Rev06.03.

16
THEAX84P1eXtremeAMP(REV06.03.16)THEORYOFOPERATION

byDavidSorlien,revisedandupdatedbyStephenKeller

Let'stakeawalkthroughtheinnerworkingsoftheAX84P1eXtremeamp(P1eX).Areferencecopyofthe
basic06.03.16versionoftheschematicisincludedonthelastpageofthisdocument.Alongtheway,Iwillbe
includingsomemathandelectronictheory.Tofullyunderstandhowaguitarampworks,evenasimpleonelike
theP1eX,youmustknowhowtoreadschematicdiagrams,andknowwhatthingslikeresistorsandcapacitors
are.Youalsoneedsomeknowledgeofelectronictheory,butnotmuch.Ifyoudon'tknowwhatresistorsand
capacitorsare,ordon'tknowwhatOhm'slawis,aquicktriptotheweboryourfavoritelibraryisinorder.

HOWTHEHECKDOTUBESWORKANYWAY?

Soyouruntothebookstoreandbuyabookonbasicelectronics.Hmmm,notubechapter.Evensome'good'
tubeampbooksdon'tdoagoodjobofexplaininghowthesework.Therearemanydifferenttubetypesout
there,butguitarampsgenerallyusethreetypesoftubes:triodes,pentodes,andrectifiers.

RECTIFIERTUBES

Let'sstartwiththevacuumdiode(alsocalleda'rectifier'),becauseitisthesimplest
typeoftube.Insidetheglassbottle,thereareafewmetalparts:filament,cathode,and
plate.Thefilamentissometimescalledtheheater,becausethatisexactlywhatitdoes
itheatsthecathode.Likethefilamentinalightbulb,thetubefilamentisathin
lengthofwirethatgetsquitehotwhenelectricityflowsthroughit.

Whenthefilamentheatsthecathode,electrons'boil'offthecathode.Thisiscalledthermionicemission.Ifthe
voltageattheplateispositivelychargedrelativetothecathodevoltage,thenthoseelectronswillflyofftoward
theplate.Ifthechargeontheplateisnegativerelativetothecathode,thenthoseelectronswilltendtostayat
thecathode.Itworksthisway,becauseelectronshaveanegativechargeandareattractedtopositivelycharged
objects.Thisbehaviorallowsthevacuumdiodetofunctionasaonewayvalveallowingcurrenttoflowonly
whenitsplateispositivewithrespecttoitscathode.

SomeearlyversionsoftheP1projectusedtuberectifiers,buttheP1eXreliesonsolidstatediodestoconvert
AClinevoltageintoDCvoltage.SingleendedamplifiersliketheP1eXdrawroughlythesamecurrent
whethertheyareidleorrunningflatout,sothe'sag'effectofatuberectifierthatisfoundinsomepushpull
ampsdoesnotoccur.Avacuumtuberectifieraddscostandcomplexitybutlittlesonicvalue.
 Anoteonconventionalelectriccurrentvs.electronflow

Conventionalelectriccurrentisdefinedastheflowofpositivechargeinacircuit.Thisisbecausethe
conventionaldefinitionofelectriccurrentwasdevelopedbeforethediscoveryoftheelectronandits
negativecharge.Backintheearlydays,electronicsexperimentersknewthatinvisiblebitsofcharge
flowedthroughthewireinacircuit,buthadnowayofdeterminingthedirectionthebitstraveled.They
tooktheirbestguess.Bzzzzt!Wrong!Bythetimethenotsoancientsrealizedthemistake,itwastoolate.
Byconvention,mostelectronicstextsrefertoelectriccurrentandmean'thenegativeflowofelectron
current'.Thisisnotalwaysthecaseinelectronicstextsandintextsfromotherfields.Sometreatcurrent
asflowingfrompositivetonegativeandsomeasflowingfromnegativetopositive.Additionallysome
materialsallowcurrentflowsinbothdirectionsbutcarriedbydifferentparticles.Donotletthissituation
confuseyou.Fromtheperspectiveofvacuumtubedesign,thedirectionofthecurrentflowrarelymatters,
aslongasyoutreatitconsistently.Theimportantthingtorememberisthatcurrentisameasureofthe
volumeofelectronsflowingpastaparticularpointinacircuit.Thegreaterthevolume,themoreuseful
work(ordamage)youcandowithit.

TRIODETUBES

Thingsgetmuchmoreinterestingwhenyouaddanelectrodebetweenthecathodeand
plateofavacuumdiode,creatingatriode.Thisnewelectrodeiscalledthecontrolgrid
(orgrid,forshort)andisusuallyconstructedofameshofthinwirespositioned
betweentheplateandcathodeveryclosetothecathode.Ifyouweretoconnectthe
gridtothecathode,thetubewouldbehavemuchlikeadiode.Mostoftheelectrons
wouldflowrightpastthegridontheirwaytotheplate.Donottrythis.Mosttriodes
arenotdesignedtobeoperatedthisway.

Whenchargeonthegridismadenegativewithrespecttothecathode,theelectronflowfromcathodetoplate
startstoget'pinchedoff'.Theelectronsarerepelledbythenegativechargeonthegrid.Ifgridvoltagegoes
negativeenough,theelectronflowcutsoffcompletely.ThisnegativeDCvoltageappliedtothegridiscalled
gridbias.AnegativeDCbiasvoltagesufficienttoreduceplatecurrenttozeroiscalledthecutoffbias.
Increasingthebiasvoltagefromthecutoffbias,thatismakingitlessnegativewithrespecttothecathode
voltage,causesplatecurrenttoflow.Whenthegridvoltagebecomesthesameasthecathodevoltage,theDC
biasissaidtobeatzerovolts,andtheonsetofgridconductionoccurs.Gridconductionmeansthatcurrent
flowsinthegridcircuitaswellasintheplatecircuit.Mostsmallsignaltriodesarenotintendedtooperationin
thegridconductionregion,butmanypowertriodesare.Continuedincreasesingridbiasvoltagealloweven
morecurrenttoflowintheplateandgridcircuits,uptoalimit.Thepointwhereplatecurrentnolonger
increases,regardlessofincreasesinbiasvoltage,iscalledthesaturationpoint.Thesaturationpointis
determinedbythecathode'sabilitytoemitelectronsatagivenoperatingtemperature,whichisgovernedbythe
cathode'smaterialandconstruction.

Betweencutoffandtheonsetofgridconduction,atriodebehavesasaroughlylineardevice.Betweengrid
conductionandsaturation,atriode'sbehaviorbecomesnonlinearbecausethegridisdrawingoffsomeofthe
currentflow.Mostsmallsignaltriodesaredesignedtooperateinthelinearregionbetweencutoffandgrid
conduction.Foragiventriodestage,weensurethisoperationbysettingthezerosignalgridbiasabouthalfway
betweencutoffandtheonsetofgridconduction.

BIASINGV4B

Beforewebeginthediscussionofsettingthezerosignalbiasvoltage,let'sestablishthreecommon
abbreviationsthatwillappearintheequationsbelow:

E, meaningelectromotiveforcemeasuredinvolts.

I, meaningelectriccurrentmeasuredinamperes.

R, meaningelectricalresistancemeasuredinohms.

TherelationshipamongthesethreeelectricalpropertiesisexpressedinOhm'slaw:E=I*R.Itbasicallysaysthat
thecurrentthroughagivenelementtimestheresistancepresentedbythatelementgivesthevoltagedropacross
thatelement.ArmedwithOhm'slaw,wecanstarttolookathowthisamplifierworks.

TakealookatPreampStage1intheP1eX
schematic.Itisaresistancecapacitancecoupled
voltageamplifier.Itoperatessuchthatthe
voltageacrossplateloadresistor(R22)isan
amplifiedandinvertedcopyofthegridsignal
voltageatpin7.Thesignalenterstheamplifier
viaJ2whereyouplugintheguitar.R25
providesaloadacrosswhichthesignalfromthe
pickupscanform.Thegroundedcirclearound
theleadfromtheinputjacktoR24indicates
shieldedwireintendedtopreventnoisefrom
EMF(electromagneticfield)interferencefrom
mixingwiththesignal.R24isagridstopper
resistoranditspurposeistorolloffhigh
frequenciestofurtherlimitEMFinterference.Typicallyitismounteddirectlyonthetubesockettofurther
reducethechanceofEMFnoise.SomedesignersprefertoreducethevalueofR24becauseofitseffectonthe
highfrequencyresponseofthepreamp.Othersremoveitalltogether.Insuchcases,itisimportantthatthe
groundattheinputjackservesasthesignalgroundtochassisgroundtiepoint.Otherwisetheleadfromthe
inputjacktothefirstpreampgridcanactasaradioantenna.

Ifthegridsignalswingssufficientlynegativetocausethecurrentintheplatecircuittocutoff,thentherewould
benovoltagedropinR22,andthevoltageattheplatewouldequalthepowersupplyvoltageof274V.Ifyou
lookonthe12AX7datasheetshownbelow,youcanseethatthegridvoltagenecessarytocausecutoffwhen
theplateisat275Visapproximately3.75V.Gridconductionoccurswhenthegridvoltageis0V,sowewanta
biaspointaboutmidwaybetweenthesetwopoints,somewherebetween1.2Vand1.8Vwouldbefine.
Whennosignalispresentatthe
input,thegridofV4Bisconnected
togroundthroughresistorsR24and
R25,sotheDCvoltage(Eg)atV4B's
gridis0V.Theproblemishowto
makethegridvoltagenegative.
Thereareseveralwaysto
accomplishthis.Wecouldusea
fixednegativeDCsourcelikea
batteryoraseparatepowersupply.
Butwedon'thavetoresorttothose
means.Remember,thegridonlyhas
tobenegativewithrespecttothe
cathode.IfwecanraiseV4B's
cathodevoltagetoabout1.4V,we
canaccomplishthesamething.

Oneconvenientwaytodothisistoplacearesistorbetweenthecathodeandground.Thisraisesthecathode
abovegroundbythevoltagedroppedacrossthecathoderesistor.Thistechniqueforsettingthebiasvoltageis
calledselfbiasorcathodebias.LookatPreampStage1intheP1eXschematic.ThevoltageacrossR22is:

E =274V 181V=93V
R22

UsingOhmslaw,thecurrentthroughR22is:

93V
I R22= 100K
=0.93mA

So,0.93mAflowsintheplatecircuitofV4B.Thecurrentinthecathodecircuitofatriodeisthesumofthe
currentsintheplateandgridcircuits.Becauseourtriodeisoperatingbelowtheonsetofgridconduction,
nearlyzerocurrentflowsinthegridcircuit.Forpracticalpurposes,thecurrentflowinginthecathodecircuitis
equivalenttothecurrentintheplatecircuit.

UsingOhmslawagain,wecandetermineV4B'scathodevoltage:

E k V4B =0.93mA1.5 K =1.40V

Rememberthatthebiasisthegridvoltagereferencedtothecathodevoltage.Now,wecaneasilycalculatethe
biasvoltageofV4B:

E grid biasV4B =E gV4B E k V4B =01.4=1.40V

Good1.40isrightwherewe'dlikeittobe.
Wasn'titconvenientthatweknewwhattheplatevoltagewas!Ifyouweredesigningyourownpreampstage
fromscratch,youwouldhavetocalculatethezerosignalplatevoltageandcorrespondingbiasvoltage.There
areafewwaystodothis.PerhapstheeasiestwaywouldbetomodelthecircuitusingPSPICE(modelsfor
populartubesareavailableonDuncanMunro'swebsite).

Anotherapproachistoplotaloadline
onthedatasheet.Supposeyouhad
alreadydecidedthatyourB+wasto
be275VandyourloadresistorR22
wastobe100K.BecauseR22isa
fixedresistance,itwillplotasa
straightline.Oneendofthat100K
loadlinewouldbeatcutoffwhere
platecurrentiszeroandplatevoltage
equalsB+(275V,0.0mA).Tofind
theotherendofthe100Kloadline,
useOhm'sLawtodivideB+(275V)
bythevalueoftheplateloadresistor
(100K).Thisgivestheplatecurrent
of2.75mA,suchasitwouldbewhen
thetheloadresistorisdroppingthe
entireB+voltageandtheplateitat
zerovolts(0V,2.75mA).

Nowplotthisloadlineandnotetheplatecurrentatthepointwheretheloadintersectsthedesiredgridvoltage
(1.4V)curve.ThenyoucanuseOhm'sLawagaintocalculatethecathoderesistance:

E 1.4V
R= = =1505
I 0.00093

Afteranampisbuilt,ofcourse,itisveryeasytomeasuretheactualplateandcathodevoltagesandcalculate
thecurrentfromthosevalues.

Thechoiceofbiaspointaffectsthetonalanddistortioncharacteristicsofagivenpreampstage.Youmaywant
totuneyourampfordifferenttonalqualitiesbymodifyingthebiaspointofeitherthefirstorsecondpreamp
stages.Ingeneral,makingthebiaslessnegativewithrespecttothecathode(increasingthecurrentthroughthe
triode)makesforawarmertonebutaffordslesscleanheadroom.Alternatively,makingthebiasmorenegative
withrespecttothecathodemakesforacoolertone.Tastesandplayingstylesdiffersoexperimenttofindthe
toneyouprefer.Note,however,thatyoucanonlypushtheoperatingpointsofarineitherdirectionbeforeyou
havetostartrethinkingtheoveralldesignofthestageandperhapstheentireamp.

AMPLIFYINGTHEINPUTSIGNAL

Wesetthebiaspointtokeepthetubeoperatinginthelinearpartofthecurve.InplainEnglish,thismeansthe
tubecircuitisdesignedsotheinputsignalisamplifiedwithminimaldistortion.Thereisalwaysaslightamount
ofdistortionbecauseavacuumtubeisnotaperfectlylineardevice.Wewon'tworryaboutthishere;itwouldbe
toocomplicatedtoaddthisnonlinearityintothecalculationsbelow.

ThetwopreampstagesintheP1eXcircuitamplifytheinputsignalinseriesbeforeitisdeliveredtotheoutput
stageorpoweramp(V1).Sothequestionishowmuchamplificationoccursinthepreamp?Nowthatweknow
theoperatingpointofthefirsttriodestage,wecandetermineitsvoltagegain.Todothis,weneedtounderstand
threeoperationalparametersthatapplytotriodes:theamplificationfactor,transconductance,andplate
resistance.

Theamplificationfactorisameasureofhowwellthetriodeamplifiesthegridvoltage;itistheratioofthe
changeinplatevoltagetothechangeingridvoltage.Ontubedatasheetsitisusuallydenotedbythesymbol

changeinplatevoltage Ep
= (platevoltageheldconstant),ormoreformally= , I p const
changeingridvoltage Eg

Ofthethreetriodeparameters,itisthemostconstantacrossvariousoperatingpoints,somuchso,thatwe
generallytreatitasaconstantandtakethevaluegiveninthedatasheet.Becauseitisaratiooftwovoltagesit
hasnounitofmeasurement.

Transconductance(ormutualconductance)istheratioofchangeinplatecurrenttothechangeingridvoltage.
Inthelinearoperatingregion,itisroughlyconstant,butfluctuatesconsiderablyastheoperatingpointmoves
outofthisregion.Thisratioislooselyameasureofhowefficientlythegridcontrolstheplatecurrent.Itis
usuallydenotedintubedatasheetsbythegm:

changeinplatecurrent I p
gm= plate voltage held constantormoreformally g m = , E p const
changeingridvoltage Eg

TheunitoftransconductanceiscalledaSiemensorintheoldertextsthemho.WhileSiemensisnowthe
internationalstandardnamefortheunitofconductance,itwasnotwidelyusedattheheightoftubedesign.
BecausemanyofthetubedatasheetsavailableontheInternetusethetermmho,sowillwe.

Thethirdprimaryoperatingparameterofinterestisplateresistance(rp,sometextsrefertothisasra.)orthe
ratioofthechangeplatevoltagetothechangeplatecurrent.Ithelpstothinkofatriodeasavariableresistor.
Whenthegridvoltageismademorepositive,morecurrentflowsthroughthetube.Thismeanstheeffective
resistancebetweentheplateandcathodedecreases.Makethegridvoltagemorenegative,andthisresistance
increases.Plateresistance,likeanyotherresistanceismeasuredinohms:

changeinplatevoltage Ep
r p= grid voltage held constant ormoreformally r p= ,E g const
changeinplatecurrent I p

Lookingatthesimilarityoftheseparameterstoeachother,youmightwonderiftheyaresomehowrelated.
Theyareinfactrelatedmathematically,andwewilltakeadvantageofthatlater.First,however,let'sexamine
thetriodeparametersinabitmoredetail.
The,gmandrpvaluesforaparticulartubeareusuallyspecifiedatacoupledifferentplatevoltagesinitsdata
sheet.Forinstance,a12AX7datasheetIhaveindicates:

PlateVoltage 100 250 VOLTS

AmplificationFactor() 100 100

Transconductance(gm) 1250 1600 MHOs

PlateResistance(rp) 80K 62.5K OHMS

Whiletheamplificationfactorofatriodecanusuallybe
consideredaconstantregardlessoftheplatevoltageata
givenoperatingpoint,thesameisnottruefor
transconductanceandplateresistance.Becausetheplate
voltageatouroperatingpoint(181V)isneither100Vor
250V,wehavetodeterminethetransconductanceandplate
resistanceforourquiescentoperatingpoint.Therearea
varietyofwaystoestimatethesevaluesforagiven
operatingpoint,buttoreallyseewhattheymeanforthe
tube,it'sagoodexercisetoplotthemontheplatecurves.
Considerthisenlargedviewofthe12AX7curvesaround
ouroperatingpoint.

Firstthingwedoisdrawaverticallinethroughthe
operatingpointmakingsureitintersectsboththe1and2
gridvoltagecurves.Thisrepresentstheconstantplate
voltageneededforcalculatingthetransconductancevalue.
Nextweplothorizontallinesfromtheintersectionsatthe
1and2gridcurvestoobtaintheplatecurrentsatthose
gridvoltages.ThesearemarkedIaandIdonthedrawing.

AtEg1(1V),theplatecurrentIais1.73mAandatEg2
(2V),theplatecurrentIdis0.30mA.Pluggingthose
valuesintothetransconductanceformulagives:

I p I a I d 1.73 mA.31 mA
gm= = = =1420 mho
Eg E g1 E g2 1V 2 V

Calculatingplateresistancetakesasimilarapproach.Firstplotagridcurvethroughtheoperatingpointthatis
roughlyparalleltothenearestspecifiedgridcurve.Thisrepresentsthe1.4Vgridvoltagethatmuststay
constantfortheplateresistancecalculation.Nextchoosetwovoltagesaroundtheoperatingpoint,say175V
and185V.ThosearemarkedasVaandVbonthegraph.Nextdrawverticallinesfromthosevoltagesto
intersectour1.4Vgridcurveandobtaintheassociatedplatecurrents.

AtVa(175V)onthe1.4Vgridcurve,theplatecurrentis0.88mAandVb(185V)onthe1.4Vgridcurve,
theplatecurrentis1.03mA.Pluggingthosevaluesintotheplateresistanceformulagives:

Ep V b V a 187V 173 V
r p= = = =73.6 K
I p I b I c 1.05 mA0.86 mA

Asyoucanseeitisrelativelyeasytoplotthetransconductanceofatubeontheplatecurves.Allittakesis
drawingaverticallinethroughyourquiescentoperatingpoint.Accuratelyplottingaplatecurvethroughan
arbitraryoperatingpointismuchmoredifficultandgenerallynotworththetroublebecause,asmentioned
earlier,thethreeparametersareinterrelated.Specifically,theamplificationfactorofatriodeistheproductof
itstransconductanceanditsplateresistance.Mathematically,thisisexpressedas:

=g m r p

Recallthattheamplificationfactorofatriodeisrelativelyconstantoveralargerangeofoperatingconditions.
Thereforeifyoueitheroneoftheotheroperatingparameters,itissimpletocalculatethemissingparameter.
Sincetransconductanceiseasiertoplotaccurately,wetypicallyplotitforthedesiredoperatingpointandthen
plugitandthetriode'samplificationfactorintotheaboveformulaandsolvefortheplateresistance.

100
r p= = =70422
gm .001420

We'llroundthatto70Kohms.
Oncewehavetheplateresistanceandthetransconductance,wecalculatethevoltagegainofPreampStage1
usingthisformula:

r pR lR g
Gain=
1
Rk
gm

where

gm isthetransconductanceofthetriode,

rp isplateresistanceofthetriode,

Rl istheplateloadresistance(note,somedocumentsrefertothisasRaorRp),

Rg isfollowinggridresistance,and

Rk istheunbypassedresistanceinthecathodecircuit.

Thesymbol'||'isshorthandtoindicateresistancesinparallel.Theplateloadresistanceissimplythevalueofthe
plateresistor(R22ofthepreampstage1).Thefollowinggridresistanceisthetotalresistanceofthecircuit
connectedtotheplateofthetube,notincludingtheplateloadresistor.Thecathoderesistanceistheunbypassed
partofthecathodecircuit.

SincewearetalkingaboutACsignals,let'sjustimaginethatC15hasnoresistanceatalltotheACoutputsignal
(inactualpractice,itsresistancevarieswithfrequency).TheonlyreasonC15isinthecircuitistoblockthe181
VDCpresentattheplateofV4B,andpassonlytheACsignal.Thatsaid,thefollowinggridresistanceseenby
V4Bisequalto1.2MOhms(R21+VR6).

C16isusedtoallowapathforACsignalstobypassR23itfunctionsasacathodebypasscapacitor.Consider
whatwouldhappenifC16wasnotinstalled.WhenanACvoltageisappliedtothegrid,itcausesthecurrent
flowingthroughthetubetochange.Thevaryingcurrentthroughthetubewouldcausethecathodevoltage
droppedacrossR23tovary.Thatwouldchangethegridbiasvoltageandreducethegainofthestage.Though
wewon'tdiscusshowtocalculateithere,theC16valueof1FcausesthePreampStage1tohaveaneffective
cathoderesistanceof0ohmstoallACvoltagesabove200Hz.Pluggingthesevaluesintothegainformula
gives:

70 K 100 K 1.2 M
Gain= =55.7
1
0
1400 MHOS
So,a100mVACsignalof200HzorhigheronthegridofV4Bwillproducea5.57VACsignalontheplate.
AtthejunctionofR21andthetopofVR6themaximumsignalstrengthwillbeabout4.3VAC.Frequencies
below200Hzwillbesomewhatattenuatedbecauseofthelossofgainthatoccurswithanunbypassedcathode.

ThevalueofC16hasamarkedeffectonthestage'slowfrequencyresponse.Forexample,doublingC16to2
Fwillcausethestagetobefullybypassedatallfrequenciesabove100Hz.DoublingC16againto4F
pushesthatthebypassfrequencydownto50Hz.GoingtheotherwayandhalvingthevalueofC16to0.5F
bypassesthecathodeonlyforfrequenciesabove400Hz.ThisisanotherplaceintheP1eXwhereyoumay
wanttoexperimentwithdifferentcomponentvalues.

COUPLINGCAPACITORS

Inthelastsection,wemadetheassumptionthatC15presents
infiniteresistancetoDC,andzeroresistancetoAC.HighDC
resistanceisveryimportantwhenacapacitorcouplesampstages.

ConsiderwhathappensifsomeoftheDCvoltagemakesitsway
throughC15intothenextstage.PreampStage2isdesignedso
thegridisat0.7voltspotential(withrespecttothecathode)
whennoinputsignalisapplied.IfapositiveDCvoltagewere
appliedtothegrid,itwouldalterthebiasandwouldrequire
adjustingthecathoderesistortomaintainthedesiredbias.So,if
someoftheDCvoltagepresentattheplateofV4Bweretoget
pastC15,itwouldcomplicatethedesignofPreampStage2.
Whilesomedesignsoperatewithdirectcouplingbetweenthe
stages,wewon'texplorethosehere.

Thus,C15needstoblockDCvoltagesbutlettheaudiosignalthrough.Usedinthisway,acapacitoris
sometimescalleda'DCblockingcap'.Itismorecommonlycalledacouplingcapacitor.Thecapcouplesthe
outputfromoneampstagetotheinputofthenextstage.

ThecombinationofC15andVR6createsahighpassfilter.Lowerfrequencysignalsencountermoreresistance
thanhigherfrequencies.IntheP1eX,C15isselectedsuchthatthecutofffrequencyofthishighpassfilteris
belowthefrequencyrangeofaguitar.IfyousubstituteasmallervaluecapacitorforC15,youwilldecreasethe
bassresponseoftheamp.IncreasingthevalueofC15givesincreasedbassresponse,thatislowerfrequencies
arelessattenuatedbythecouplingcapacitor.

VOLUMECONTROL

R21andthepotentiometerVR6formsavariablevoltagedividerinthecircuit,theoutputofwhichfeedsthe
inputgridofthesecondstage.AtthelowestsettingofVR6,thegridofV4Aisconnecteddirectlytogroundand
allofthesignalfromthefirststageofthepreampisshuntedtoground.Atthehighestsetting,theACvoltage
appliedtothegridofV4Aisabout78percentoftheACvoltagepresentatV4B'splate.
R21limitsthestageonegainbeforefeedingittostagetwo.Butwaitaminute!Isn'tgaingood?Uptoapoint,
buttoomuchgaincandrivethenextstageintoaparticularlynastysoundingformofdistortioncalledblocking
distortionaverynonmusicalsortofsoundthatsometimescalled'fartingout.'I'llleaveittoyoutoguesswhat
thissoundslike.R21attenuatesthesignalalittletopreventthisfromhappening.Thegreatertheattenuation,
themorenoticeableitappearsathigherfrequencies,C14isaddedtoallowagreaterproportionofthesignal's
highfrequencyenergyonthestagetwo.Thishelpsbrightenthestageandkeepitfromsoundingmuddy.

GainManagement

BesidestheapproachusedintheP1eX,therearevariousotherwaysto
managegainbetweenstages.Onecaninsertavoltagedividerafterthe
volumepotentiometerasshowninthediagramattheright.Withsuch
anarrangementthebrightcapbypassesthetophalfofthedivider.This
exampleshowsthe50percentdividerusedintheP1andHOprojects.

Asecondapproachtogainmanagementistouseasplitloadplate
resistor.Thistechniqueplacesthedividerintheplateload,likethe
seconddrawingtotheright.Themainadvantageofasplitloadisthatit
attenuatesthesignalwithoutchangingitstoneasmuchasotherdivider
methods,reducingtheneedforbrightcaps.SeeSteveAhola'sarticle
SplitLoadPlateResistors(PDF145K)formoreinformation.

Athirdapproachistosubstitutealowergaintube,suchasa12AU7and
eliminatetheattenuationThis,however,hasthedisadvantageof
loweringthegainofbothstages,whichmaynotalwaysbedesirable.
Therearealsodissimilartriodes,likethe12DW7,thatcontainalow
gainandahighgaintriodeinthesameenvelope.Thesepresent
additionalopportunitiesforexperimentation.
PREAMPSTAGE2

Usingthesametechniquesasdescribedmuchearlier,wecaneasilydeterminethebiascurrentandvoltagefor
V4A.Sincetheschematicshowsthevoltages,Iwillnotbotherwiththemath.Feelfreetotryyourhandatthe
calculationsandseeifyoucomeupwiththesamevoltagesasshownintheschematic.

Calculatingthegainofthisstageisabitmorecumbersomethanthepreviousstage.First,welookupthe
transconductanceandplateresistancefromthedatasheet:

PlateVoltage 100 250 VOLTS

Transconductance(gm) 1250 1600 MHOS

PlateResistance 80K 62.5K OHMS

TheplatevoltageofV4Aisbetween100Vand250V,sowemustestimateagain.Todothatweusethesame
graphingtechniquethatwedidforthefirststagebutwitha120Kohmloadlineandanoperatingpointat136V
ontheplateand0.7Vonthegrid.Thisgivesatransconductancevalueof1600andplateresistanceof62.5K.

Hangingoffthispointinthecircuitisacollectionof
capacitors,resistors,andpotentiometers,whichmakeupthe
'tonestack'.Itseemslikeitwouldbedifficulttodeterminethe
effectiveresistanceofthiscircuit.Well,itis.Especiallyifwe
wantedtoconsiderhowthestagegainchangedatdifferent
frequencies.However,wecanapproximateitseffectonthe
gainofthestageifwemakesomeassumptions.Firstlet's
simplypretendthatthetonestackdoesnotexist.

Remembertheformulaforgain:

r p [ RlR g ]
Gain=
1
Rk
gm

Hey!Thereareacoupleofparenthesestherethatweren'tthere
before.Ididthatonpurpose,becausewearegoingtopullthat
termoutandcalculateitseparately.Here'sthetermallby
itself:

R R
l g
ThistermrepresentstheeffectiveresistanceofthecircuitattachedtotheplateofV4A.Figurethisoutandwe
cansimplyplugitintotheformulaabove.Here'show:

R = R17R
effective g

PluginthevalueforR17:

R =120K R
effective g

Nowtakealeapoffaith.Wearegoingtoignorethegridresistanceof
thefollowingstage,whichmeanswewillbepretendingthatthetone
stackdoesnotexist.Then,theequationabovereducesto:

R =120K
effective

Plugthenumbersintotheformulaforgain:

65.2 K 120 K
Gain=
1
Rk
1600 MHOS

The1FbypasscapacitorC9setstherollofffrequencyatbetween
300and500Hz(dependingonwhetheryouconsiderthefollowing
stage'simpedance),soforaudiofrequenciesabovetherolloff
frequencywegetagainof:

65.2 K 120 K
Gain= =67
1
1600 MHOS

Asthefrequencyfallsbelowtherolloff,thegaingraduallydroptoaminimumof34,whichyoucalculateby
assumingthecathodeisnotbypassed:

65.2 K 120 K
Gain= =34
1
604
1600 MHOS

Againof67isconsiderablygreaterthantheactualgainofstage.Toseewhylet'saddintheeffectofthetone
stackonthestage.
CALCULATINGTHERESISTANCEOFTHETONESTACK

Whathappentothegainofthisstageifwedonotignorethetone
stackcircuit?

ThesimplestapproximationofthetonestackistoimaginethatC8,
C9,andC10behaveasshortcircuitstoACvoltages,effectively
removingthebasscontrol(VR3)andtophalfofthetreblecontrol
(VR4)fromthecircuit.Thecapacitorsinthetonestackdonot
actuallybehavethatway.Thefrequencyofthesignalplaysalarge
roleinthetotalimpedanceofthestack,butasaroughapproximation,
itisacceptable.Supposealsothatthetonecontrolsaresetattheir
midpoints.Applyingtheseassumptionsgivestheequivalentcircuit
showninthelowerrightschematic.

ThetotalACresistanceofthisapproximatecircuitiscalculatedas
follows:

VR4
R tonestack = R 11VR2
2

Now,pluginthevalues:

25
R tonestack =100K250K =100K250K 12.5=83.9K
2

Theeffectiveresistanceontheplateturnsouttobe:

R =120K83.9K=49.4K
effective

Plugthenumbersintothebypassedandunbypassedgainformulas:

65.2 K 49.4 K 28.1 K 65.2 K 49.4 K 28.1 K

Gain= = =44.9 Gain= = =22.9
1 625 and 1
604
1229
1600 MHOS 1600 MHOS

Asyoucanseethisisafairlysignificantdifference,butitisonlyanapproximation.Thecapacitorsinthecircuit
donotactasashortcircuittoACvoltages,butratherasfrequencydependentimpedances.Sotheattenuation
fromthetonestackisnotquitesopronounced.

Somequestionsyoumightwanttothinkabout.Whatistheeffectongainifthecontrolsaresetattheirlowest
points?Orthehighestpoints?WhatwouldbetheeffectofraisingorloweringthevalueoftheR11?
TONESTACK(THELONGCOMPLICATEDEXPLANATION)

Ifyouhavelookedatmanyschematicsoftubeguitaramps,thetonecontrolcircuitryshouldlookfamiliar.Most
ampcompanieshaveusedthisarrangementofcomponentsfortheirtonecontrols.Thetubeampguruscallthis
circuitaFMVtonestack,whichstandsforFender/Marshall/Vox.TheFMVtonestackhasbeenduplicatedin
hundredsofguitarampsinthelasthalfcentury.

Technicallyspeaking,thetonestackisasetofpassivefilters,eachwithitsown3dbpoint.Anotherwayto
thinkofthetonestackistocallitapassivenetworkwithfrequencydependentinsertionloss.Whenasignalis
insertedintothiscircuit,somefrequenciesareattenuatedmorethanothers.

Let'sfirstdiscusstwotypesofpassiveRCfiltershighpassandlowpass.

Firstthehighpassfilter:Imagineyouhaveaninputconnectionandanoutput
connection.Thesignalssharethesameground.Wireacapacitorbetweentheinput
andoutputconnection,andputaresistorbetweentheoutputconnectionandground.
ThiscreatesanRChighpassfilterthathasa3dbcutofffrequencyof:

1
F =
cutoff 2RC

The3dbpointreferstothefrequencyatwhichtheoutputsignalis3dblowerthanthe
inputfrequency.Inahighpassfilter,lowerfrequenciesareattenuatedmore.

Alowpassfilterissimplytheoppositeofahighpass.Againimagineyouhaveaninputconnectionandan
outputconnection.Thesignalssharethesameground.Wirearesistorbetweentheinputandoutputconnection,
andputacapacitorbetweentheoutputconnectionandground.ThiscreatesanRClowpassfilterthathasa3db
cutofffrequencyof:

1
F =
cutoff 2RC

Yes,thisisexactlythesameformulaasabove.Convenient,huh?

Ifyoufeedtheoutputofahighpassfilterintotheinputofalowpassfilter,yougetabandpassfilter.
LetsnowdissecttheP1eX'stonestackstartingwiththetreblecontrol.

ImaginethatR11,C9,andC10areremovedfromthecircuit.Youare
leftwithonecapacitorbetweentheinputandoutput(C8),andasetof
potentiometersacrosstheoutputandground(VR2,VR3,andVR4).
Theresistancesofthepotentiometersaddupandcanbethoughtofas
asingleresistor.Soweareleftwithasimple,highpassRCfilter.

NowconsiderwhatisgoingonatVR2.Signalswithafrequency
greaterthanthecutofffrequencypassrightthroughthecapacitortothe
topterminalofVR2.Frequencieslowerthanthecutoffareattenuated.
Rememberhowthevolumecontrolworks?Itisaresistivevoltage
divider.SamethinghappenswithVR2thetreblecontrol.Whenthe
wiperisclosertothetopofVR2,thesignalthathasjustmadeitsway
throughthehighpassfilterisattenuatedless.Movingthewipertoward
thebottomlegofVR2causesmoreattenuationofthehighpassfilter
output.

TakeacloselookatVR3.Asthewipermovestoward
thebottomlegofthepotentiometer,theresistanceof
VR3isreduced.Thiscausesthecutofffrequencyto
increaseasVR3isrotatedcounterclockwise(moving
wiperclosertothebottomleg).

Letslookatthebasscontrol.ImaginethatC8,C10,and
VR2areremovedfromthetonestackcircuit.What
remainsisactuallytwofiltersinseries.R11andC9
formalowpassfilter,andC9andthecombinationof
VR3andVR4formahighpassfilter.Hereagain,The
cutofffrequencyofthehighpassfilterisdependenton
thesettingofVR3.Atthehighestbasscontrolsettings,
thecutofffrequencyofthehighpasscreatedbyC9,
VR3,andVR4iswellbelowthefrequencyofthelowE
string.Lowersettingsofthebasscontrolraisethecutoff
frequency,attenuatingthebass.

Movingontothemidcontrol(VR4),wehaveacircuitalmostidenticaltothebasscontrol.ImaginethatC8,C9,
VR2,andVR3areremovedfromthecircuit.R11andC10formalowpassfilter,justlikethebasscontrol
circuit.C10andVR4createahighpassfilter,butwithamuchhighercutofffrequencythanthehighpass
elementinthebasscontrolcircuitry.Thedifferencehereiswhathappenstotheoutputofthiscombinationof
filters.Thinkofitthisway:theoutputofthefiltersthatmakeupthemidcontrolispresentatthewiperofVR4.
MovethewiperofVR4towardsthetopleg(midcontrolup),andlessofthisoutputisshuntedtoground
throughVR4.Turningdownthemidcontrolshuntsmorefilteredsignaltoground,attenuatingthemid
frequencies.
 Notonlydoesthemidcontrolattenuatemidfrequencies,italso
attenuatestheoverallleveloftheoutputsignal.Considerwhat
happenswhenVR4isturnedallthewaydown,essentiallyshorting
onesideofC10toground.Inthissetting,C10effectivelyshuntsmost
ofthesignalpresentatthelowerlegofR11toground.Andfor
practicalpurposes,thelowerlegofVR2isalsoshuntedtoground
throughthecombinationofC9andC10,atleastforACsignals.Thus,
themidcontrolaffectstheoveralloutputofthetonestack.

Wemadeahugeassumptionherewhenwe'tookout'someofthetone
stackcomponentstoanalyzethehigh,mid,andbasscontrolcircuits
separately.Doingthismadeiteasiertoseehoweachsectionworked,
butweignoredthefactthatthefiltersinteractwitheachother.This
interactionisfartoocomplextoexplainhere.Ifyouarecuriousabout
ityoucanfindamorethoroughanalysisoftheFenderstyletonestack
inRichardKuehnel'sexcellentbookCircuitAnalysisofaLegendary
TubeAmplifier:TheFenderBassman5F6A.Excerptsfromthisbook
areavailableatthePentodePresswebsite:www.pentodepress.com.

TONESTACK(THESHORTSUMMARY)

TREBLECONTROL(VR2)Thispotentiometeractsasabalancecontrolbetweentheoutputofahighpass
filterformedbyC8andthethreepotentiometers,andtheoutputofthecomplexfiltercreatedbyR11,C9,C10,
VR3,andVR4.

BASSCONTROL(VR3)Thispotentiometersetsthelowercutofffrequencyofabandpassfilterformedby
R11,C9,VR3,andVR4.Italsoaffectsthecutofffrequencyoftreblecontrolcircuit.

MIDCONTROL(VR4)ThispotentiometercontrolstheattenuationofthebandpassfilterformedbyR11,C10,
andVR4.Italsoactsasavariableattenuatorforthetonestackoutput.
PENTODETUBES

Adiscussionaboutpentodetubeshastostartwithanexaminationofthelimitationsoftriodetubes.Inthetalk
abouttriodes,welearnedthatthatinsideatriodethereareafewmetalpieces,separatedfromeachotherbya
vacuum.Now,considerthatacapacitorismadebyseparatingtwoconductivesurfacesbyaninsulating
dielectric.Avacuumisasortofdielectric.Soinsidethetriode,thereareacoupleof'virtual'capacitors,one
betweentheplateandgrid,andonebetweenthegridandcathode.Theseinternalcapacitancesarecalled
interelectrodecapacitances.

Lookingatthe12AX7datasheet,wecanfindtheinterelectrodecapacitancespecifications:

TriodeUnit1 TriodeUnit2

GridtoPlate 1.7 1.7 pf

GridtoCathode 1.6 1.6 pf

PlatetoCathode 0.46 0.34 pf

Theabilityofatriodehandlehighfrequencysignalsislimitedbythiscapacitance.Wedonothavetoworry
muchaboutthis,sinceaguitaramplifierisnotdesignedtoamplifyradiofrequencies,butthedesiretobuild
radiofrequencyamplifiersthatoperatedatveryhighfrequenciesledresearcherstolookforwaystoreducethe
interelectrodecapacitances.

Anotherlimitationoftriodesisthatplatecurrentdependsnotonlyongridvoltage,butalsoonplatevoltage.For
example,supposeyoulowerthegridvoltageinatriodecircuit.Aswelearnedabove,loweringthegridvoltage
resultsinanincreaseinplatecurrent.AndOhm'slawdictatesthatthevoltageacrosstheloadresistormust
increaseascurrentthroughitincreases.Now,thesupplyvoltageisaconstant,sotheplatevoltagemust
decreaseasthevoltageacrosstheloadresistorincreases(thetwovoltagesmustadduptothesupplyvoltage).
Loweringtheplatevoltageresultsinreducedplatecurrent;gainislimitedinatriodebecauseofthis.Ina
preampstage,reducedgainpresentsnoproblembecausewehaveto'throwaway'someofthegainbetween
stagestopreventblockingdistortion.However,inanoutputstage,interactionbetweenplatevoltageandplate
currentisnotgooditonlyreducesthemaximumoutputpoweroftheamp.Thedesiretobuildhigherpower
amplifiersleadresearcherstoexplorewaystodecoupletheoutputpowerfromtheplatevoltage.

Theeffortstoreduceinterelectrodecapacitanceandtoincreaseoutputpowerledtothedevelopmentofthe
tetrode.Atetrodehasanextraelementfixedbetweenthegridandplate,calledthescreengrid.Thescreengrid
solvesbothproblemswiththetriode.Addinganelementbetweenthegridandplatereducedthecapacitance
betweeneach,allowingthetetrodetooperateonmuchhigherfrequencysignals.

Thescreengridalsohelpstoallowtheplatecurrenttooperateindependentlyfromtheplatevoltage.Howdoes
itdothis?Rememberourdiscussionofrectifierandtriodes.Theelectronsstreamingoffthecathodeare
attractedtotheplate,becausetheplatehasapositivevoltagepotentialcomparedtothecathode.Youcouldsay
thattheplateexertsapullingforceontheelectrons.Inatetrode,thescreengridisoperatedatavoltagethatis
slightlylessthantheplatevoltage.Now,becausethescreengridisphysicallyclosertothecathodethanthe
plate,thescreengridexertsmorepullontheelectronsthantheplate.Someoftheelectronsactuallyhitthe
screengrid,butmostpassrightthroughonthewaytotheplate.Thus,platevoltagehasverylittleeffecton
electronflowinatetrode.Thesteadyvoltageofthescreengridprovidesanearlyconstantpullingforceonthe
electrons.Asaresult,thegridhasalmostcompletecontroloverplatecurrent,regardlessofchangesinplate
voltage.

Whilewearetalkingaboutelectronswhizzingaroundinsideatube,nowisaperfecttimetodiscussthemain
limitationofatetrode.Imaginewhathappenstoanelectroninsideatetrodetube.Itgetsknockedoutofthe
cathodebecauseoftheheatingeffectofthefilament.Then,thepullofthescreengridmakesitspeedawayfrom
thecathode.Itacceleratespastthegridandthescreengrid.Theshorttripisoverwhenitsmashesintotheplate.
Thisimpactactuallycausessomeelectronstobeknockedoutoftheatomicstructureoftheplate.Forevery
electronthatsmashesintotheplate,twoorthreeelectronsareknockedoutoftheplate.

We'retalkingaboutparticlephysicshere!Impressyourfriends:tellthemthatsmallparticleacceleratorspower
youramp.

Thisphenomenoniscalled'SecondaryEmission'.Triodesdonotsuffermuchfromsecondaryemission.Their
electronvelocitiesarelowerandthereistypicallylittleelseinsideatriodethatispositivelychargedtoattract
thosestrayelectrons,sotheyquicklyfallbacktotheplateelectrode.Inatetrode,however,thescreenis
positivelycharged,soitwilltendtoattractthoseelectronsaswell.Thisisparticularlytruewhenalargegrid
signalcausestheplatevoltagetotemporarilydropbelowthescreenvoltage.Undersuchconditions,theslow
movingelectronsfromsecondaryemissionareattractedtothescreengridanddonotmaketheirwaybackto
theplate.Thisreducesplatecurrentandincreasesscreengridcurrent,reducinggainandclippingthepeakofthe
amplifiedsignal.

Toaddressthisproblem,researchersatPhilipsaddedanadditional
elementcalledasuppressorgridbetweenthescreenandplate,creating
whattheycalledapentode.Thesuppressorgridisusuallyconnectedto
thecathode,ofteninternally,whichplacesthesuppressorgridata
voltagepotentialmuchlowerthantheplate.Itdoesnotinterferewiththe
flowofelectronsfromthecathode,becausethoseelectronsaretraveling
atsuchahighvelocitythattheypassrightthrough.Theslowermoving
secondaryemissionelectrons,however,arerepelledbythesuppressor
gridbacktotheplaterathereasily.Theeffecthandilyeliminatesthe
problemsassociatedwithsecondaryemission.

Now,wecantakeaninformedlookattheoutputsectionoftheP1eX.
OUTPUTSTAGE

TheoutputstageoftheP1eXisacathodebiasedEL34classA,singleended,transformerloadedpower
amplifier.Anygoodelectronicsbookwillhaveadetailedexplanationofthedifferentclassesofamplifiers,so
wewon'tbediscussingthathere.Wehavealreadydiscussedcathodebiasing.Singleendeddescribesanoutput
configurationwhereoneormoretubeisconnectedtotheoneterminalofaloadandtheotherterminalofthe
loadconnectstoground(oftenviathepowersupply).InthecaseoftheP1eX,theloadconsistsoftheoutput
transformerT2andwhateverspeakeryouhaveconnectedtotheoutput.

R9ontheschematicisagridstopperresistorthatservestoreduceblockingdistortionwhenoverdrivingthe
EL34grid.

AttachedtothecathodeofV1isacircuitalmostidenticaltothecathodecircuitofthepreampstages.R10isthe
cathoderesistor,chosentosettheproperbiascurrent.C7isthecathodebypasscap.

CalculatingthegainoftheOutputStageisnotreallynecessary.Thedesigngoalisnottoprovideacertain
amountofgain,buttodeliverthemaximumpossiblepowerintotheloadwithoutburningupthetube.Much
likethepreampstages,thisgoalisaccomplishedbysettingthebiascorrectly.BecausetheP1eXisasingle
endedclassAamp,theoutputtubemustbebiasedapproximatelyhalfwaybetweencutoffandtheonsetofgrid
conduction.Rememberthatcutoffisachievedbymakingthegridvoltagesufficientlynegativewithrespectto
thecathodesuchthatcurrentdoesnotflowthroughthetube.Gridcurrentstartstoflowwhenthegridvoltageis
equaltothecathodevoltage.
Keepingthetubefromburningoutisthemostimportantissuetoaddresswhendesigninganoutputstage.Set
thebiastoofarpositive,andthetubewillfailasitattemptstodissipateallthatpower.Rememberfromyour
basicelectronictheory:P=I*E(powerequalscurrenttimesvoltage).Itisverysimpletodeterminethepower
dissipatedinacathodebiasedtubestagesuchastheP1eXoutputstage.Sinceallthecurrentinthetubemust
flowthroughthecathoderesistor,dividethecathodevoltagebythecathoderesistorvaluetodeterminecathode
current.CathodecurrentintubeV1equalsplatecurrentplusscreengridcurrent.AccordingtotheEL34data
sheet,screengridcurrentistypicallyabout46mAwhenplatevoltageisat350Vandthescreengridvoltageis
375V,dependingonthespecificbiaspoint.Lookingatthevoltagesontheschematic,youcanseethatour
actualscreencurrentisabout7mA(a7Vdropacrossthe1KresistorR8).

Theplatecurrentisthecathodecurrentminusthescreengridcurrent,asfollows:

I =I I
p k g
2

Ohmslawtellsusthatthecathodecurrentisequivalenttothevoltagedropacrossthecathoderesistordivided
bythevalueofthecathoderesistor:

E
k
I p=
R
k

Substitutingthislastformulaintotheplatecurrentformulashowbeforeitgives:

E
k
I p= I g
R 2
k

TodeterminethescreencurrentyoumeasurethevoltagedropacrossthescreenresistorR8anddividethat
voltagebythevalueofR8.Usingthemeasurementsshownontheschematic,weseethereisa7voltdrop
acrossR8.Thatmeans7mAofcurrentareflowingthroughthescreengrid.Pluggingintothepreviousformula
thevoltageacrossthecathoderesistor,thevalueofthatresistorandscreencurrentgivestheplatecurrent:

25.4
I = .007=.070=70.0 mA
p 330

Platedissipationinwattscanthenbedeterminedifyouknowtheplatetocathodevoltage:

Plate Dissipation= E E I =276V25.4V.070=17.5W

p k p

ThedatasheetindicatesmaximumplatedissipationforanEL34is25W.Ifweassumethevoltagesonthe
schematicwillbethevoltagesmeasuredintheactualcircuit,theplatedissipationwillbeabout17.5W.With
thesenumberstheampisrunningatapproximately70%ofmaxdissipation.Ingeneralayoucanrunasingle
endedoutputstagesuptoaround8090%oftheoutputtube'smaximumdissipation,sothissettingis
conservative.
Donotassumethatyourampwillbehaveexactlylikethis.Itisveryimportantthatyoumeasuretheactual
voltagesanddothemath.Productiontubeswanderconsiderablyfromthepublishedspecifications,soitis
importanttocheckatubeincircuitandmeasureitsdissipation.Forexample,anEL34withahighergainthan
thepublishedspecificationswilldrawmoreplatecurrentforagivengridvoltage.Itcouldbedamagedifplate
dissipationexceeds25watts.Tocorrectforsuchasituationyouwouldincreasethevalueofthecathoderesistor
todecreaseplatecurrent.Differentpowerdissipationinanoutputstageproducesdifferenttonalresponses.
Ultimately,youmaywishbiasbyeartoobtainthetoneyouprefer.Thisisfineaslongasyoudon'tviolatethe
tubespecifications.Bearinmindthathighercurrentgenerallyresultinshorterlifespansforoutputtubes.

OUTPUTTRANSFORMER

Theoutputtransformerisoneoftheleastunderstoodcomponentsinatubeamp.
Theconstructionisfairlysimple:twocoilsofwirewoundaroundamagnetic
core.Thecoilontheinputsideiscalledtheprimary.Thecoilontheoutputsideis
calledthesecondary.

Thenametransformerisdescriptiveofitsfunctionitperformsatransformationofthevoltageandcurrent
fromtheinputtotheoutput.Forinstance,intheP1eX,theoutputtransformerconvertsthehighvoltagelow
currentoutputfromtheoutputtubetoalowvoltagehighcurrentsignalsuitabletodrivealoudspeaker.Here
aresomebasictransformerformulas.Asyoucansee,theturnsratioisequivalenttothevoltageandcurrent
ratios.

E ACPrimary N TurnsPrimary I ACSecondary N TurnsPrimary

= and =
E N I N
ACSeconary TurnsSecondary ACPrimary TurnsSecondary

Theformulasaboveassumeanidealtransformerwithnolosses,butarecloseenoughforourpurposeshere.

Inatubeamp,themostimportantjoboftheoutputtransformeris
toreflectthelowspeakerimpedanceintoahighimpedanceload
neededbytheoutputtube.Atransformeralonehasnoprimaryor
secondaryimpedance,ithasanimpedanceratio.Lookinatube
amppartscatalogandyouwillseetheprimaryandsecondary
impedancesspecified.Hereistheformula:

Z N TurnsPrimary N TurnsPrimary Z
Primary Primary
= or =
Z Secondary N TurnsSecondary N TurnsSecondary Z Secondary
Supposeyoubuyatransformerwitha5KOhmprimaryandan8Ohmsecondary.Theturnsratiois:

N TurnsPrimary

N
TurnsSecondary
=
5000
8
= 625=25

Ifyouweretousea4ohmspeakerwiththissametransformer,theimpedancereflectedontheprimarywould
be2.5KOhms.

N TurnsPrimary
N
TurnsSecondary
=
2500
4
= 625=25

TheoutputtransformershownintheP1eXschematichasa16ohmsecondarywithtapsat8and4ohms.
Assumingyouconnectyourspeakertotheappropriatetap,theprimaryimpedancewillbe5000Ohms.The
primaryimpedancewasnotchosenbyaccident,thevalueistakenfromdesignexamplesintheEL34datasheet
thataresimilartotheP1eXoutputstage.

POWERSUPPLY

ThepowersupplyintheP1eXisanexampleofafullwaverectifiersupply.Thepowertransformerhasthree
secondarywindings.TheredoneiscentertappedandprovidesahighvoltagesourcefortheB+powertothe
preampandoutputstage.Thegreenwindingprovidesa6.3VACfilamentsupply.Theyellowwinding
providesa5VACsupply,whichistypicallyusedtoheatavacuumtuberectifier.ThestockP1eXdesigndoes
notusetheyellowwinding.

First,let'slookattheB+supply.Thecentertapofthepowertransformerhighvoltagesecondarywindingis
connectedtoground.Thisgroundconnectionreferencesthesecondarysignaltozerovolts,soitisalternating
currentaroundthecircuit'szerovoltagepoint.InthecaseoftheP1eX,thevoltageswingsfromzeroto+406V,
backdowntozero,thento406V,andbacktozero.IntheUS,eachcycletakes1/60ofasecond.Perhapsyou
arequestioningthevalueof406V,becausetheHammondtransformerspecificationssaythesecondaryvoltage
is275VAC.ThereasonforthishastodowithhowHammondspecifiesthe200seriestransformers.Tostart
withtransformersecondariesaregenerallyspecifiedbytheirRMSACoutputvoltage.RMSisanaverage
measureofvoltageovertimeratherthanapeakmeasureofvoltage.Togetthepeakvoltageyoumustmultiply
theRMSvoltagetimesthesquarerootof2(approximately,1.414):

V peak =V RMS 2=275 2=389V

Hm...389volts.Sowhataccountsfortheextra17volts?Fortheirclassicseriesoftransformers,Hammond
alsoassumesalinevoltageof115VAC,whichwasaUSstandardbackintheday.Nowdays,USwallvoltage
hoversaround120VAC.That5voltRMSdifferenceontheprimarysideaccountsforthehigherpeakvoltages
onthesecondaryside.You'llalsofindthesameproportionalvoltageincreaseintheothersecondarywindings.

Eachsideofthehighvoltagesecondarywindingconnectstotheanodeofaseriesstringoftwo1N4007silicon
rectifierdiodes.Thecapacitorsacrosseachdiodesetsnuboutsomeofthehighfrequencyswitchingnoisethat
thediodesintroduceintothepowersignal.Thecathodesofthesetwodiodestringsaretiedtogethertoforma
fullwaverectifier.Arrangedthisway,thediodesformasortofonewayvalvesoonlythepositivevoltage
swingsareallowedthrough.ThetwooutofphaseACvoltagesareturnedintoonebouncingDCvoltage.What
doesthatmeanexactly?Considerthefollowingdiagram:

Thelinevoltageisconnectedtotheprimary.Thetransformerstepsituptoabout287VAC.Noticehoweach
sideofthesecondarywindingisoutofphasewiththeothersuchthatwhenonehalfofthewindingisswinging
positive,theotherisswingingnegative.Eachdiodeallowsonlythepositiveswinginghalfthrough,sowhen
theycombineafterthediodes,thesignalformsapulsatingDCvoltage.

Immediatelyafterthediodescomesthestandbyswitch.ItallowsyoutodelayturningontheB+totheplates
untilafterthefilamentshavewarmedup.Considerwhathappenswhenatubeampisturnedonwiththestandby
switchclosed.Thefilamentsinsidethepreampandpowertubesarecold,sonocurrentflowsfromtheplateto
cathode.Withsilicondiodesastherectifier,theB+voltagejumpstofullvaluealmostinstantlywhenpoweris
applied.Rememberwhenwedeterminedthevoltagespresentontheplatesofthepreamptubesbymultiplying
currentbythevalueoftheplateloadresistor.Well,whennocurrentisflowingthroughthetube,thereisno
voltagedropacrosstheplateloadresistor.So,afractionofasecondafterthepowerswitchisthrown,the
voltageattheplatesrisetofullpowersupplyvalue.Ouch!Acouplebadthingshappen.Thecouplingcapacitors
aresubjectedtothefullB+value,whichiswhyallcouplingcapsinatubeampshouldbeabletowithstandthe
fullB+voltage.Moreimportantly,thebiasvoltagewillbezero!Nocurrentthroughthetubesmeansnocurrent
throughthecathoderesistor.Oncethecathodeheatsupenough,currentwillbegintoflowthroughthetube.At
thatinstant,thereisfullB+ontheplate,andzerobiasvoltage.Ouchagain!(Gobackafewpagesandlookat
the12AX7AEpIpchart;trytofindtheIpatEp=380vandzerogridvoltage.Itisoffthescale!)

Usingatuberectifierwouldhelpminimizethispotentialproblem(punintended).Justlikethepreampand
powertubes,atuberectifierhastoheatupbeforecurrentflowsthroughit.Thus,tuberectifiershaveaninherent
softstartbehavior.Howevertuberectifiersaddsignificantcosttothesingleendedamplifierwithoutadding
muchsonicvalue,sotheP1eXdesignhasaswitch.Youshoulduseit.

Now,thebouncingoutputvoltageatthecathodesofthosetwodiodesaddsatremendousamountof120Hzhum
totheB+.Thishummustbefilteredout.C3providesthefirstbitofthatfiltering.Acapacitorusedforthis
purposeisappropriatelycalledafiltercap.

R4,whichwiredtoparallelC3,isthebleederresistor.Itisasafetydevicethatquicklydrainsthecurrentstored
inthefiltercapacitors.Someamplifiersalsouseableederresistortoprovideaslightvoltageregulationeffect
byensuringthereisalwayssomeloadonthepowersupply.R4doesnotprovidemuchregulatoryeffectbecause
itscurrentdrawisverysmall.

Afterthefirstfiltercap,thereisanRClowpassfilterbuiltfromR5andC4.Thesetwocomponentssmooththe
B+voltageevenmore,anddropthevoltageslightly.TheoutputofthisfiltersuppliesthemainB+totheoutput
stage.DownstreamfromthisfirstlowpassfilterisanotherRCfilterbuiltfromR6andC5.R6lowersthe
voltageatad,andC5smoothsthevoltage.TheoutputofhisfiltersuppliespowertothescreengridoftheEL34.
Finally,anotherRCfilterisbuiltfromR7andC6.Theoutputofthisfiltersuppliespowertothepreamp
section.

Therearetwoprimaryreasonswhythepowersupplyiscomposedussuccessivestagesoffiltering.Thefirstis
thatyouwantpreamppowersupplytobeveryquiet.Bydesignanelectricguitarpreampissensitivetosmall
signals.Itdoesn'tcarewhetherthesourceofthosesignalsisapickuporthepowersupply.Anynoiseorhum
onthepowersupplyherewillendupbeinggreatlyamplified.Thesecondreasonformultiplestagesoffiltering
istodecouplethepowerstagesfromeachother.Withoutthisdecoupling,thereexistsalowfrequency
feedbackpathfromthepoweramptothepreamp.Thiswillresultinaformoflowfrequencyoscillationknown
asmotorboating,andtheamplifierwillmakeaputtputtputtingsound.

FILAMENTSUPPLY

Theothersecondaryofthepowertransformersupplies6.3VACtothetubefilaments.Whendesigninganamp,
itisimportanttoselectapowertransformerthatcanprovidethecurrentrequiredbyallthefilaments.The
Hammond270DXcansupplymorethanenoughcurrentforthislittleamp.

Ifyouhavelookedatschematicsofotherguitaramps,youprobablyhaveseen100ohmresistorsconnected
betweeneachsideofthefilamentsupplyandground.Theseresistorswouldprovideagroundreferenceforthe
filamentvoltage.Itisimportanttoprovideareferencepointforthefilamentsupply,butthereisaproblem
whenthisreferenceisthesameastheampsgroundreference.

Tounderstandthis,wehavetogobacktoourtubetheory.Rememberthataheatedcathodeemitselectrons.In
fact,thecathodehasacoatingofmaterialthatisverygoodatspewingoffelectronswhenheated.Eventhough
thefilamentdoesnothavethissamecoating,itdoesemitafieldofelectronsduringnormaloperation.Thisis
calledanefield.Sincethefilamentisconnectedto6.3VAC,thisefieldwillhavea60Hz'signature'.Forat
leastpartofeach60Hzcycle,thisefieldwillhaveapotentialthatislessthanthevoltagepresentonthe
cathodeandgridinour12AX7stages.Duringthistime,someelectronsintheefieldwillbeattractedtothe
cathodeandgrid.Theendresultispowersupplyhumbeingintroducedintothepreampstages.

TheP1eXdesignusesaclevertechniquetoavoidthisproblem.Insteadofhavingthefilamentsupply
referencedtoground,itisreferencedtoapositivevoltagewhichistakenfromthetopofcathoderesistoronthe
EL34,whichisapproximately25V.Thiswillelevatetheheatervoltagesufficientlyabovethepreamptube's
gridvoltagetopreventheaternoisefromenteringthepreamp.Analternatewaytoelevatetheheatersistousea
twoseriesresistorsacrossC4toformavoltagedividerwithataptoobtain1050VDCheaterreference.

CREDITS(DaveSorlien)

Thisdocumentcontainsmaterialfromthefollowingsources:

AmecoAmateurRadioTheoryCourseCopyright1981,AmecoPublishingGroup

SimpleTubeGainCalculations(Onlinedocument)BySteveBench

Variouspostsfromrec.audio.tubesandalt.guitar.ampsbythefollowingauthors:DuncanMunro,Ned
Carlson,Anonymous

Thankstothefollowingindividualsfortheirassistance:

RandallAiken,Carl,Nuke,Stephen,andespeciallyChrisHurley,withoutwhomtherewouldnotbean
AX84project.

CREDITS(StephenKeller)

InadditiontothefineworkthatDaveSorliendidwiththefirstversionofthisdocument,Iwouldliketo
acknowledgeandthankMerlinBlencowe,CliffChappell,ChrisHurley,Kyle,EvanLudeman,DannyNoordzy,
andMilesO'Neil(akaHarrisonFordPrefect)andJeffSpenserwhoread,encouragedandcommentedonearly
drafts.Theirmanyinsightshavemadethisamuchbetterdocument.

Whilemanypeoplehavecontributedtothedevelopmentofthisamplifier,itisfittingtomentionandthankPhil
Rowley(akaZaphod)whodesignedtheoriginalAX84P1eXtreme.

LEGALSTUFF

Copyright1998DavidSorlien,newmaterialcopyright2007byStephenKeller

THISDOCUMENTATIONISPROVIDEDFREEOFCHARGEFORNONPROFITRELATEDPURPOSES
SUCHASEDUCATIONALORHOBBYUSE.REPRODUCTIONOFTHISDOCUMENTFOR
COMMERCIALUSEISSTRICTLYPROHIBITEDUNLESSWRITTENPERMISSIONHASBEEN
PROVIDEDBYTHECOPYRIGHTHOLDER.

NOLIABILITYCANBEACCEPTEDFORERRORSINTHISDOCUMENTATION.FURTHERMORE,NO
LIABILITYCANBEACCEPTEDFORLOSSESINCURREDDIRECTLYORINDIRECTLYARISING
OUTOFTHEUSEOFINFORMATIONINTHISDOCUMENTATION.

ALLTRADEMARKSACKNOWLEDGED.