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The basis functions constitute the axes of the signal-space and the weights define the constellation
points in that space.
Each group of weight can be represented by a vector, sm, i.e. each constellation point is given by
2
s1 64-QAM
BPSK 2 2-FSK
1
s2
s2 s1
1 s1
1
s64
where nn represent the noise terms in the signal space and n(t) represents noise in the orthogonal space.
We may simply ignore the noise in the orthogonal space. Does not affect the decision.
Then, if the signal r(t) was received, then which symbol sm(t) was most likely transmitted?
Which symbol maximizes
With equiprobable symbols, the MAP detector becomes identical to Maximum Likelihood (ML) detector
2 2
djk
djk
1 1
djk
1
Anti-podal, e.g. BPSK
Orthogonal, e.g. FSK Bi-orthogonal, e.g. QPSK
djk is determined by
i. Signal energy s,i
ii. Channel gain
(diagonal point)
2. Determine the probability that a certain SNR occurs in the channel in other words, determine the
pdf of the power gain of the channel,
Being in a valley dominates the behaviour for the same average SNR, performance of a fading
channel is significantly worse than that of an AWGN channel.
Example: A fading channel has an average SNR of 10 dB. Fading causes the SNR to be - dB
half of the time while it is 13 dB the rest of the time. Consider DBPSK.
SNR = - dB BER = 0.5
SNR = 13 dB BER = 10-9.
Average BER is
For an AWGN channel with 10 dB SNR,
To calculate SNR, we need signal power (its pdf). The mean power is . Use the
Jacobian , to find the pdf of the received power:
Example: Calculate the average BER of DBPSK with B = 12 dB and Kr = -3 dB, 0 dB, 10 dB.
Rician fading, use the above expression:
For Kr = -3 dB:
For Kr = 0 dB: BER = 2.3 x 10-2
For Kr = 10 dB: BER = 5.6 x 10-4