducting plates
pulled Japan eastward, opening the Sea of Japan around
15 million years ago.* [72]
3 Geography Japan has 108 active volcanoes. During the twenti-
eth century several new volcanoes emerged, including
Main articles: Geography of Japan and Geology of Japan Shwa-shinzan on Hokkaido and Myjin-sh o the
Japan has a total of 6,852 islands extending along the Bayonnaise Rocks in the Pacic. Destructive earth-
quakes, often resulting in tsunami, occur several times
each century.* [73] The 1923 Tokyo earthquake killed
over 140,000 people.* [74] More recent major quakes are
the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake and the 2011 Thoku
earthquake, a 9.0-magnitude* [75] quake which hit Japan
on March 11, 2011, and triggered a large tsunami.* [68]
Japan is substantially prone to earthquakes, tsunami and
volcanoes due to its location along the Pacic Ring of
Fire.* [76] It has the 15th highest natural disaster risk as
measured in the 2013 World Risk Index.* [77]

3.1 Climate

Main article: Climate of Japan

Japanese archipelago as seen from satellite

Pacic coast of East Asia. The country, including all

of the islands it controls, lies between latitudes 24 and
46N, and longitudes 122 and 146E. The main islands,
from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku and Cherry
Kyushu. The Ryukyu Islands, which include Okinawa, blossoms of Mount Yoshino have been the subject of
are a chain to the south of Kyushu. Together they are many plays and waka poetry
6 3 GEOGRAPHY

Autumn
maple leaves (momiji) at Kongbu-ji on Mount Kya, a
UNESCO World Heritage Site

The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate, but The Japanese macaques at Jigokudani hot spring are notable for
varies greatly from north to south. Japan's geographi- visiting the spa in the winter.
cal features divide it into six principal climatic zones:
Hokkaido, Sea of Japan, Central Highland, Seto Inland
Sea, Pacic Ocean, and Ryukyu Islands. The northern- from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryky
most zone, Hokkaido, has a humid continental climate and Bonin Islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed
with long, cold winters and very warm to cool summers. forests in the mild climate regions of the main is-
Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop lands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, win-
deep snowbanks in the winter.* [78] ter portions of the northern islands.* [82] Japan has over
90,000 species of wildlife, including the brown bear, the
In the Sea of Japan zone on Honshu's west coast, north-
Japanese macaque, the Japanese raccoon dog, the Large
west winter winds bring heavy snowfall. In the summer,
Japanese Field Mouse, and the Japanese giant salaman-
the region is cooler than the Pacic area, though it some-
der.* [83] A large network of national parks has been es-
times experiences extremely hot temperatures because of
tablished to protect important areas of ora and fauna as
the foehn. The Central Highland has a typical inland hu-
well as thirty-seven Ramsar wetland sites.* [84]* [85] Four
mid continental climate, with large temperature dier-
sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Her-
ences between summer and winter seasons, as well as
itage List for their outstanding natural value.* [86]
large diurnal variation; precipitation is light, though win-
ters are usually snowy. The mountains of the Chgoku
and Shikoku regions shelter the Seto Inland Sea from sea-
sonal winds, bringing mild weather year-round.* [78] 3.3 Environment
The Pacic coast features a humid subtropical climate
Main article: Environmental issues in Japan
that experiences milder winters with occasional snowfall
and hot, humid summers because of the southeast sea-
sonal wind. The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical cli- In the period of rapid economic growth after World
mate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation War II, environmental policies were downplayed by
is very heavy, especially during the rainy season.* [78] the government and industrial corporations; as a result,
environmental pollution was widespread in the 1950s and
The average winter temperature in Japan is 5.1 C (41.2
1960s. Responding to rising concern about the problem,
F) and the average summer temperature is 25.2 C
the government introduced several environmental protec-
(77.4 F).* [79] The highest temperature ever measured
tion laws in 1970.* [87] The oil crisis in 1973 also en-
in Japan 40.9 C (105.6 F) was recorded on August 16,
couraged the ecient use of energy because of Japan's
2007.* [80] The main rainy season begins in early May in
lack of natural resources.* [88] Current environmental is-
Okinawa, and the rain front gradually moves north un-
sues include urban air pollution (NOx, suspended par-
til reaching Hokkaido in late July. In most of Honshu,
ticulate matter, and toxics), waste management, wa-
the rainy season begins before the middle of June and
ter eutrophication, nature conservation, climate change,
lasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn,
chemical management and international co-operation for
typhoons often bring heavy rain.* [81]
conservation.* [89]
As of June 2015, more than 40 coal-red power plants
3.2 Biodiversity are planned or under construction in Japan. The NGO
Climate Action Network announced Japan as the winner
Main article: Wildlife of Japan of itsFossil of the Dayaward fordoing the most to
Japan has nine forest ecoregions which reect the block progress on climate action.* [90]
climate and geography of the islands. They range Japan ranks 39th in the 2016 Environmental Performance
4.2 Administrative divisions 7

Index, which measures a nation's commitment to environ-

mental sustainability.* [91] As a signatory of the Kyoto
Protocol, and host of the 1997 conference that created
it, Japan is under treaty obligation to reduce its carbon
dioxide emissions and to take other steps to curb climate
change.* [92]

4 Politics
Main article: Politics of Japan

National Diet Building

4.1 Government it holds 291 seats in the lower house and 122 seats in the
upper house.
Main article: Government of Japan
Japan is a constitutional monarchy whereby the power The Prime Minister of Japan is the head of government
and is appointed by the Emperor after being designated
by the Diet from among its members. The Prime Minister
is the head of the Cabinet, and he appoints and dismisses
the Ministers of State. Following the LDP's landslide vic-
tory in the 2012 general election, Shinz Abe replaced
Yoshihiko Noda as the Prime Minister on December 26,
2012* [95] and became the country's sixth prime minister
to be sworn in during a span of six years. Although the
Prime Minister is formally appointed by the Emperor, the
Constitution of Japan explicitly requires the Emperor to
appoint whoever is designated by the Diet.* [93]
Historically inuenced by Chinese law, the Japanese le-
gal system developed independently during the Edo pe-
riod through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki.* [96]
However, since the late 19th century the judicial system
has been largely based on the civil law of Europe, no-
Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko tably Germany. For example, in 1896, the Japanese gov-
ernment established a civil code based on a draft of the
of the Emperor is very limited. As a ceremonial gure- German Brgerliches Gesetzbuch; with the code remain-
head, he is dened by the constitution as the symbol of ing in eect with postWorld War II modications.* [97]
the State and of the unity of the people.Power is held Statutory law originates in Japan's legislature and has the
chiey by the Prime Minister and other elected members rubber stamp of the Emperor. The Constitution requires
of the Diet, while sovereignty is vested in the Japanese that the Emperor promulgate legislation passed by the
people.* [93] Akihito is the current Emperor of Japan; Diet, without specically giving him the power to oppose
Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan, stands as next in line legislation.* [93] Japan's court system is divided into four
to the Chrysanthemum Throne. basic tiers: the Supreme Court and three levels of lower
Japan's legislative organ is the National Diet, seated in courts.* [98] The main body of Japanese statutory law is
Chiyoda, Tokyo. The Diet is a bicameral body, consist- called the Six Codes.* [99]
ing of a House of Representatives with 480 seats, elected
by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and
a House of Councillors of 242 seats, whose popularly 4.2 Administrative divisions
elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal
surage for adults over 18 years of age,* [94] with a secret Further information: Administrative divisions of Japan
ballot for all elected oces.* [93] The Diet is dominated See also: Prefectures of Japan
by the social liberal Democratic Party of Japan and the
conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP). The LDP Japan consists of 47 prefectures, each overseen by an
has enjoyed near continuous electoral success since 1955, elected governor, legislature and administrative bureau-
except for a brief 11-month period between 1993 and cracy.* [100] Each prefecture is further divided into cities,
1994, and from 2009 to 2012. As of September 2016, towns and villages.* [101] The nation is currently under-
8 5 MILITARY

going administrative reorganization by merging many of Korea agreed to settle the issue with Japan issuing a for-
the cities, towns and villages with each other. This pro- mal apology and taking responsibility for the issue and
cess will reduce the number of sub-prefecture admin- paying money to the surviving comfort women.* [110]
istrative regions and is expected to cut administrative
costs.* [102]
5 Military
4.3 Foreign relations
Main article: Japan Self-Defense Forces
Main article: Foreign relations of Japan
Japan has diplomatic relations with nearly all indepen-

Liancourt Rocks named as Takeshima in Japan, has become an

issue known as the Liancourt Rocks dispute JDS Kong
(DDG-173), a guided missile destroyer, launching a
dent nations and has been an active member of the UN Standard Missile 3 anti-ballistic missile in 2007
since December 1956. Japan is a member of the G8,
APEC, and "ASEAN Plus Three", and is a participant
in the East Asia Summit. Japan signed a security pact
with Australia in March 2007* [103] and with India in Oc-
tober 2008.* [104] It is the world's fth largest donor of
ocial development assistance, donating US$9.2 billion
JASDF F-2, a
in 2014.* [105]
multirole combat aircraft
Japan has close ties to the United States. Since Japan's de-
feat by the United States in World War II, the two coun-
tries have maintained close economic and defense rela-
tions. The United States is a major market for Japanese
exports and the primary source of Japanese imports, and
is committed to defending the country, having military
bases in Japan for that purpose.* [106]
Japan contests Russia's control of the Southern Kuril Is-
lands (including Etorofu, Kunashiri, Shikotan, and the JMSDF
Habomai group) which were occupied by the Soviet Kong class destroyer
Union in 1945.* [107] South Korea's assertions concern-
ing Liancourt Rocks (Japanese: Takeshima, Ko- Japan maintains one of the largest military budgets of
rean: Dokdo) are acknowledged, but not accepted any country in the world.* [111] The country's military
by Japan.* [108] Japan has strained relations with the (the Japan Self-Defense Forces) is restricted by Article
People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic 9 of the Japanese Constitution, which renounces Japan's
of China (Taiwan) over the Senkaku Islands;* [109] and right to declare war or use military force in interna-
with the People's Republic of China over the status of tional disputes. Accordingly, Japan's Self-Defence force
Okinotorishima. is an unusual military that has never red shots outside
Japan's relationship with South Korea has been strained Japan.* [112] Japan is the highest-ranked Asian country
due to Japan's treatment of Koreans during Japanese in the Global Peace Index.* [113] The military is gov-
colonial rule, particularly over the issue of comfort erned by the Ministry of Defense, and primarily con-
women. However, in December 2015, Japan and South sists of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF),
 9

the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) and the 6 Economy

Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF). The Japan Mar-
itime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) is a regular partici- Main article: Economy of Japan
pant in RIMPAC maritime exercises.* [114] The forces Japan is the third largest national economy in the world,
have been recently used in peacekeeping operations; the
deployment of troops to Iraq marked the rst overseas use
of Japan's military since World War II.* [115] Japan Busi-
ness Federation has called on the government to lift the
ban on arms exports so that Japan can join multinational
projects such as the Joint Strike Fighter.* [116]
The 21st century is witnessing a rapid change in global
power balance along with globalization. The security en-
vironment around Japan has become increasingly severe
as represented by nuclear and missile development by
North Korea. Transnational threats grounded on techno-
logical progress including international terrorism and cy-
ber attacks are also increasing their signicance.* [117]
Japan, including its Self Defense Forces, has contributed
to the maximum extent possible to the eorts to main-
tain and restore international peace and security, such as
UN peacekeeping operations. Building on the ongoing
eorts as a peaceful state, the Government of Japan has
been making various eorts on its security policy which
include: the establishment of the National Security Coun-
cil (NSC), the adoption of the National Security Strat-
egy (NSS), and the National Defense Program Guidelines
(NDPG).* [117] These eorts are made based on the be-
lief that Japan, as a Proactive Contributor to Peace,
needs to contribute more actively to the peace and stabil-
ity of the region and the international community, while The Tokyo Stock Exchange, one of the largest stock exchanges in
coordinating with other countries including its ally, the Asia* [125]
United States.* [117]
Japan has close economic and military relations with the
United States; the US-Japan security alliance acts as the
cornerstone of the nation's foreign policy.* [118] A mem-
ber state of the United Nations since 1956, Japan has
served as a non-permanent Security Council member for
a total of 20 years, most recently for 2009 and 2010. It is
one of the G4 nations seeking permanent membership in
the Security Council.* [119]
In May 2014, Prime Minister Shinz Abe said Japan
wanted to shed the passiveness it has maintained since
the end of World War II and take more responsibility for
regional security. He said Japan wanted to play a key role
and oered neighboring countries Japan's support.* [120]
Ginza, a luxury shopping area in Tokyo
In recent years, they have been engaged in international
peacekeeping operations including the UN peacekeep- after the United States and China, in terms of nominal
ing.* [121] Recent tensions, particularly with North Ko- GDP,* [126] and the fourth largest national economy in
rea,* [122] have reignited the debate over the status of the the world, after the United States, China and India, in
JSDF and its relation to Japanese society.* [123] New mil- terms of purchasing power parity. As of 2014, Japan's
itary guidelines, announced in December 2010, will di- public debt was estimated at more than 200 percent of its
rect the JSDF away from its Cold War focus on the former annual gross domestic product, the largest of any nation in
Soviet Union to a focus on China, especially regarding the the world.* [127] In August 2011, Moody's rating has cut
territorial dispute over the Senkaku Islands.* [124] Japan's long-term sovereign debt rating one notch from
Aa3 to Aa2 inline with the size of the country's decit and
borrowing level. The large budget decits and govern-
ment debt since the 2009 global recession and followed
10 6 ECONOMY

by the earthquake and tsunami in March 2011 caused the The period of overall real economic growth from the
rating downgrade.* [128] The service sector accounts for 1960s to the 1980s has been called the Japanese post-
three quarters of the gross domestic product.* [129] war economic miracle: it averaged 7.5 percent in the
Japan has a large industrial capacity, and is home to some 1960s *and 1970s, and 3.2 percent in the 1980s and early
of the largest and most technologically advanced produc- 1990s. [141]
ers of motor vehicles, electronics, machine tools, steel Growth slowed in the 1990s during the Lost Decade
and nonferrous metals, ships, chemical substances, tex- due to after-eects of the Japanese asset price bubble
tiles, and processed foods. Agricultural businesses in and government policies intended to wring speculative
Japan cultivate 13 percent of Japan's land, and Japan ac- excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Eorts
counts for nearly 15 percent of the global sh catch, sec- to revive economic growth were unsuccessful and further
ond only to China.* [7] As of 2010, Japan's labor force hampered by the global slowdown in 2000.* [7] The econ-
consisted of some 65.9 million workers.* [130] Japan has omy recovered after 2005; GDP growth for that year was
a low unemployment rate of around four percent. Some 2.8 percent, surpassing the growth rates of the US and
20 million people, around 17 per cent of the population, European Union during the same period.* [142]
were below the poverty line in 2007.* [131] Housing in Today Japan ranks highly for competitiveness and
Japan is characterized by limited land supply in urban ar- economic freedom. It is ranked sixth in the Global Com-
eas.* [132] petitiveness Report for 20152016.* [143]* [144]
Japan's exports amounted to US$4,210 per capita in
2005. As of 2012, Japan's main export markets were
China (18.1 percent), the United States (17.8 percent), 6.2 Agriculture and shery
South Korea (7.7 percent), Thailand (5.5 percent) and
Hong Kong (5.1 percent). Its main exports are trans- Main article: Agriculture, forestry, and shing in Japan
portation equipment, motor vehicles, iron and steel prod- The Japanese agricultural sector accounts for about 1.4%
ucts, semiconductors and auto parts.* [133] Japan's main
import markets as of 2012 were China (21.3 percent), the
US (8.8 percent), Australia (6.4 percent), Saudi Arabia
(6.2 percent), United Arab Emirates (5.0 percent), South
Korea (4.6 percent) and Qatar (4.0 percent).* [7]
Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment,
fossil fuels, foodstus (in particular beef), chemicals, tex-
tiles and raw materials for its industries. By market share
measures, domestic markets are the least open of any
OECD country.* [134] Junichir Koizumi's administra-
tion began some pro-competition reforms, and foreign in-
vestment in Japan has soared.* [135]
Japan ranks 27th of 189 countries in the 2014 Ease of
doing business index and has one of the smallest tax rev-
enues of the developed world. The Japanese variant of A rice paddy in Aizu, Fukushima Prefecture
capitalism has many distinct features: keiretsu enterprises
are inuential, and lifetime employment and seniority- of the total country's GDP.* [145] Only 12% of Japan's
based career advancement are relatively common in the land is suitable for cultivation.* [146]* [147] Due to this
Japanese work environment.* [134]* [136] Japanese com- lack of arable land, a system of terraces is used to farm
panies are known for management methods like "The in small areas.* [148] This results in one of the world's
Toyota Way", and shareholder activism is rare.* [137] highest levels of crop yields per unit area, with an overall
agricultural self-suciency rate of about 50% on fewer
than 56,000 square kilometres (14,000,000 acres) culti-
6.1 Economic history vated.

Modern Japan's economic growth began in the Edo pe-
riod. Some of the surviving elements of the Edo period
are roads and water transportation routes, as well as nan-
cial instruments such as futures contracts, banking and
insurance of the Osaka rice brokers.* [138] During the
Meiji period from 1868, Japan expanded economically
with the embrace of the market economy.* [139] Many of
today's enterprises were founded at the time, and Japan
emerged as the most developed nation in Asia.* [140]
Japan's small agricultural sector, however, is also highly
subsidized and protected, with government regulations
that favor small-scale cultivation instead of large-scale
agriculture as practiced in North America.* [146] There
has been a growing concern about farming as the cur-
rent farmers are aging with a dicult time nding suc-
cessors.* [149]
Rice accounts for almost all of Japan's cereal produc-
tion.* [150] Japan is the second-largest agricultural prod-
6.4 Services 11

uct importer in the world.* [150] Rice, the most protected 6.4 Services
crop, is subject to taris of 777.7%.* [147]* [151]
In 1996, Japan ranked fourth in the world in tonnage Main article: Trade and services in Japan
of sh caught.* [152] Japan captured 4,074,580 met-
ric tons of sh in 2005, down from 4,987,703 tons in
2000, 9,558,615 tons in 1990, 9,864,422 tons in 1980,
8,520,397 tons in 1970, 5,583,796 tons in 1960 and
2,881,855 tons in 1950.* [153] In 2003, the total aquacul-
ture production was predicted at 1,301,437 tonnes.* [154]
In 2010, Japan's total sheries production was 4,762,469
sh.* [155] Oshore sheries accounted for an average of
50% of the nation's total sh catches in the late 1980s al-
though they experienced repeated ups and downs during
that period.
Today, Japan maintains one of the world's largest sh-
ing eets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global
catch,* [156] prompting some claims that Japan's shing
is leading to depletion in sh stocks such as tuna.* [157]
Japan has also sparked controversy by supporting quasi-
commercial whaling.* [158]
6.3 Industry
Main article: Manufacturing in Japan
Japan's industrial sector makes up approximately 27.5%
Japan's service sector accounts for about three-quarters
of its total economic output.* [145] Banking, insurance,
real estate, retailing, transportation, and telecommuni-
cations are all major industries, with companies such
as Mitsubishi UFJ, Mizuho, NTT, TEPCO, Nomura,
Mitsubishi Estate, ON, Mitsui Sumitomo, Softbank,
JR East, Seven & I, KDDI and Japan Airlines listed
as some of the largest in the world.* [166]* [167] Four
of the ve most circulated newspapers in the world are
Japanese newspapers.* [168] Japan Post, one of the coun-
try's largest providers of savings and insurance services,
was slated for privatization by 2015.* [169] The six ma-
jor keiretsus are the Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Fuyo, Mitsui,
Dai-Ichi Kangyo and Sanwa Groups.* [170]
6.5 Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Japan

Toyota factory in Ohira, Miyagi Prefecture Mount Fuji,

the highest peak, is considered as one of the most iconic
of its GDP.* [159] Japan's major industries are motor ve- landmarks of Japan.
hicles, electronics, machine tools, metals, ships, chem-
icals and processed foods; some major Japanese indus-
trial companies include Toyota, Canon Inc., Toshiba and
Nippon Steel.* [159]* [160]
Japan is the third largest automobile producer in the
world, and is home to Toyota, the world's largest auto-
mobile company.* [161]* [162] The Japanese consumer
electronics industry, once considered the strongest in
the world, is currently in a state of decline as compe-
tition arises in countries like South Korea, the United
States and China.* [163]* [164] However, despite also fac- Cherry blos-
ing similar competition from South Korea and China, som with Himeji Castle in the background, a UNESCO
the Japanese shipbuilding industry is expected to remain World Heritage Site
strong thanks to an increased focus on specialized, high-
tech designs.* [165] Japan attracted 19.73 million international tourists in
12 7 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

2015 * [171] and increased by 21.8% to attracted 24.03 Japanese scientists and engineers have contributed to
million international tourists in 2016.* [172]* [173]* [174]
the advancement of agricultural sciences, electronics,
Tourism from abroad is one of the few promising busi- industrial robotics, optics, chemicals, semiconductors,
nesses in Japan. Foreign visitors to Japan doubled in last
life sciences and various elds of engineering. Japan
decade and reached 10 million people for the rst time leads the world in robotics production and use, pos-
in 2013, led by increase of Asian visitors. In 2008, the
sessing more than 20% (300,000 of 1.3 million) of the
Japanese government has set up Japan Tourism Agency world's industrial robots as of 2013* [190] though its
and set the initial goal to increase foreign visitors to 20
share was historically even higher, representing one-half
of all industrial robots worldwide in 2000.* [191] Japan
million in 2020. In 2016, having met the 20 million tar-
get, the government has revised up its target to 40 million
boasts the third highest number of scientists, techni-
by 2020 and to 60 million by 2030.* [175]* [176] cians, and engineers per capita in the world with 83 sci-
Japan has 20 World Heritage Sites, including Himeji entists, technicians, and engineers per 10,000 employ-
ees.* [192]* [193]* [194]
Castle, Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto and
Nara.* [177] Popular tourist attractions include Tokyo
and Hiroshima, Mount Fuji, ski resorts such as Niseko
in Hokkaido, Okinawa, riding the shinkansen and taking 7.1 Electronics and automotive engineer-
advantage of Japan's hotel and hotspring network. ing
In inbound tourism, Japan was ranked 16th in the world
in 2015.* [178] In 2009, the Yomiuri Shimbun published
a modern list of famous sights under the name Heisei
Hyakkei (the Hundred Views of the Heisei period). The
Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2017 ranks
Japan 4th out of 141 countries overall, which was the best
in Asia. Japan gained relatively high scores in almost all
aspects, especially health and hygiene, safety and secu-
rity, cultural resources and business travel.* [179]
In 2016, 24,039,000 foreign tourists visited Japan.* [180]
Neighbouring South Korea is Japan's most important
source of foreign tourists. In 2010, the 2.4 million arrivals
A plug-in hybrid car manufactured by Toyota, one of the world's
made up 27% of the tourists visiting Japan.* [181] Chi- largest carmakers. Japan is the second-largest producer of auto-
nese travelers are the highest spenders in Japan by coun- mobiles in the world.* [195]
try, spending an estimated 196.4 billion yen (US$2.4 bil-
lion) in 2011, or almost a quarter of total expenditure by
The Japanese electronics and automotive manufacturing
foreign visitors, according to data from the Japan Tourism
industry is well known throughout the world, and the
Agency.* [182] country's electronic and automotive products account for
The Japanese government hopes to receive 40 million for- a large share in the global market, compared to a ma-
eign tourists every year by 2020.* [183] jority of other countries. Brands such as Fujilm, Sony,
Nintendo, Panasonic, Toyota, Nissan, and Honda are
internationally famous. It's estimated that 16% of the
world's gold and 22% of the world's silver is contained
7 Science and technology in electronic technology in Japan.* [196]
Japan has started a project to build the world's fastest su-
Main article: Science and technology in Japan percomputer by the end of 2017.

Japan is a leading nation in scientic research, partic-

ularly in elds related to the natural sciences and en-
gineering. The country ranks second among the most
innovative countries in the Bloomberg Innovation In-
dex.* [184]* [185] Nearly 700,000 researchers share a
US$130 billion research and development budget.* [186]
The amount spent on research and development rel-
ative to its gross domestic product third highest in
the world.* [187] The country is a world leader in
fundamental scientic research, having produced twenty-
two Nobel laureates in either physics, chemistry or
medicine,* [188] and three Fields medalists.* [189]
7.2 Aerospace
The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) is
Japan's space agency; it conducts space, planetary, and
aviation research, and leads development of rockets and
satellites. It is a participant in the International Space Sta-
tion: the Japanese Experiment Module (Kibo) was added
to the station during Space Shuttle assembly ights in
2008.* [197] Japan's plans in space exploration include:
launching a space probe to Venus, Akatsuki;* [198]* [199]
developing the Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter to be

The Japanese Experiment Module (Kibo) at the International
Space Station
launched in 2016;* [200] and building a moon base by
2030.* [201]
On September 14, 2007, it launched lunar explorer
SELENE (Selenological and Engineering Explorer)
on an H-IIA (Model H2A2022) carrier rocket from
Tanegashima Space Center. SELENE is also known as
Kaguya, after the lunar princess of The Tale of the Bam-
boo Cutter.* [202] Kaguya is the largest lunar mission
since the Apollo program. Its purpose is to gather data on
the moon's origin and evolution. It entered a lunar orbit
on October 4,* [203]* [204] ying at an altitude of about
100 km (62 mi).* [205] The probe's mission was ended
when it was deliberately crashed by JAXA into the Moon
on June 11, 2009.* [206]
7.3 Nobel laureates
Main article: List of Japanese Nobel laureates
Japan has received the most science Nobel prizes in Asia
and ranked 8th in the world.* [207] Japanese researchers
have won several Nobel prizes. Hideki Yukawa, educated
at Kyoto University, was awarded the prize for physics
in 1949. Sin-Itiro Tomonaga followed in 1965. Solid-
state physicist Leo Esaki, educated at the University of
Tokyo, received the prize in 1973. Kenichi Fukui of
Kyoto University shared the 1981 chemistry prize, and
Susumu Tonegawa, also educated at Kyoto University,
became Japan's rst (and, as of 2007, only) laureate in
physiology or medicine in 1987. Japanese chemists took
prizes in 2000 and 2001: rst Hideki Shirakawa (Tokyo
Institute of Technology) and then Ryji Noyori (Kyoto
University). Masatoshi Koshiba (University of Tokyo)
and Koichi Tanaka (Tohoku University) won in physics
and chemistry, respectively, in 2002. Makoto Kobayashi,
Toshihide Masukawa, and Yoichiro Nambu who is an
American citizen when awarded, shared the physics prize
and Osamu Shimomura also won the chemistry prize in
2008. Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi Amano, Shuji Nakamura,
who is an American citizen when awarded, shared the
13
physics prize in 2014, and the Nobel Prize in Physiol-
ogy or Medicine was awarded to Yoshinori Ohsumi in
2016.* [208]
8 Infrastructure
8.1 Transportation
Main article: Transport in Japan
Japan's road spending has been extensive.* [209] Its
A JR East E5 series shinkansen (bullet train)
1.2 million kilometres (0.75 million miles) of paved
road are the main means of transportation.* [210] As of
April 2012 Japan has approximately 1,215,000 kilome-
tres (134,000 miles) of roads made up of 1,022,000 kilo-
metres (14,000 miles) of city, town and village roads,
129,000 kilometres (80,000 miles) of prefectural roads,
55,000 kilometres (34,000 miles) of general national
highways and 8,050 kilometres (5,000 miles) of na-
tional expressways.* [211]* [212] The Foreign Press Cen-
ter/Japan cites a total length of expressways at 7,641 kilo-
metres (4,748 miles) (scal 2008).* [213] A single net-
work of high-speed, divided, limited-access toll roads
connects major cities on Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu.
Hokkaido has a separate network, and Okinawa Island
has a highway of this type. A single network of high-
speed, divided, limited-access toll roads connects major
cities and is operated by toll-collecting enterprises. New
and used cars are inexpensive; car ownership fees and fuel
levies are used to promote energy eciency. However,
at just 50 percent of all distance traveled, car usage is the
lowest of all G8 countries.* [214]
Since privatisation in 1987, dozens of Japanese railway
companies compete in regional and local passenger trans-
portation markets; major companies include seven JR
enterprises, Kintetsu, Seibu Railway and Keio Corpo-
ration. Some 250 high-speed Shinkansen trains con-
nect major cities and Japanese trains are known for their
safety and punctuality.* [215]* [216] Proposals for a new
Maglev route between Tokyo and Osaka are at an ad-
vanced stage.* [217]
14 8 INFRASTRUCTURE

There are 175 airports in Japan;* [7] the largest domes-

tic airport, Haneda Airport, is Asia's second-busiest air-
port.* [218] The largest international gateways are Narita
International Airport, Kansai International Airport and
Chbu Centrair International Airport.* [219] Nagoya Port
is the country's largest and busiest port, accounting for 10
percent of Japan's trade value.* [220]

8.2 Energy
Main article: Energy in Japan
As of 2011, 46.1% of energy in Japan was produced from

Tokuyama Dam in Gifu Prefecture is the largest dam in Japan

The Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant, a nuclear plant

with seven units, the largest single nuclear power station in the
world

petroleum, 21.3% from coal, 21.4% from natural gas,

4.0% from nuclear power, and 3.3% from hydropower.
Nuclear power produced 9.2 percent of Japan's electric-
ity, as of 2011, down from 24.9 percent the previous
year.* [221] However, by May 2012 all of the country's
nuclear power plants had been taken oine because of
ongoing public opposition following the Fukushima Dai-
ichi nuclear disaster in March 2011, though government
ocials continued to try to sway public opinion in favor
of returning at least some of Japan's 50 nuclear reactors
to service.* [222] As of November 2014, two reactors at
Sendai are likely to restart in early 2015.* [223] Japan
lacks signicant domestic reserves and so has a heavy de-
pendence on imported energy.* [224] Japan has therefore
aimed to diversify its sources and maintain high levels of
energy eciency.* [225]
8.3 Water supply and sanitation
Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Japan
The government took responsibility for regulating the
water and sanitation sector is shared between the Ministry
of Health, Labor and Welfare in charge of water supply
for domestic use; the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism in charge of water resources de-
velopment as well as sanitation; the Ministry of the Envi-
ronment in charge of ambient water quality and environ-
mental preservation; and the Ministry of Internal Aairs
and Communications in charge of performance bench-
marking of utilities.* [226]
Access to an improved water source is universal in Japan.
97% of the population receives piped water supply from
public utilities and 3% receive water from their own wells
or unregulated small systems, mainly in rural areas.* [227]
Access to improved sanitation is also universal, either
through sewers or on-site sanitation. All collected waste
water is treated at secondary-level treatment plants. All
euents discharged to closed or semi-closed water bod-
ies, such as Tokyo Bay, Osaka Bay, or Lake Biwa, are
further treated to tertiary level. This applies to about 15%
of waste water. The euent quality is remarkably good
at 310 mg/l of BOD for secondary-level treatment, well
below the national euent standard of 20 mg/l.
Water supply and sanitation in Japan is facing some chal-
lenges, such as a decreasing population, declining invest-
ment, scal constraints, ageing facilities, an ageing work-
force, a fragmentation of service provision among thou-
sands of municipal utilities, and the vulnerability of parts
of the country to droughts that are expected to become
more frequent due to climate change.
9.2 Religion 15

9 Demographics Ainu.* [239]

Japan has the second longest overall life expectancy at
Main articles: Demographics of Japan, Japanese people, birth of any country in the world: 83.5 years for persons
and Ethnic issues in Japan born in the period 20102015.* [22]* [240] The Japanese
population is rapidly aging as a result of a postWorld
War II baby boom followed by a decrease in birth rates.
In 2012, about 24.1 percent of the population was over
65, and the proportion is projected to rise to almost 40
percent by 2050.* [241]

9.2 Religion

Main article: Religion in Japan

Ainu, an ethnic minority people from Japan

9.1 Population

Japan's population is estimated at around 127 mil-

lion,* [7] with 80% of the population living on Honsh.
Japanese society is linguistically and culturally homoge-
Religion in Japan* [8]
neous,* [228] composed of 98.5% ethnic Japanese,* [7]
with small populations of foreign workers.* [228] Folk Shinto, or not religious* [note 1] (51.82%)
Zainichi Koreans,* [229] Chinese, Filipinos, Brazilians Buddhism (34.9%)
mostly of Japanese descent,* [230] Peruvians mostly of Shinto organisations and others (4%)
Japanese descent and Americans are among the small Christianity (2.3%)
minority groups in Japan.* [231] In 2003, there were No answer (6.98%)
about 134,700 non-Latin American Western (not includ- Japan has full religious freedom based on Article 20 of
ing more than 33,000 American military personnel and
their dependents stationed throughout the country)* [232]
and 345,500 Latin American expatriates, 274,700 of
whom were Brazilians (said to be primarily Japanese de-
scendants, or nikkeijin, along with their spouses),* [230]
the largest community of Westerners.* [233]
The most dominant native ethnic group is the Yamato
people; primary minority groups include the indigenous
Ainu* [234] and Ryukyuan peoples, as well as social mi-
nority groups like the burakumin.* [235] There are per-
sons of mixed ancestry incorporated among the Yam-
ato, such as those from Ogasawara Archipelago.* [236]
In 2014, foreign-born non-naturalized workers made
up only 1.5% of the total population.* [237] Japan is
widely regarded as ethnically homogeneous, and does The torii of Itsukushima Jinja near Hiroshima, one of the Three
not compile ethnicity or race statistics for Japanese na- Views of Japan and a UNESCO World Heritage Site
tionals; however, at least one analysis describes Japan as
a multiethnic society.* [238] Most Japanese continue to its Constitution. Upper estimates suggest that 8496 per-
see Japan as a monocultural society. Former Japanese cent of the Japanese population subscribe to Shinto as
Prime Minister and current Finance Minister Tar As its indigenous religion (50% to 80% of which consid-
described Japan as being a nation ofone race, one civi- ering degrees of syncretism with Buddhism, shinbutsu-
lization, one language and one culture, which drew criti- shg.* [242]* [243] However, these estimates are based
cism from representatives of ethnic minorities such as the on people aliated with a temple, rather than the number
16 9 DEMOGRAPHICS

of true believers. The number of Shinto shrines in Japan language distinguished by a system of honorics reect-
is estimated to be around 100,000. Other studies have ing the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb
suggested that only 30 percent of the population identify forms and particular vocabulary indicating the relative
themselves as belonging to a religion.* [244] According status of speaker and listener. Japanese writing uses kanji
to Edwin Reischauer and Marius Jansen, some 7080% (Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries
of the Japanese do not consider themselves believers in based on cursive script and radical of kanji), as well as
any religion. Nevertheless, the level of participation re- the Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals.* [257]
mains high, especially during festivals and occasions such Besides Japanese, the Ryukyuan languages (Amami,
as the rst shrine visit of the New Year. Taoism and
Kunigami, Okinawan, Miyako, Yaeyama, Yonaguni),
Confucianism from China have also inuenced Japanese also part of the Japonic language family, are spoken in
beliefs and customs.* [245] Japanese streets are decorated
the Ryukyu Islands chain. Few children learn these lan-
on Tanabata, Obon and Christmas.* [243] guages,* [258] but in recent years the local governments
Shinto is the largest religion in Japan, practiced by nearly have sought to increase awareness of the traditional lan-
80% of the population, yet only a small percentage of guages. The Okinawan Japanese dialect is also spoken in
these identify themselves asShintoistsin surveys. This the region. The Ainu language, which has no proven rela-
is due to the fact that Shintohas dierent meanings tionship to Japanese or any other language, is moribund,
in Japan: most of the Japanese attend Shinto shrines and with only a few elderly native speakers remaining in
beseech kami without belonging to Shinto organisations, Hokkaido.* [259] Public and private schools generally re-
and since there are no formal rituals to become a member quire students to take Japanese language classes as well
of folkShinto , Shinto membershipis often estimated as English language courses.* [260]* [261]
counting those who join organised Shinto sects. Shinto
has 100,000 shrines and 78,890 priests in the country.
Buddhism rst arrived in Japan in the 6th century; it was
introduced in the year 538 or 552* [246] from the king-
dom of Baekje in Korea.* [246]
Christianity was rst introduced into Japan by Jesuit
missions starting in 1549.* [247] Today, fewer than 9.4 Problems
1%* [248]* [249]* [250] to 2.3% are Christians.* [note 2]
Most of them living in the western part of the coun-
The changes in demographic structure have created a
try, where the missionaries' activities were greatest dur-
ing the 16th century. Nagasaki Prefecture has the high- number of social issues, particularly a potential decline
est percentage of Christians: about 5.1% in 1996.* [251] in workforce population and increase in the cost of so-
As of 2007 there are 32,036 Christian priests and pas- cial security benets like the public pension plan.* [262]
tors in Japan. Throughout the latest century, some West- A growing number of younger Japanese are not marry-
ern customs originally related to Christianity (includinging or remain childless.* [263] In 2011, Japan's popula-
Western style weddings, Valentine's Day and Christmas) tion dropped for a fth year, falling by 204,000 people to
have become popular as secular customs among many 126.24 million people. This was the greatest decline since
Japanese.* [252] at least 1947, when comparable gures were rst com-
piled.* [264] This decline was made worse by the March
Islam in Japan is estimated to constitute, about 8090%,
11 earthquake and tsunami, which killed nearly 16,000
of foreign born migrants and their children, primarily
* people with approximately another 2,600 still listed as
from Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Iran. [253]
missing as of 2014.* [265]
Much of the ethnic Japanese Muslims are those who con-
vert upon marrying immigrant Muslims.* [254] The Pew Japan's population is expected to drop to 95 million
* *
Research Center estimated that there were 185,000 Mus- by 2050; [241] [266] demographers and government
*
lims in Japan in 2010. [255] planners are currently in a heated debate over how to
cope with this problem.* [263] Immigration and birth
Other minority religions include Hinduism, Sikhism, and
incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to
Judaism, and since the mid-19th century numerous new
provide younger workers to support the nation's aging
religious movements have emerged in Japan.* [256]
population.* [267]* [268] Japan accepts a steady ow of
15,000 new Japanese citizens by naturalization () per
year.* [269] According to the UNHCR, in 2012 Japan ac-
9.3 Languages cepted just 18 refugees for resettlement,* [270] while the
US took in 76,000.* [271]
Main articles: Languages of Japan and Japanese language Japan suers from a high suicide rate.* [272]* [273] In
2009, the number of suicides exceeded 30,000 for the
More than 99 percent of the population speaks Japanese twelfth straight year.* [274] Suicide is the leading cause
as their rst language.* [7] Japanese is an agglutinative of death for people under 30.* [275]
 17

10 Education educated labor forces among OECD countries.* [279]

The Japanese populace is well educated and its society
Main article: Education in Japan highly values education as a platform for social mobility
Primary schools, secondary schools and universities were and for gaining employment in the country's competitive
high-tech economy. The country's large pool of highly
educated and skilled individuals is largely responsible for
ushering Japan's post-war economic growth. Tertiary-
educated adults in Japan, particularly graduates in sci-
ences and engineering benet economically and socially
from their education and skills in the country's high tech
economy.* [278] Spending on education as a proportion
of GDP is below the OECD average. Although expendi-
ture per student is comparatively high in Japan, total ex-
penditure relative to GDP remains small.* [278] In 2015,
Japan's public spending on education amounted to just
3.5 percent of its GDP, below the OECD average of
4.7%.* [280] In 2014, the country ranked fourth for the
percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds that have attained ter-
tiary education with 48 percent. In addition, bachelor's
degrees are held by 59 percent of Japanese aged 2534,
Students celebrating after the announcement of the results of the the second most in the OECD after South Korea.* [19]
entrance examinations to the University of Tokyo.
As the Japanese economy is largely scientic and tech-
nological based, the labor market demands people who
introduced in 1872 as a result of the Meiji Restora- have achieved some form of higher education, particu-
tion.* [276] Since 1947, compulsory education in Japan larly related to science and engineering in order to gain a
comprises elementary and middle school, which together competitive edge when searching for employment oppor-
last for nine years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all chil- tunities. About 75.9 percent of high school graduates at-
dren continue their education at a three-year senior high tended a university, junior college, trade school, or other
school. higher education institution.* [281]
Japan's education system played a central part in the The two top-ranking universities in Japan are the
country's recovery and rapid economic growth in the University of Tokyo and Kyoto University.* [282]* [283]
decades following the end of World War II. After World Created 16 Nobel Prize laureates. The Programme
War II, the Fundamental Law of Education and the for International Student Assessment coordinated by the
School Education Law were enacted. The latter law de- OECD currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of
ned the school system that would be in eect for many Japanese 15-year-olds as sixth best in the world.* [284]
decades: six years of elementary school, three years of
junior high school, three years of high school, and two
or four years of university. Starting in April 2016, var-
ious schools began the academic year with elementary
school and junior high school integrated into one nine-
year compulsory schooling program, in hopes to mitigate
bullying and truancy; MEXT plans for this approach to be
adopted nationwide in the coming years.* [277] In Japan, 11 Health
having a strong educational background greatly improves
the likelihood of nding a job and earning enough money
to support oneself. Highly educated individuals are less Main articles: Health in Japan and Health care system in
aected by unemployment trends as higher levels of ed- Japan
ucational attainment make an individual more attractive
in the workforce. The lifetime earnings also increase In Japan, health care is provided by national and local
with each level of education attained. Furthermore, skills
governments. Payment for personal medical services is
needed in the modern 21st century labor market are be- oered through a universal health insurance system that
coming more knowledge-based and strong aptitude in sci-provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a gov-
ence and mathematics are more strong predictors of em- ernment committee. People without insurance through
ployment prospects in Japan's highly technological econ-
employers can participate in a national health insurance
omy.* [278] program administered by local governments. Since 1973,
Japan is one of the top-performing OECD countries in all elderly persons have been covered by government-
reading literacy, maths and sciences with the average sponsored insurance.* [285] Patients are free to select the
student scoring 540 and has one of the worlds highest- physicians or facilities of their choice.* [286]
18 12 CULTURE

12 Culture Tang and Sui Dynasties led to the foundation of the rst
permanent capital in Nara. Its checkerboard street layout
Main article: Culture of Japan used the Chinese capital of Chang'an as a template for
See also: Japanese popular culture its design. A gradual increase in the size of buildings led
to standard units of measurement as well as renements
in layout and garden design. The introduction of the tea
Japanese culture has evolved greatly from its origins. ceremony emphasised simplicity and modest design as a
Contemporary culture combines inuences from Asia, counterpoint to the excesses of the aristocracy.
Europe and North America. Traditional Japanese arts
include crafts such as ceramics, textiles, lacquerware, During the Meiji Restoration of 1868 the history of
swords and dolls; performances of bunraku, kabuki, noh, Japanese architecture was radically changed by two im-
dance, and rakugo; and other practices, the tea cere- portant events. The rst was the Kami and Buddhas Sep-
mony, ikebana, martial arts, calligraphy, origami, onsen, aration Act of 1868, which formally separated Buddhism
Geisha and games. Japan has a developed system for from Shinto and Buddhist temples from Shinto shrines,
the protection and promotion of both tangible and intan- breaking an association between the two which had lasted
*
gible Cultural Properties and National Treasures.* [287] well over a thousand years. [288]
Nineteen sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO Second, it was then that Japan underwent a period of
World Heritage List, fteen of which are of cultural sig- intense Westernization in order to compete with other
nicance.* [86] developed countries. Initially architects and styles from
abroad were imported to Japan but gradually the coun-
try taught its own architects and began to express its own
12.1 Architecture style. Architects returning from study with western ar-
chitects introduced the International Style of modernism
Main article: Japanese architecture
into Japan. However, it was not until after the Second
Japanese architecture is a combination between local
World War that Japanese architects made an impression
on the international scene, rstly with the work of archi-
tects like Kenzo Tange and then with theoretical move-
ments like Metabolism.

12.2 Art
Further information: Japanese art, Japanese garden, and
Japanese aesthetics

The Shrines of Ise have been celebrated as the proto-

type of Japanese architecture.* [289] Largely of wood,
traditional housing and many temple buildings see the
use of tatami mats and sliding doors that break down
Kinkaku-ji or The Temple of the Golden Pavilionin Kyoto,
Special Historic Site, Special Place of Scenic Beauty, and a UN- the distinction between rooms and indoor and outdoor
ESCO World Heritage Site. Its torching by a monk in 1950 is the space.* [290] Japanese sculpture, largely of wood, and
subject of a novel by Mishima Japanese painting are among the oldest of the Japanese
arts, with early gurative paintings dating back to at least
and other inuences. It has traditionally been typied by 300 BC. The history of Japanese painting exhibits syn-
wooden structures, elevated slightly o the ground, with thesis and competition between native Japanese aesthet-
tiled or thatched roofs. Sliding doors (fusuma) were used ics and adaptation of imported ideas.* [291]
in place of walls, allowing the internal conguration of aThe interaction between Japanese and European art has
space to be customized for dierent occasions. People been signicant: for example ukiyo-e prints, which be-
usually sat on cushions or otherwise on the oor, tradi- gan to be exported in the 19th century in the move-
tionally; chairs and high tables were not widely used until
ment known as Japonism, had a signicant inuence
the 20th century. Since the 19th century, however, Japan on the development of modern art in the West, most
has incorporated much of Western, modern, and post- notably on post-Impressionism.* [291] Famous ukiyo-e
modern architecture into construction and design, and is artists include Hokusai and Hiroshige. Hokusai coined
today a leader in cutting-edge architectural design and the term manga. Japanese comics now known as manga
technology. developed in the 20th century and have become popu-
The introduction of Buddhism during the sixth century lar worldwide.* [292] Japanese animation is called anime.
was a catalyst for large-scale temple building using com- Japanese-made video game consoles have been popular
plicated techniques in wood. Inuence from the Chinese since the 1980s.* [293]
12.4 Literature 19

Hirado ware
porcelain censers in the form of tiger and gurine
with fan, brown and blue glazes

Masayo Ishigure playing 13-strings Koto

has inuenced the work of some modern Western com-

posers.* [295]
Notable classical composers from Japan include Toru
Takemitsu and Rentar Taki. Popular music in post-war
Japan has been heavily inuenced by American and Eu-
19th-century ropean trends, which has led to the evolution of J-pop,
ukiyo-e woodblock print The Great Wave o or Japanese popular music.* [296] Karaoke is the most
Kanagawa widely practiced cultural activity in Japan. A 1993 survey
by the Cultural Aairs Agency found that more Japanese
had sung karaoke that year than had participated in tra-
ditional pursuits such as ower arranging (ikebana) or tea
ceremonies.* [297]

12.4 Literature

Example of Main articles: Japanese literature and Japanese poetry

Japanese calligraphy ( shod) The earliest works of Japanese literature include the

An anime
store in Akihabara, Tokyo 12th-century illustrated handscroll of The Tale of Genji, a
National Treasure

Kojiki and Nihon Shoki chronicles and the Man'ysh

12.3 Music poetry anthology, all from the 8th century and written in
Chinese characters.* [298]* [299] In the early Heian pe-
Main article: Music of Japan riod, the system of phonograms known as kana (Hiragana
Japanese music is eclectic and diverse. Many and Katakana) was developed. The Tale of the Bamboo
instruments, such as the koto, were introduced in the 9th Cutter is considered the oldest Japanese narrative.* [300]
and 10th centuries. The accompanied recitative of the An account of Heian court life is given in The Pil-
Noh drama dates from the 14th century and the popu- low Book by Sei Shnagon, while The Tale of Genji by
lar folk music, with the guitar-like shamisen, from the Murasaki Shikibu is often described as the world's rst
sixteenth.* [294] Western classical music, introduced in novel.* [301]* [302]
the late 19th century, now forms an integral part of During the Edo period, the chnin townspeople
( ) over-
Japanese culture. The imperial court ensemble Gagaku took the samurai aristocracy as producers and consumers
20 12 CULTURE

of literature. The popularity of the works of Saikaku, for
example, reveals this change in readership and author-
ship, while Bash revivied the poetic tradition of the
Kokinsh with his haikai (haiku) and wrote the poetic
travelogue Oku no Hosomichi.* [303] The Meiji era saw
the decline of traditional literary forms as Japanese liter-
ature integrated Western inuences. Natsume Sseki and
Mori gai were the rst modernnovelists of Japan,
followed by Rynosuke Akutagawa, Jun'ichir Tanizaki,
Yukio Mishima and, more recently, Haruki Murakami.
Japan has two Nobel Prize-winning authors Yasunari
Kawabata (1968) and Kenzabur e (1994).* [300]
12.5 Philosophy
Main article: Japanese philosophy
Japanese Philosophy has historically been a fusion of
Confucianism entered Japan from China around the 5th
century A.D., as did Buddhism.* [306] Confucian ideals
are still evident today in the Japanese concept of society
and the self, and in the organization of the government
and the structure of society.* [306] Buddhism has pro-
foundly impacted Japanese psychology, metaphysics, and
aesthetics.* [307]
Neo-Confucianism, which became prominent in the six-
teenth century during the Tokugawa era, shaped Japanese
ideas of virtue and social responsibility, and, through its
emphasis on investigating the principle or conguration
of things, stimulated the Japanese study of the natural
world.* [308] Also since the 16th century, certain indige-
nous ideas of loyalty and honour have been held. Western
philosophy has had its major impact in Japan only since
the middle of the 19th century.* [304]
12.6 Cuisine

Main article: Japanese cuisine

Japanese cuisine is based on combining staple foods, typ-

Breakfast at a ryokan or inn

ically Japanese rice or noodles, with a soup and okazu

dishes made from sh, vegetable, tofu and the liketo
add avor to the staple food. In the early modern era in-
gredients such as red meats that had previously not been
widely used in Japan were introduced. Japanese cuisine
is known for its emphasis on seasonality of food,* [309]
quality of ingredients and presentation. Japanese cuisine
oers a vast array of regional specialties that use tradi-
tional recipes and local ingredients. The phrase ichij-
Kitaro Nishida, one of the most notable Japanese philosophers sansai (,one soup, three sides) refers to the
makeup of a typical meal served, but has roots in clas-
both foreign; particularly Chinese and Western, and sic kaiseki, honzen, and ysoku cuisine. The term is also
uniquely Japanese elements.* [304] In its literary forms, used to describe the rst course served in standard kaiseki
Japanese philosophy began about fourteen centuries cuisine nowadays.* [310]
ago.* [304] Traditional Japanese sweets are known as wagashi. In-
Archaeological evidence and early historical accounts gredients such as red bean paste and mochi are used.
suggest that Japan was originally an animistic culture, More modern-day tastes includes green tea ice cream, a
which viewed the world as infused with kami () or very popular avor. Almost all manufacturers produce a
sacred presence as taught by Shinto, though it is not a version of it. Kakigori is a shaved ice dessert avored
philosophy as such, but has greatly inuenced all other with syrup or condensed milk. It is usually sold and
philosophies in their Japanese interpretations.* [305] eaten at summer festivals. Popular Japanese beverages
12.8 Festivals 21

such as sake, which is a brewed rice beverage that, typi-

cally, contains 15%~17% alcohol and is made by multi-
ple fermentation of rice. Other beverage like beer is pro-
duced in some region such as Sapporo Brewery, the old-
est Japan beer's brand. The Michelin Guide has awarded
restaurants in Japan more Michelin stars than the rest of
the world combined.* [311]

Young ladies celebrate Coming of Age Day ( Seijin no

Hi) in Harajuku, Tokyo

Sushi ()
Public Holiday Law ( Koku-
min no Shukujitsu ni Kansuru Hritsu) of 1948.* [312] Be-
ginning in 2000, Japan implemented the Happy Monday
System, which moved a number of national holidays to
Monday in order to obtain a long weekend. In 2006,
the country decided to add Shwa Day, a new national
holiday, in place of Greenery Day on April 29, and to
move Greenery Day to May 4. These changes took eect
in 2007. In 2014, the House of Councillors decided to
add Mountain Day ( Yama no Hi) to the Japanese
calendar on August 11, after lobbying by the Japanese
Ramen
Alpine Club. It is intended to coincide with the Bon Festi-
()
val vacation time, giving Japanese people an opportunity
to appreciate Japan's mountains.* [313]* [314]
The national holidays in Japan are New Year's Day
on January 1, Coming of Age Day on Second Mon-
day of January, National Foundation Day on February
11, Vernal Equinox Day on March 20 or 21, Shwa
Day on April 29, Constitution Memorial Day on May
3, Greenery Day on May 4, Children's Day on May 5,
Tempura ( Marine Day on Third Monday of July, Mountain Day on
) August 11, Respect for the Aged Day on Third Monday
of September, Autumnal Equinox on September 23 or
24, Health and Sports Day on Second Monday of Octo-
ber, Culture Day on November 3, Labour Thanksgiving
Day on November 23, and The Emperor's Birthday on
December 23.* [315]

12.8 Festivals

Main article: Japanese festivals

Wagashi ( There are many festivals in Japan, which are called in
) served with matcha () Japanese as matsuri () which celebrate annually. There
are no specic festival days for all of Japan; dates vary
from area to area, and even within a specic area, but
festival days do tend to cluster around traditional holi-
12.7 Holidays days such as Setsubun or Obon. Festivals are often based
around one event, with food stalls, entertainment, and
Main article: Public holidays in Japan carnival games to keep people entertained. Its usually
Ocially, Japan has 16 national, government-recognized sponsored by a local shrine or temple, though they can
holidays. Public holidays in Japan are regulated under the be secular.* [316]
22
Popular Japanese festival, Hanami celebration at Ueno Park,
Tokyo
Notable festival often feature processions which may in-
clude elaborate oats. Preparation for these processions
is usually organised at the level of neighborhoods, or
machi (). Prior to these, the local kami may be ritu-
ally installed in mikoshi and paraded through the streets,
such as Gion in Kyoto, and Hadaka in Okayama.* [316]
12.9 Sports
Main article: Sport in Japan
Traditionally, sumo is considered Japan's national
Sumo wrestlers form around the referee during the ring-entering
ceremony
sport.* [317] Japanese martial arts such as judo, karate
and kendo are also widely practiced and enjoyed by spec-
tators in the country. After the Meiji Restoration, many
Western sports were introduced in Japan and began to
spread through the education system.* [318] Japan hosted
the Summer Olympics in Tokyo in 1964. Japan has
hosted the Winter Olympics twice: Sapporo in 1972 and
Nagano in 1998.* [319] Tokyo will host the 2020 Sum-
mer Olympics, making Tokyo the rst Asian city to host
the Olympics twice.* [320] Japan is the most successful
Asian Rugby Union country, winning the Asian Five Na-
tions a record 6 times and winning the newly formed IRB
12 CULTURE
Pacic Nations Cup in 2011. Japan will host the 2019
IRB Rugby World Cup.* [321]
Baseball is currently the most popular spectator sport
in the country. Japan's top professional league, now
known as Nippon Professional Baseball, was established
in 1936* [322] and is widely considered to be the high-
est level of professional baseball in the world outside of
the North American Major Leagues. Since the estab-
lishment of the Japan Professional Football League in
1992, association football has also gained a wide fol-
lowing.* [323] Japan was a venue of the Intercontinental
Cup from 1981 to 2004 and co-hosted the 2002 FIFA
World Cup with South Korea.* [324] Japan has one of the
most successful football teams in Asia, winning the Asian
Cup four times.* [325] Also, Japan recently won the FIFA
Women's World Cup in 2011.* [326] Golf is also popular
in Japan,* [327] as are forms of auto racing like the Super
GT series and Formula Nippon.* [328] The country has
produced one NBA player, Yuta Tabuse.* [329]
12.10 Media
Main article: Media of Japan
Television and newspapers take an important role
NHK Broadcasting Building in Osaka
in Japanese mass media, though radio and magazines
also take apart.* [330]* [331] For a long time, newspa-
pers were regarded as the most inuential information

medium in Japan, although audience attitudes towards
television changed with the emergence of commercial
news broadcasting in the mid-1980s.* [330] Over the last
decade, television has clearly come to surpass news-
papers as Japan's main information and entertainment
medium.* [332]
There are 6 nationwide television networks, such as
NHK (public broadcasting), Nippon Television (NTV),
Tokyo Broadcasting System (TBS), Fuji Network System [9] According to legend, Japan was founded on this date by
(FNS), TV Asahi, and TV Tokyo Network (TXN).* [331]
For the most part, television networks were established [10] Facts about Japan, General Information. Retrieved
based on capital investments by existing radio networks.
Variety shows, serial dramas, and news constitute a large
percentage of Japanese television show. According to [11] " GL08020101.
the fourth NHK survey on television viewing in Japan,
95 percent of Japanese watch television every day. The [12] World Economic Outlook Database,April 2017 Re-
average daily duration of television viewing ranged from
approximately four hours.* [333]
Japanese readers have a choice of approximately 120
daily newspapers with a total of 50 million copies of 'set
paper' with an average subscription rate of 1.13 news-
papers per household.* [334] The main newspaper's pub-
lishers are Yomiuri Shimbun, Asahi Shimbun, Mainichi
Shimbun, Nikkei Shimbun, and Sankei Shimbun. Ac-
cording to a survey conducted by the Japanese Newspaper
Association in June 1999, 85.4 per cent of men and 75
per cent of women read a newspaper every day. Average
daily reading times vary with 27.7 minutes on weekdays
and 31.7 minutes on holidays and Sunday.* [332]
13 See also
Index of Japan-related articles
Outline of Japan
Housing in Japan
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15 Notes Sugimoto; et al. (2003). An Introduction to Japanese

Society. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-
[1] Bestor, Yamagata. 2011. pp. 6667: mushky, 52925-5.
no religion, in Japanese language and mindset iden-
ties those people who do not belong to organised reli- Taggart Murphy, R. (2014). Japan and the Shack-
gion. To the Japanese, the term religionor faith les of the Past. Oxford and New York, NY: Oxford
means organized religions on the model of Christianity, University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-984598-9.
that is a religion with specic doctrines and requirement
for church membership. So, when asked what is their Varley (2000). Japanese Culture. University of
religion, most of the Japanese answer that they do Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-2152-1.
not belong to any religion. According to NHK studies,
those Japanese who identify with mushky and therefore
17 External links
do not belong to any organised religion, actually take part
in the folk ritual dimension of Shinto. Ama Toshimaru
in Nihonjin wa naze mushukyo na no ka (Why are the
Japanese non-religious?") of 1996, explains that people Government
who do not belong to organised religions but regularly pray
and make oerings to ancestors and protective deities at JAPANGOV THE GOVERNMENT OF JAPAN
private altars or Shinto shrines will identify themselves as
mushukyo. Ama designatesnatural religionwhat NHK Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet, ocial
studies dene asfolk religion, and other scholars have site
namedNipponism(Nipponky) orcommon religion
. The Imperial Household Agency, ocial site of the
Imperial House of Japan
[2] According to the Dentsu survey of 2006: 1% Protestants,
0.8% members of the Catholic Church, and 0.5% mem- National Diet Library
bers of the Orthodox Church.* [8]
Public Relations Oce

16 Further reading Travel

Main article: Bibliography of Japanese history Japan National Tourist Organization

General information
Flath (2000). The Japanese Economy. Oxford Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 0-19-877503-2. Japan. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence
Agency.
Henshall (2001). A History of Japan. Palgrave
Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-23370-1. Japan from UCB Libraries GovPubs

Iwabuchi (2002). Recentering Globalization: Popu- Japan at DMOZ

lar Culture and Japanese Transnationalism. Duke
University Press. ISBN 0-8223-2891-7. Japan Encyclopdia Britannica entry

Jansen (2000). The Making of Modern Japan. Belk- Japan prole from BBC News
nap. ISBN 0-674-00334-9. Japan from the OECD
Kato; et al. (1997). A History of Japanese Litera- Wikimedia Atlas of Japan
ture: From the Man'Yoshu to Modern Times. Japan
Library. ISBN 1-873410-48-4. Geographic data related to Japan at OpenStreetMap

Pilling, David (2014). Bending Adversity: Japan Key Development Forecasts for Japan from
and the Art of Survival. London: Allen Lane. ISBN International Futures
978-1-84614-546-9.

Samuels (2008). Securing Japan: Tokyo's Grand

Strategy and the Future of East Asia. Cornell Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 0-8014-7490-6.

Silverberg (2007). Erotic Grotesque Nonsense: The

Mass Culture of Japanese Modern Times. University
of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22273-3.
 33

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lostsword, Pilotguy, Kukini, Skinnyweed, BlackTerror, Ged UK, Ruolin59, Ohconfucius, Tom623, Thejerm, Cast, Martianlostinspace,
SashatoBot, Jasi161, Nishkid64, OldRightist, Rory096, AThing, Green01, Harryboyles, Giovanni33, Franc13, Zahid Abdassabur, Dbtfz,
Kuru, John, Fanx, AmiDaniel, Woogums, Euchiasmus, UberCryxic, WhiteCat, Sfmil, J 1982, SilkTork, Loodog, Face boy, ZZ top-
perr, Simongraham, JohnCub, Kokot.kokotisko, AllyHolder, Linnell, Chodorkovskiy, Geeteshgadkari, Minna Sora no Shita, Joelo,
Green Giant, Zarniwoot, ManiF, George16, Saltean, Bluej33, Serious Business, Mr. Lefty, RomanSpa, Thegreatdr, Deviathan~enwiki,
Devinkuhn, Ekrub-ntyh, Ckatz, Dale101usa, FrostyBytes, Nutcracker, Rizzlebon, JHunterJ, Mjump, Konklone, Crazytail2, Astuishin,
Hvn0413, TFNorman, Shangrilaista, Rob 06-07, Ro, Rodneybf, Mr Stephen, Sandb, Godfrey Daniel, Samaster1991, Kyoko, Vaniba12,
AxG, Xiaphias, Dbertman, Enohpesrep, SandyGeorgia, Interlingua, Neucular, Doczilla, Wright123, Pel99, Moner, Whomp, Ryulong,
Onetwo1, Peter Horn, Andrwsc, Pseudoanonymous, Elb2000, Skinsmoke, Jose77, Slyang, Mr simpson, Regulus marzo4103, Autonova,
Jesit, Doug Johnson, Redcomusic, Politepunk, Mackan, TheFarix, Levineps, Balderdash707, Afkbot, OnBeyondZebrax, Seqsea, Fan-
1967, ILovePlankton, Iridescent, Spinnick597, V6g3h7, Jjok, HertzaHaeon, Hyyttaa, Missionary, Joseph Solis in Australia, Paradise2city,
Shoeofdeath, VSTiger, Hana lleyton, Pedro441, Tony Fox, Amakuru, HongQiGong, Dp462090, Sam Li, Domitori, Tortfeasor, O1ive,
Civil Engineer III, Az1568, Anger22, WakiMiko, Thricecube, LittleTree, Hoptoit, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, Daniel5127, Ouishoebean,
Nquotes, IronChris, Dan1679, Mrmaroon25, Yung Wei, Zenjin, MightyWarrior, YanShen, Roxi2, CalebNoble, Komplex16, Benau, Alex-
the5th, Neoyoda, SkyWalker, JForget, Hamish2k, Vega84, ScottW, Sakurambo, Fentona, Sohebbasharat, Phillip J, CmdrObot, Le savoir
et le savoir-faire, Calimos, Deon, Cxw, Wafulz, Insanephantom, Van helsing, Kevin McE, Aherunar, Alex Shih, SupaStarGirl, Lord-
oftheFLIES, JohnCD, Unit~enwiki, Umedard, Banedon, Twintone, Virgule82, Jcaragonv, Basawala, GHe, Usgnus, NaBUru38, Yarnalgo,
Sundsvalltour, MarsRover, Saito Hajime, Lyrics~enwiki, Shizane, Otashiro, Moreschi, Casper2k3, Zurkhardo, Ares1991, Pnatt, Lord
of the Puns, TJDay, Rudjek, Bball485, Tomjc, DOMINAT3, Neonlife, Cydebot, Truip99, Trotteral, Ganryuu, Peripitus, Conversion
script, Vip774~enwiki, Mike65535, Reywas92, Hijinx, 663highland, Westee, Uniqueuponhim, Gogo Dodo, Maxker, Travelbird, Dread-
piratetif, Sullivan9211, Cristian Cappiello, Bobo12345, Cra0422, Acs4b, Dancter, Q43, Tawkerbot4, Alexnye, Doug Weller, Damien-
Reave, Donmillsbridge, NukeMTV, DumbBOT, Vivii, Chrislk02, Hmss0051, ConorMcCann, Hypermkt, Marvel3666, Kozuch, Zer0faults,
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glishEfternamn, CieloEstrellado, 0lorenzo0, Akadewboy, Thijs!bot, Wikiwow, Epbr123, Daa89563, Polaris36, Komdori, MarkBuckles,
Lenny2506, Coelacan, WillyJeeves, LaGrange, Qwyrxian, Janechra, Paragon12321, LactoseTI, Scribejb, Dasani, Hollywoodicon, Az-
imuth1, NickAura, Kablammo, HappyInGeneral, 23prootie, Sry85, Varavour, Guluspogi@yahoo.com, Tensaibuta, Andyjsmith, Vilallonga,
RVD~enwiki, Jamescatchpole, Ssipseki2, Cluckbang, JAPANSUCKSPUSSY, RevolverOcelotX, Saleah, Objectman, Marek69, Schola64,
West Brom 4ever, John254, Esemono, Java13690, Merbabu, Remort, Bluerfn, Stoshmaster, Havenstone, Alientraveller, Mnemeson, Plum-
cherry, Dagvadorj, Dfrg.msc, Nictius, Hcobb, Celldea, Dgies, CharlotteWebb, Therequiembellishere, Bethereds, Whoda, Himawarichan,
Tocino, TangentCube, Heroeswithmetaphors, MichaelMaggs, Okkakii, Sean William, Dawnseeker2000, Natalie Erin, Hsolimany, Foreast-
west, RCT Locomotion Wikipedia, Komekome~enwiki, Northumbrian, Dollarfty, Escarbot, Narato, Nox10, Junmai, MurphiaMan, Liz-
zleguy, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Questionfromjapan, Ais523, The Obento Musubi, HaradaSanosuke, Insulanus, Cultural Freedom,
Luna Santin, Obiwankenobi, Turlo Lomon, Neumannk, Revolutionary92, Yomangani, Kookoo114, Marzoregulus@yahoo.co.ph, Mytholo-
gia, Prolog, Doc Tropics, Iyokan~enwiki, 17Drew, Regulusmarzo@hotmai.l.com, Chris25, Vic226, Sydlexic, Ejoty, Kwjdh1324, Mr Grim
Reaper, Penser, Fayenatic london, Sumoeagle179, Poetic Decay, Dylan Lake, LibLord, Danger, Credema, MECU, Gdo01, Alphachimpbot,
Kzaral, The Vindictive, DTAD, Falsedef, Elaragirl, Myanw, Zealous Zebra, Eleos, Damool, Parande, Shogo Kawada, JAnDbot, Gavin-
rew, Deective, Husond, Roman clef, Vip001, Felipe Menegaz, Barek, MER-C, BlindEagle, The Transhumanist, Luis wiki, Avaya1,
Samuel Webster, Arch dude, Tohru Honda13, Davespice, Hoplites, Honette, Objectiveye, Ipien, Hut 8.5, Airbreather, 100110100, Flying
tiger, HSL, Snowolfd4, PhilKnight, Badmintonboy, Rothorpe, Rdht, UAucklandLibr, Acroterion, DRHagen, Bunny-chan, Meeples, Ma-
gioladitis, Dragonaesthetics, Connormah, Lord fabs, FJM, VoABot II, Timanderso, Kwame Nkrumah, Ascom~enwiki, Dark Angel-REX,
Multigrain, Chevinki, Dekimasu, Iriseyes, QuizzicalBee, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, Shanemarcotte, Rammfan, Jay Gatsby, Swing low, Wa-
termint, CattleGirl, TheEsb, Think outside the box, Fry, Sss180b, Ling.Nut, Noisettes, Akmoilan, CTF83!, Teh3muun, Dep. Garcia,
Jatkins, Recurring dreams, Thunderhead~enwiki, Critik~enwiki, AppleSay, Brionies~enwiki, Bleh999, Jessicapierce, Eiyuu Kou, Taser-
mon's Partner, SSZ, Mr. D Vega, IkonicDeath, EagleFan, Haohao 1221, M3rrick, User86654, Westwind273, Bhsoul1, Teisei666, Joe
routt, Adrian J. Hunter, Sammalin, Tenjikuronin, Theallens, ShinjukuXYZ, Bharathiya, Ilha Youn, DerHexer, Histor~enwiki, JdeJ, Pan
18.1 Text 35

Dan, DeadGyroEater, Tulip19, Dkriegls, Death2her x, Jap Bizarre, Nowletsgo, TheRanger, Wayne Miller, Goodynotion, Tyrant Rex,
Patstuart, AOEU, Sturdygurdy, ScarredINSIDE999, SPD, Mannerheimo, SquidSK, NatureA16, Yhinz17, JuNa, Stephenchou0722, The-
dukeinjapan, FisherQueen, Ratherhaveaheart, Bob twinkle 1, Somethingoranother, Infrangible, STBot, Eternal Pink, Animehater1, Ebizur,
Gasheadsteve, DietLimeCola, Narrasawa, Adlerschlo, Jazz+, ANiMe4LiFe88, Shogunpk, ARCG, Timothy Titus, El Krem, Robert25, Pa-
narchy, Roastytoast, WarDiplomat, BrAd!, Mschel, Sakuragi, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, DooshPumpkin, ASDFGH, Jaise, Patar knight,
Shadowmuse, Harblbarbl56, PrestonH, Billyjoe1234567890, Tarafuku10, Thewallowmaker, Majer editer2, Smokizzy, Lilac Soul, Bansal,
LedgendGamer, DreaMaker, Shawn1362, Thirdright, RockMFR, Universally Speaking, Latouu, Tacojjandriley, Gnanapiti, J.delanoy,
Junggoo, DrKay, Trusilver, Ettiesnis, Gettystein, DarKnEs5 WaRr0r, JamesR, William2834, Adavidb, Joe.downey, UBeR, Numbo3,
Goddessgurl, Tooooom, Nightshadow28, Ee jpx, Hans Dunkelberg, Fruits Monster, Paulhitthewall, Danielwashere92, Thaaaaaaylen,
Mta~enwiki, Viorzon, Eliz81, Zone101, KeepItClean, MIsogi, Noble75, Eraye1, Cheesebrain, WLW9002, 02hurnella, Mamyles, GAYS
ARE DISGUSTING, Tdktank59, Hyunsugeo, Ignis.jpn, G. Campbell, Acalamari, Aladin555, Qpdhfrgfruygfryu, Kingj123, Chimeraking,
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Isaacbobguy, Sjharten, Bconnor82, XFrenchAtHeartx, Bobobobobobobopa, Starnestommy, Esuqi, Zqd6, Samtheboy, MrErku, Jessah,
Naniwako, Skier Dude, RaGnaRoK SepHr0tH, Engunneer, Ferrett-oniichan, Coolxal, Gurchzilla, Paulbkirk, Bubble94, Mrg3105, Rap-
torRobot, Robertson-Glasgow, Laboewe, Smartandgeeky, Wiki1609, Plasticup, Hut 6.5, Darrendeng, Number1balla, NewEnglandYankee,
Amorwuu, SJP, Carewser, Flatterworld, Greeves, Student7, FJPB, Antisora, Madhava 1947, Yeaforme, DanglingModier, 2812, Purple-
hayz868, Shunshun, RogerVKint, Melinda wang, Mamin27, Markzhai, Marikaismeyay, Tweisbach, Jamesontai, Neomoon, 184658ah,
Fatspikes, OneiroPhobia, Jjhcap99, Isida1028, Treisijs, Tiwonk, 10nn, AnnabelD, Busubi, Star80, 49danesway, Gtg204y, Heykoala, Mad-
mofo69, Qwertypo, Smeogell1791, Andy Marchbanks, Plippilpplip, Blackwall310, Wikiment, S (usurped also), KoreanShoriSenyou, Am-
mon86, Oirase, Marasamune, Sidecrab, SoCalSuperEagle, Paladinofjoan, Squids and Chips, Conte di Cavour, Idioma-bot, Mike9131992,
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eNn, Guardian Tiger, Katydidit, TheOtherJesse, Moejoeonline, Blaze The Movie Fan, WOSlinker, Diego de Sequeira, Aisa Novac,
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town, Perohanych, Pojanji, Sta2GUYZ, Albertc1990, GDonato, Miranda, Dchall1, Ann Stouter, Andrewrhchen, Stonagal, Gwinva, John-
nyvek, Supermetroid122, VinnyMcFly, Arnon Chan, Qxz, Skydancer506, MusicPerfectionist, Nosferatuslayer, Phiddle, Littlealien182,
CaptinJohn, Chrisieboy, Ukos, Amagase~enwiki, Beyond silence, Crashaire, Hahaefran, JhsBot, IronMaidenRocks, Leafyplant, Broad-
bot, Sean-Jin, Sanfranman59, Nemskiqt, Pker thief, ^demonBot2, Seb az86556, PDFbot, Sushiya, Rozmichelle, Wily wonka, Animeyay,
Nicholas.goder, Lawrence H K, Whutes, Quindraco, RiverStyx23, Sdnegel, Orange-kun, RadiantRay, Mrod101, Sodicadl, Uannis~enwiki,
Sch614, Enigmaman, Finngall, Usergreatpower, Biggity, Hellcat ghter, Comrade Tux, RareedDeer, Eddie mars, Mattmiller2, Synthe-
bot, Martycain09, Turgan, TheCheat13, Burntsauce, Blotner, MrSchmenge, Seresin, Cnilep, DarkHeart63, Rfuaonl, WWEDawn, Mas-
ter of the Orchalcos, Jimlikesmen, Jobiface, Grimripperscythe, Le Fou, Saggyjap, Littlelefty101, Pioneer pete, Gandiva~enwiki, Zarek,
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rules, Murkee, The Random Editor, Bonehelm, Aznixiboy, SieBot, Kazuse, Louis88~enwiki, Black bear is.cool, Rikudemyx, Moonrid-
dengirl, BotMultichill, Jauerback, Shawnlandden, WTucker, Jsc83, Weiner123, Parhamr, Dawn Bard, Viskonsas, Caltas, MarkBolton,
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Editore99, Oda Mari, Arbor to SJ, Guitar690, Momo san, Plmnbvcx, Xmrcanadax, 8xJohnx8, Magison, Mekang, Enti342, Bobchawowow,
Robster1983, Manylevel, SailorMan10001, Black lupin, Hzh, Telcourbanio, Black re dragon, Ljpernic, Webfan29, Mustache4me, Thysko,
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tory, Changesarticles, Gggh, Eklipse, Lkwhit14, Jhendin, Passportguy, Everything212, Eric.frisanco, Massimo Catarinella, Canopus1968,
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ing Scot, I Got A's, Locksmoon, Nintendog master 54, Older and ... well older, Tanhabot, Djsuess, Gsorley07, Wooram.uk, Dr.m 2099,
Roadstaa, Ttsuchiya0491, Mnmazur, Download, CarsracBot, Este83, Toonlad9, Glass Sword, Debresser, Agomulka, LinkFA-Bot, Brufnus,
Fireaxe888, TheFreeloader, Jayt55, Numbo3-bot, Keds0, Berlinerzeitung, Vacekha, Tide rolls, Vanished user 38hfun34tunkewj4t, Snow-
sher123, Dctopboots, Moocowsrule, Jarble, JEN9841, CountryBot, Mozillaman425, HerculeBot, Cchow2, Waltloc, BlueMario1016,
Bbisdo, Odder, ARUenergy, , Luckas-bot, Yobot, VengeancePrime, JJARichardson, Ptbotgourou, Legobot II, Nirvana888,
Corsicanman, DemitreusFrontwest, Eurotuber, Shinkansen Fan, KamikazeBot, DarkKunai, Reindra, TheThomas, Universal Life, LL-
Times, Bentecbye, Anonymous from the 21th century, Russian Luxembourger, Voltteri, Djacolatse, AnomieBOT, Puertorico1, Archon
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terialscientist, Bukubku, , ImperatorExercitus, Tintero, Citation bot, Twiceuponatime, Dewan357, ArthurBot, PeachPurin, Que-
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Lindenhurst Liberty, Transphasic, Mr. Lama, BBio-Wiki, MJ Soquerata, Meepsterbanana, Davide King, Hoggardhigh, 1, Gixce93,
Szqecs, Japa3, Destiny Leo, Othello95, Kind Tennis Fan, LuiYo9362, Gokul.gk7, Szekszter, Blondeguynative, Liz, ProKro, OccultZone,
Rtedb, Ali Zifan, Allen2, Esquin, Stufroguk, Stopedits11, Knsn57, G S Palmer, Lakun.patra, Exmkt, Spiritclaymore, Keijhae, Asiaten-
Kenner, Massyparcer, LordAtlas, Monkbot, ShawntheGod, Wwikix, Thibaut120094, Daikage, Ryopus, Endriksohn, Lwp2004, Run-
awaysquash, Mikehistory, Monopoly31121993, Keiiri, YJAX, Cabanatueno, Jaydreams, Xylocode, SoundArgument2, Signedzzz, Sher-
iIsInTown, Sigehelmus, Onemakes100, Unocha.visual, ChamithN, Wrestlingring, Kyodaiteeter, Emanuelito martinez, 555nhs, Kai2004,
Redfoxjump, Itschipino, Cynulliad, YeOldeGentleman, XanaduZepp2112, Fimatic, Itoen90, NotTheFakeJTP, DuckWae12, GildaV-
erdi01, GoldCoastPrior, BlackRanger88, MoreTomorrow, Mdayasakii, Mll mitch, Aldiazmo, Dash9Z, Kixean777, Absolutelypuremilk,
Vivexdino, Benjaminikuta, MidasHotel20, Clerkletheq, Prinsgezinde, KasparBot, Inception2010, Hulk576, TheRealSingapore, XFu-
sionSGX, Ticktock01, LimaHotel807, Anentai, Ktns, Volkstod, EnigmaLord515, King muh, Feminist, Icarus the Great, LibyanMerce-
nary, SmartyBootz, R-NH2, XeloriaGrand, ReinkerMS, Stewader91, Bmoney.20, Red Icarus of Jakarta, Lemongirl942, Lourdes, Re-
tention7, InternetArchiveBot, Molecule Extraction, Danieljsky, GodenDaeg, Rtrust, JJMC89 bot, MPikli, GreenC bot, Balsupli,
, UnidentiedHuman721, Robot psychiatrist, Fmadd, Userius, Scotty1141, Motivao, Rantemario, Bender the Bot, Concus Cretus,
ystein.Eide, Rlaghksrnr33, Ayu Nabila, Aadhishankar, Kwarstadt3, Biglickdarry, Anandmoorti, J-lorentz, Ernabono, Nonenonenonez,
Ari1999, KingSkyLord and Anonymous: 2469

18.2 Images
File:2007feb-sushi-odaiba-manytypes.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/
2007feb-sushi-odaiba-manytypes.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nesnad
File:American-MNNA-2007.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/American-MNNA-2007.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Based on BlankMap-World6.svg Original artist: Ratatosk
File:Anime-Store-In-Akihabara.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Anime-Store-In-Akihabara.jpg
License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ayu Nabila
File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_
projection%29.svg License: GFDL Contributors: National Geographic. Map by Ssolbergj
Aquarius.geomar.de
Original artist:Koyos + Ssolbergj (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Ssolbergj' title='User talk:Ssolbergj'>talk</a>)
File:Bjs48_02_Ainu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Bjs48_02_Ainu.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027j/beato_people/fb_album_01.html Original artist: Felice Beato
File:Breakfast_at_Tamahan_Ryokan,_Kyoto.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Breakfast_at_
Tamahan_Ryokan%2C_Kyoto.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MichaelMaggs
File:Castle_Himeji_sakura01_adjusted.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Castle_Himeji_
sakura01_adjusted.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Image:Castle_Himeji_sakura01.jpg Original artist: Taken by Miya.m, color
correction by Gorgo, level-adjusted by Quasipalm
File:Cherry_blossoms_at_Yoshinoyama_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Cherry_blossoms_
at_Yoshinoyama_01.jpg License: CC BY 2.1 jp Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tawashi2006
18.2 Images 37

File:Circle_frame.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Circle_frame.svg License: Public domain Con-

tributors: Own work Original artist: PleaseStand
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Diet_of_Japan_Kokkai_2009.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Diet_of_Japan_Kokkai_2009.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wiiii
File:Emperor_Akihito_and_Empress_Michiko_cropped_Barack_Obama_Emperor_Akihito_and_Empress_Michiko_
20140424_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Emperor_Akihito_and_Empress_Michiko_cropped_
Barack_Obama_Emperor_Akihito_and_Empress_Michiko_20140424_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: President Obama at
the Welcome Ceremony in Japan | Flickr - Photo Sharing! Original artist: State Department photo by William Ng / Public domain
East Asia and Pacic Media Hub
File:Emperor_Jimmu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Emperor_Jimmu.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg License: CC
BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_Andorra.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Flag_of_Andorra.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Llibre de normes grques per a la reproducci i aplicaci dels signes d'Estat per als quals el Govern s autoritat
competent (Aprovat pel Govern en la sessi del dia 5 de maig de 1999) Original artist: HansenBCN
File:Flag_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Flag_of_Antigua_and_
Barbuda.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Here, based on: http://manuelbelgrano.gov.ar/bandera/creacion-de-la-bandera-nacional/ Original artist: Government
of Argentina
File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Austria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work, http://www.bmlv.gv.at/abzeichen/dekorationen.shtml Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Bahrain.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Flag_of_Bahrain.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.moci.gov.bh/en/KingdomofBahrain/BahrainFlag/ Original artist: Source: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by
User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Barbados.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Flag_of_Barbados.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: http://www.gov.bb/bigportal/big/articles/showArticle.php?file=National_Flag.xml&ag=big Original artist: User:
Denelson83
File:Flag_of_Belgium_(civil).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Belize.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Flag_of_Belize.svg License: Public domain
Contributors:
Used as Air Force insigna seen <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='http://www.airliners.net/photo/
Belize-Air-Force/Britten-Norman-BN-2A-21-Defender/925855/L'>here</a>
Improved version from xrmap ag collection 2.9.
Original artist: Caleb Moore
File:Flag_of_Bhutan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Flag_of_Bhutan.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Originally from the Open Clip Art website, then replaced with an improved version. Original artist: w:en:User:Nightstallion
(original uploader), the author of xrmap (improved version)
File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Brunei.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Flag_of_Brunei.svg License: CC0 Contribu-
tors: From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: User:Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Flag_of_Cambodia.svg License: CC0 Con-
tributors: <a class='mw-selink selink'>File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg</a> Original artist: Draw new ag by User: _
File:Flag_of_Canada.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Chile.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Denmark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Madden
File:Flag_of_Egypt.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: Open Clip Art
File:Flag_of_Estonia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.riigikantselei.ee/?id=73847 Original artist: Originally drawn by User:SKopp. Blue colour changed by User:PeepP
to match the image at [1].
File:Flag_of_Europe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg License: Public domain
Contributors:
38 18 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File based on the specication given at [1].Original artist:User:Verdy p, User:-x-, User:Paddu, User:Nightstallion, User:Funakoshi, User:
Jeltz, User:Dbenbenn, User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Finland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/ajantasa/1978/19780380 Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Orig-
inal artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Georgia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Flag_of_Georgia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work based on File:Brdzanebuleba 31.pdf Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Greece.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: own code Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- (talk)
File:Flag_of_Grenada.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Flag_of_Grenada.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: SKopp Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/chi/r_flag/index.html Original artist: Tao Ho
File:Flag_of_Hungary.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors:
Flags of the World HungaryOriginal artist:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Iceland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Islandic National Flag Original artist: var Arnfjr Bjarmason, Zscout370 and others
File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Law: s:id:Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 (http://badanbahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/
lamanbahasa/sites/default/files/UU_2009_24.pdf) Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe
File:Flag_of_Ireland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Israel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/IsraelAt50/Pages/The%20Flag%20and%20the%20Emblem.aspx Original artist: The Pro-
visional Council of State Proclamation of the Flag of the State of Israel of 25 Tishrei 5709 (28 October 1948) provides the ocial
specication for the design of the Israeli ag.
File:Flag_of_Italy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Jamaica.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Flag_of_Jamaica.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist:
File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Jordan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Kuwait.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Laos.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Lesotho.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Flag_of_Lesotho.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Liechtenstein.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Flag_of_Liechtenstein.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Own work http://www.legilux.public.lu/leg/a/archives/1972/0051/a051.pdf#page=2, colors from http://www.
legilux.public.lu/leg/a/archives/1993/0731609/0731609.pdf Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Create based on the Malaysian Government Website (archive version)
Original artist: SKopp, Zscout370 and Ranking Update

File:Flag_of_Mexico.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: Original artist:Alex Covarrubias, 9 April 2006
File:Flag_of_Moldova.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Flag_of_Moldova.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: vector coat of arms image traced by User:Nameneko from Image:Moldova gerb large.png. Construction sheet can
be found at http://flagspot.net/flags/md.html#const Original artist: Nameneko and others
File:Flag_of_Monaco.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Flag_of_Monaco.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
18.2 Images 39

File:Flag_of_Morocco.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg License: Public

domain Contributors: Flag of the Kingdom of Morocco

<a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='http://81.192.52.100/BO/AR/1915/BO_135_ar.PDF'>Moroccan royal decree (17

November 1915), BO-135-ar page 6</a>
Original artist: Denelson83, Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Myanmar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg Li-
cense: CC0 Contributors: Open Clip Art Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' ti-
tle='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://www.mch.govt.nz/files/NZ%20Flag%20-%20proportions.JPG Original artist: Zscout370, Hugh Jass
and many others
File:Flag_of_Niue.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Flag_of_Niue.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Norway.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dbenbenn
File:Flag_of_Oman.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Flag_of_Oman.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from agspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, FOTW Original artist: User:Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_Poland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Portugal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: http://jorgesampaio.arquivo.presidencia.pt/pt/republica/simbolos/bandeiras/index.html#imgs Original artist: Colum-
bano Bordalo Pinheiro (1910; generic design); Vtor Lus Rodrigues; Antnio Martins-Tuvlkin (2004; this specic vector set: see sources)
File:Flag_of_Qatar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Flag_of_Qatar.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi-
File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_Saint_Kitts_and_
Nevis.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work in accordance with http://www.vexilla-mundi.com/saint_kitts_and_nevis.htm
Original artist: User:Pumbaa80
File:Flag_of_Saint_Lucia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Saint_Lucia.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work, Government of Saint Lucia Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Flag_of_
Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed
(based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. SKopp assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg
License: CC0 Contributors: the actual ag Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' ti-
tle='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Flag_of_Singapore.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: The drawing was based from http://app.www.sg/who/42/National-Flag.aspx. Colors from the book: (2001). The
National Symbols Kit. Singapore: Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts. pp. 5. ISBN 8880968010 Pantone 032 shade from
http://www.pantone.com/pages/pantone/colorfinder.aspx?c_id=13050 Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_Slovakia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work; here, colors Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Slovenia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Flag_of_Slovenia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work construction sheet from http://flagspot.net/flags/si%27.html#coa Original artist: User:Achim1999
File:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Per specications in the Constitution of South Africa, Schedule 1 - National ag Original artist: Flag de-
sign by Frederick Brownell, image by Wikimedia Commons users
File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and color
guidelines (Russian/English) Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_Spain.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
40 18 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Flag_of_Swaziland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Flag_of_Swaziland.svg License: CC0 Con-

tributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Sweden.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Switzerland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: PDF Colors Construction sheet Original artist: User:Marc Mongenet

Credits:
File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Tonga.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Tonga.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Tunisia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.w3.org/ Original artist: entraneur: BEN KHALIFA WISSAM
File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Turkish Flag Law (Trk Bayra Kanunu), Law nr. 2893 of 22 September 1983. Text (in Turkish) at the website of the
Turkish Historical Society (Trk Tarih Kurumu) Original artist: David Benbennick (original author)
File:Flag_of_Tuvalu.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Flag_of_Tuvalu.svg License: CC0 Contribu-
tors: See URL [6] for ociallycredibility and correctnessof precise star-positions Original artist: User:Zscout370
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ISBN: 4620605549. Original artist: Artist: Eduardo Chiossone (183398); Photographer: Maruki Riy (also misspelt as Maruki Toshi-
aki)* [#cite_note-fujitani-3 [3]]
42 18 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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