Sodium, Magnesium, Aluminium,
Name the period 3 elements from
sodium to argon.
State the trends in the melting point
across period 3.
Explain the variations in melting point
for Sodium, Magnesium and
Aluminium.
Explain the variations in melting point
for Silicon.
Explain the variations in melting point
for Phosphorus, Sulfur and Chlorine.
Explain the variations in melting point
for Argon.
State the trend in electrical conductivity
across period 3.
Explain the variations in electrical
conductivity for sodium, magnesium
and aluminium.
Explain the variations in electrical
conductivity for silicon.
Explain the variations in electrical
conductivity for phosphorus, sulphur
and chlorine.
Silicon, Phosphorus, Sulfur, Chlorine
and Argon.
The melting point from sodium to silicon increases where
silicon has the highest melting point then there is a gradual
decrease to phosphorus then a small increase to sulphur
then a small decrease from Chlorine to Argon.
Moving from sodium to aluminium, the ionic charge on the
metal ions increases from +1 to +3 therefore the number of
delocalized electrons increase. Thus, there is a greater
electrostatic attraction between the ions and the electrons
and the higher the melting point.
Each silicon atom is covalently bonded to four other silicon
atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. This forms a three
dimensional giant molecule which requires large amounts
of energy to break its giant lattice. Thus, it has the highest
melting point.
They have simple molecular structures in which the molecules are held together
by very weak van der Waals' forces of attraction. The van der Waals' forces
increase with increasing numbers of contact points between neighboring
molecules, so sulphur which exists as S8 would have a higher melting point then
Phosphorus which exists as P4 and Cl2 would have the lowest melting of the
three.
Argon exists only as isolated atoms so it has no
contact points with any neighbouring molecules.
The van der Waals' forces between these molecules
are very low, so it has a very low melting point.
Electrical conductivity increases going across
period 3 from sodium to aluminium then decreases
to silicon It further decreases to negligible
conductivity from phosphorus to argon.
Moving from sodium to magnesium which has
metallic bonding, the number of delocalized
electrons increases thus there are more charge
carriers and the electrical conductivity increases.
Silicon is a metalloid whose four electrons are held
strongly in covalent bonds, however an increase in
temperature allows some electrons to be
delocalized, thus it is a semi-conductor.
P, S and Cl hardly conducts electricity because
their electrons are held in covalent bonds and
are not free to move and carry charge.
 Argon which exists as single atoms have valence
Explain the variation in electrical
electrons which are not free to move because they
conductivity for Argon. are held in a stable third energy level.

State the trend in the atomic radii The atomic radii decreases across
across period 3. Period 3.

This is the residual attraction of the nucleus to

What is effective nuclear charge? the outermost electrons after shielding from the
inner core of electrons have taken place.

The nuclear charge increases across period 3 but the added

Explain the variation in atomic radii electron goes into the same quantum shell, so there is no
additional shielding of the valence electrons by the inner
across period 3 shells so the electrons are pulled closer to the nucleus
causing a decrease in atomic radii.

Argon has the largest atomic radii because it is not

Explain why Argon's atomic radii is not chemically bonded so only the effect of the van der
compared to the others in period 3. Waals' force can be measured while the other atoms are
being measured by their covalent and metallic radii.

Why is Argon's electronegativity value Argon does not usually form covalent
zero? bonds.

State the trend in electronegativity

There is a general increase.
across period 3.

The nuclear charge increases, but the increase in shielding

Explain the variation in is negligible because each extra electron enters the same
principal energy level
electronegativity across period 3. so the bonding electrons will be more strongly attracted to
the nucleus.

The density increases from sodium to

State the trend in density across period
aluminium and there is a general
3.
decrease from silicon to argon.

From sodium to aluminium, the forces of attraction between

Explain the variations in density from the atoms increase, that is the metallic bonding causing
them to be packed closer together. Thus, the mass per unit
Sodium to Aluminium.
volume, i.e. the density increases.

Explain the variation in density for
silicon.
Explain the variations in density for
phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine and argon.
Describe Sodium's reaction with water.
(Mention equation)
Describe Magnesium's reaction with
water. (Mention equation)
Describe Aluminium's reaction with
water. (Mention equation)
Describe Silicon's reaction with water.
Describe Phosphorus and Sulfur's
reaction with water.
Describe Chlorine's reaction with water.
Describe Argon's reaction with water.
Describe Sodium's reaction with
oxygen.
Silicon has a lower density than
aluminium because it has a more open
lattice structure.
The molecules of P, S and Cl and the atoms of Ar are held
together by weak van der Waals forces of attraction. The
molecules and atoms are not packed closely together thus
the mass per unit volume or density decreases.
Sodium has a very exothermic and vigorous
reaction with cold water producing hydrogen and a
colorless solution of sodium hydroxide.
2Na(s)+2H20(l)2NaOH(aq)+H2 (g)
Magnesium reacts very slowly with cold water to form Magnesium hydroxide.
Mg(s)+2H20(l)Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium reacts readily with steam to produce a white precipitate and
hydrogen.
Mg(s)+2H20(g)MgO(s)+H2(g)
Aluminium does not react with hot or cold water
but reacts with steam slowly in it's powdered form
with it's white flame to form Al2O3 and hydrogen.
2Al(s)+3H2O(g)Al2O3(s)+3H2(g)
No reaction
They do not react with water as they are
insoluble in it.
Chlorine dissolves slightly in water to give a green
solution and then reacts to form a mixture of
hydrochloric acid and hypochlorous acid.
Cl2(g)+H20(l)HCl(aq)+HOCl(aq)
Argon does not react with water.
Sodium burns vigourously when heated
to form sodium oxide.
Na(s)+O2(g)Na2O(s)
 Magnesium burns in oxygen in the presence of
Describe Magnesium's reaction with
a flame to produce white magnesium oxide.
oxygen. 2Mg(s)+O2(g)2MgO(s)

Aluminium will burn in oxygen if it is powdered to

Describe Aluminium's reaction with
give white sparks and white aluminium oxide.
oxygen. 4Al(s) + 3O2(g)2Al2O3(s)

It is a slow reaction but forms silicon

Describe Silicon's reaction with oxygen. dioxide if heated strongly enough.
Si(s)+O2(g)SiO2(s)

Phosphorus catches afire vigourously burning with a white

Describe Phosphorus' reaction with flame to form a mixture of phosphorus (III) and Phosphorus
(V) oxide.
oxygen. P4(s)+3O2(g)P4O6(s)
P4(s)+3O2(g)P4O10(s)

It burns steadily with a pale blue flame

Describe Sulfur's reaction with oxygen. to form a colorless gas, sulfur dioxide.
S(s) + O2(g)SO2(g)

Describe Chlorine and Argon's reaction

No reaction
with oxygen.

It burns vigourously with an orange flame

Describe Sodium's reaction with
to form a white solid, sodium chloride.
chlorine.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g)2NaCl(s)

It burns vigourously with an intense white

Describe Magnesium's reaction with
flame to form white magnesium chloride.
chlorine.
Mg(s)+ Cl2(g)MgCl2(s)

It burns vigourously in a stream of chlorine

Describe Aluminium's reaction with
to form pale yellow aluminium chloride.
chlorine.
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) ----> 2AlCl3(s)

It reacts slowly in powdered forms to produce

Describe Silicon's reaction with
a colourless liquid, Silicon tetra chloride.
chlorine. Si(s) +Cl2(g)SiCl4(l)

Describe Phosphorus' reaction with
chlorine.
Describe Sulfur's reaction with chlorine.
Describe Chlorine and Argon's reaction
with chlorine.
State the variation in the oxidation
number for the chlorides and oxides of
the period 3 elements.
Why are the oxidation numbers for the
chlorides and oxides positive?
Explain the variation in oxidation
number for the oxides and generally
the chlorides of the period 3 elements.
Explain the breakage in the trend for
the chlorides of the period 3 elements.
Why does Argon not have a chloride or
an oxide?
Describe the chloride of sodium's
reaction with water.
Describe Sodium oxide's reaction with
water.
White phosphorus burns slowly in chlorine to form a mixture of
phosphorus (III) which is a colourless liquid and Phosphorus (V)
chloride which is an off-white solid.
P4(s) + 6Cl2(g)4PCl3(l)
P4(s) + 10Cl2(g)4PCl5(s)
If a stream of chlorine is passed over, some heated
sulphur, it reacts slowly to form an orange awful
smelling liquid.
2S(s) + Cl2(g)S2Cl2(l)
There is no reaction.
The oxidation number of the oxides and chlorides of the period 3 elements are
positive.The maximum oxidation number of each element in period 3 in their
oxides rises across the period where the maximum oxidation numbers is equal
to the number of valence electrons. Also, the maximum oxidation state of the
chlorides of the elements in period 3 rises up to PCl5 then decreases to +2 in
SCl2.
Oxygen and Chlorine are more
electronegative than the other elements
in period 3.
This is because the number of valence electrons
increase and all of the valence electrons in the
period 3 elements are used in bonding.
Sulphur does not form the hexachloride because
the atom cannot accommodate more than four
chlorine atoms around it since it is unstable.
Argon is a noble gas and is therefore
quite unreactive. It will not form bonds
with any other element.
It dissolves in water and their is negligible heat
change and a colourless solution of ions is
produced. There is no hydrolysis.
NaCl(aq) + H20(l) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Sodium oxide dissolves readily in water
to form an alkaline solution.
Na2O(s) + H20(l)2NaOH(aq)
 It dissolves in water and it is a slightly exothermic
Describe the chloride of Magnesium's reaction and a colourless solution of ions is
reaction with water. produced. There is no hydrolysis.
MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l) Mg2+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Magnesium oxides dissolves slightly in

Describe Magnesium Oxide's reaction
water to form an alkaline solution.
with water.
MgO(s) +H20(l) Mg(OH)2(aq)

It reacts vigourously in water.

Describe the chloride of Aluminium's
AlCl3(aq) + 6H2O(l) [Al(H20)6]3+(aq)
reaction with water.
+3O-(aq)

Which oxides of the period 3 elements

do not react or dissolve in or with Aluminium Trioxide and silicon dioxide.
water?

It reacts violently in water and heat is evolved and also

Describe the chloride of Silicon's steamy fumes of HCl are produced and also a white
precipitate of Silicon dioxide is formed. There is complete
reaction with water. hydrolysis.
SiCl4(l) + 2H2O(l) --> SiO2(s) + 4HCl(g)

It reacts readily with water to form acidic solutions.

Describe the oxides of sulphur's
SO2(g) + H2O(l)H2S03(aq)
reaction with water. SO3(g) + H20(l) H2S04 (aq)

It reacts violently, heat is evolved and steamy

Describe the chloride of Sulphur's fumes of HCl are produced. There is complete
reaction with water. hydroysis.
2S2Cl2(l) + 2H2O(l)3S(s) + SO2(aq) + 4HCl(g)

It reacts readily with water to form an acidic

Describe the oxides of Phosphorus' solution.
reaction with water. P4O6(g) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO3(aq)
P4H10(g) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO3(aq)

It reacts violently and steamy fumes of HCl are

Describe the chloride of Phosphorus' produced. A colourless solution of phosphoric
reaction with water. acid is formed. There is also complete hydrolysis.
PCl5(s) + 4H2O(l)H3PO4(aq)+5HCl(g)

It reacts readily with water to form an

Describe the oxide of chlorine's
acidic solution.
reaction with water.
Cl2O7(g) + H20 (l)2HClO4(aq)

Why does Argon not have a Chloride or
an oxide?
State the trend in the acid/base
behaviour of the oxides and hydroxides
of period 3.
Why is Al2O3 amphoteric? And why
does the basicity decrease across the
period?
State the trend in bonding for the
chlorides of the period 3 elements.
State the trend in bonding for the
oxides of the period 3 elements.
State the trend in atomic radii down
group 2.
Explain the variations in atomic radii
and ionic radii for the group 2
elements.
Explain the variation in the ionization
energies for the group 2 elements.
Describe generally the reactions of the
group II elements with oxygen.
Describe the reactions of the group II
elements with water.
It is a noble gas with a full outer shell
thus it is unreactive and tends to stay
isolated.
Basic hydroxides are formed for sodium and
magnesium only. Aluminium oxide is amphoteric
and the oxides of phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine and
silicon are all acidic oxides.
The basicity thing is explained in the reactions.
The presence of the O2- ion makes Al2O3 basic (i.e. able to react with
acid). However, the Al3+ ion has high positive charge density, hence is
strongly attracted to and reacts with the electron rich OH- ions present
in alkalis to form aluminate ions [Al(OH)4-].
The chlorides of sodium and magnesium both are ionic
in bonding while the chloride of aluminium is ionic with
covalent character, while silicon, phosphorus, sulphur
and chlorine all have simple covalent bonding.
The oxides of sodium and magnesium both are ionic while
the oxide of aluminium is ionic with covalent character and
silicon dioxide is giant covalent and phosphorus, sulphur
and chlorine all have covalent bonding.
The atomic radii increases.
Atomic/ionic radii increase on descending group II. This occurs as there are
more core shells as one descends the group. This increases the distance
between the nucleus and the valence shell. More core shells means a greater
shielding effect between the nucleus and the valence electrons. This results in a
weaker force of attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons and
the distance would therefore be greater.
On descending the group, the electrons are getting further
away, this means the attraction gets weaker as a result of
shielding and therefore less energy is needed to remove an
electron. Therefore ionization energy decreases down the
group.
All group II elements react with oxygen to form its metallic
oxide. All burn readily in oxygen, given highly exothermic
reactions as the reactivity increases down the group. Also,
all the group II elements tarnish in air as a layer of oxide is
formed on the surface of the metal.
Calcium,Strontium and Barium reacts
vigourously with cold water.

Describe the reaction of group II
elements with acids.
State the trend in the solubility of the
sulphates in group 2 elements.
Explain the variation in the solubility of
the sulphates of Group II elements.
What is polarizing power?
Sate the trend in the variation in
thermal stability in group 2.
Explain the variation in the thermal
decomposition of the carbonates and
nitrates of group II elements.
Cite a use of Magnesium Oxide.
Cite uses of Calcium Oxide.
Cite uses of Calcium Hydroxide.
Cite uses of Calcium Carbonate.
All the group II metals react with acids to produce
salts and hydrogen gas. The reactivity increases
down the group. Calcium reacts vigourously with
acids, while Barium reacts violently.
The solubility decreases.
Lattice energy is inversely proportional to the sum of the radius of the cation and anion.The anion is
constant since all the sulfates contain the SO2-4 anion. The cation increase in size however this increase in
size is negligible compared to the large size of the anion. Thus, the increase in ionic radii is very small hence
the decrease in lattice energy is very small. As the size of the cation increases down the group, the charge
density decrease, this decreases the forces of attraction which develop with the polar water molecules.
Thus the hydration energy decreases which is the energy released when ions are hydrated. Since the
decrease in the reverse lattice energy is less when compared to the decrease in hydration energy, the
enthalpy of solution becomes more positive down the group, thus the solubility decreases down the group.
The tendency of metal cation to distort
the electron cloud of anion
Thermal stability of the
nitrates/carbonates increase down the
group.
As you go down the group, the size of the metal cation increases. The smaller
the cation, the better it is at distorting the electron cloud charge of the large
carbonate or nitrate ion. So group 2 carbonates/nitrates with smaller cations
have a greater degree of covalence in the ionic bonding. The greater the degree
of covalence, the less energy required to break the bond.
It is used as refractory linings in
furnaces because of its high melting
point and low reactivity.
It is used to make cement, mortar,
drying agents and calcium hydroxide.
To neutralize acidic soils.
It can also be used to make mortar by mixing it with
water and sand, to make bleaching powder and lime
water.
It is used as limestone blocks for buildings and
removing Silicon dioxide as slag in the blast
furnace for the extraction of iron. It is also used to
make oxide for cement,

State the group 4 elements.
State the general trend in electrical
conductivity and metallic character in
group 4.
Explain the variation in electrical
conductivity.
State the trend in the metallic character
down the group.
Draw XCl4.
Describe the bonding of the
tetrachlorides.
State the reaction of the tetrachlorides
with water.
Explain the reactions of the
tetrachlorides of silicon, germanium, tin
and lead with water.
Explain the reactions of the
tetrachloride of Carbon reaction with
water.
State the trends in bonding for the
group 4 monoxides. (+2 oxidation
state)
Carbon. silicon, germanium, tin and
lead.
Carbon in the form of diamond is a non-conductor
, while Silicon and Germanium are semi-conductors
and finally Tin and Lead are conductors.
All of carbon's valence electrons are used in covalent bonding so it
does not conduct electricity. Silicon and germanium electrons can
delocalise with an increase in temperature so they are semi-conductors.
Tin and lead are conductors because their valence electrons are
delocalised. Relate this to their metallic character.
Carbon is a non-metal, while silicon
and germanium are metalloids and
finally tin and lead are metals.
All the elements in group 4 form
tetrachlorides.
Tetrachlorides are all simple covalent molecules with a
tetrahedral shape and weak van der Waals' forces between
their molecules. The group 4 element is at the centre and
bonds with four chlorine atoms by four single covalent
bonds. They are non-polar because the dipoles cancel.
With the exception of tetrachloromethane (CCl4) ,
all of the tetrachlorides are readily hydrolyzed by
water to the oxide in the +4 state and steamy acidic
fumes of HCl are produced.
Silicon, germanium, tin and lead all have empty d orbitals. The atoms
allow incoming water molecules to donate a lone pair to their d orbitals
to form a bond. As the X-O bonds form, the X-Cl bonds weaken and
break. The bonds make and break one by one until all 4 chlorine
atoms are displaced. Thus, hydrolysis of the tetrachloride occurs.
Tetrachloromethane (CCl4) is immiscible in water and
does not undergo hydrolysis. The empty 3d orbitals in
carbon are too different in energy for carbon to expand
its octet to form dative bonds with the water molecules.
The monoxides of carbon and silicon are covalent,
while the monoxides of germanium, tin and lead
are predominantly ionic.

State the trends in bonding in group 4
dioxides. (+4 oxidation state)
State the trends in the acid/base
character in the group 4 monoxides.
State the trends in the acid/base
character of the dioxides.
State the trend in the thermal stability
of the oxides of the oxidation state 2
and 4.
Why is lead's +2 state more thermally
stable than the +4 oxidation state?
State the trend in stability of the +2
oxidation state.
State the trend in the stability of the +4
oxidation state.
Discuss the uses of ceramic based on
silicon (IV) oxide.
Explain the variation in the volatility of
the elements of group 7.
Explain the variation in the density of
the elements of group 7.
The dioxides of carbon and silicon germanium
are covalent, while the dioxides of lead and tin
are covalent with ionic character.
The monoxides of carbon and silicon are neutral
and the monoxides of germanium, tin and lead are
amphoteric.
The dioxides of carbon and silicon are
acidic and the dioxides of germanium, tin
and lead are amphoteric.
The +4 oxidation state is more thermally stable than +2 for all the group IV
elements except lead. For lead, the +2 is more thermally stable than the +4
oxidation state. There is no +2 oxidation state for Si and Ge.
When the two electrons on the p orbital are removed, the remaining two valence
electrons on the s orbital are relatively stable and not easily removed. This is
because the effective nuclear attraction towards them is greater since the d
orbitals do not screen the nucleus as efficiently as the s and p orbitals so the
two remaining electrons behave inertly since the ionization energy required for
their removal is very large.
The thermal stability of the +2 oxidation state
increases down the group, so as you go up the
group, they are better reducing agents.
The thermal stability of the +4 oxidation state
decreases down the group so as you go down the
group, they are better oxidizing agents.
It is a good thermal insulator and has a very high melting point due to the many
strong covalent bonds, so it is used in furnace linings.
It is hard and has a high melting point so it is use as an abrasive.
Since it is relatively unreactive and easily moulded and the high melting point is
useful for ovenware, it is used in the manufacture of glass and porcelain.
As group 7 is descended, the number of electrons in the halogen increases as a fully filled
energy shell is added. These added electrons causes a greater van der Waals forces of attraction
since these electrons can move freely setting up temporary dipoles. These stronger inter-
molecular forces of attraction means that more energy is needed to break the bonds between
the molecules. Therefore the melting point and boiling point increases down the group so
the halogens become less volatile down the group.
As group 4 is descended, the number of electrons in the halogen increases as a fully filled
energy shell is added. These added electrons causes a greater van der Waals forces of attraction
since these electrons can move freely setting up temporary dipoles. These attractive forces
which exist between the molecules increase as we descend the group. Thus, as the forces of
attraction between the molecules increase, the molecules pack closer together thus the mass
per unit volume increases, thus the density increases.

Explain the variation in the state of the
elements of group 7.
Colour and state of chlorine.
Colour and state of Bromine
Colour and state of iodine.
Colour and state of Astatine
Explain the relative reactivities of the
elements as oxidising agents
Describe the oxidizing ability of the
group 7 elements.
Describe the reactions of the elements
with hydrogen.
State the trend in the thermal stability
of the hydrogen halides.
Explain the relative stabilities of the
hydrides.
As group 7 is descended, the number of electrons in the halogen increases as a
fully filled energy shell is added. These added electrons causes a greater van der
Waals forces of attraction since these electrons can move freely setting up
temporary dipoles. The increase in the van der Waals force of attraction results
in a change in the physical states of the molecules from a gas to a liquid to a
solid.
Yellowish-green gas
Dark red-brown liquid
Dark, crumbly solid that sublimes into
purple vapour
Black solid
As the group is descended, the oxidizing ability decreases. The
stronger the oxidizing agent the more positive the standard electrode
potential value. Fluorine has the most positive standard electrode
potential value, while, Iodine has the lowest. Thus, Fluorine accepts
electrons more readily than Iodine.
Fluorine is such a strong oxidizing agent that it oxidizes water to oxygen.
For chlorine, Bromine and iodine, a halogen higher in the group can oxidize the
ions of one lower.
Only fluorine, chlorine and bromine can oxidize thiosulphate ions to sulphate
ions. Iodine oxidizes the thiosulphate ions to tetrathionate ions.
The halogens react directly with hydrogen to produce hydrogen halides.
The reaction between hydrogen and fluorine is explosive even at low temperatures.
H2(g)+F2(g)2HF(g)
Hydrogen reacts with chlorine slowly in the dark and explosively in sunlight.
H2(g)+Cl2(g)2HCl(g)
Bromine combines with hydrogen at high temperatures in the presence of a catalyst slowly.
H2(g)+Br2(g)2HBr(g)
The reaction between hydrogen and iodine is slow and reversible giving a low yield.(Reaction takes place in a
closed container.)
H2(g)+I2(g)2HI(g)
The thermal stability decreases down
the group.
This is because the bond energy decreases because the larger the
halogen atom, the greater is the distance between the hydrogen and
halide nuclei. So, down the group, there is a smaller attractive force
between the nuclei and the bonding electrons. So going down the
group it takes less energy to break the hydrogen-halide bond.
 Describe the reactions of the halide
ions with aqueous solution of AgNO3
followed by aqueous ammonia;
Describe the reaction of the halide ions
with concentrated sulphuric acid.
Describe the reactions of chlorine with cold and
with hot aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide.
Mention changes in oxidation number.
Name the first row transition elements.
State the characteristics of transition
elements.
Determine the electronic configuration
of the first row transition elements and
of their ions
State the trend in the atomic radii, ionic
radii and first row transition elements
for the first row transition elements.
Explain the relatively small changes in
atomic radii and ionic radii and
ionization energy.
Explain the formation of coloured ions by
transition elements in octahedral
complexes.
Perform experiments to show the variation in
oxidation states of vanadium;
Include the use of an acidified solution of
ammonium vanadate(V) and granulated zinc.
Reagent (AgNO3)
F-:No observable reaction
Cl-:White precipitate of AgCl is formed which dissolves in excess dilute ammonia.
Br-:Cream precipitate of AgBr is formed which dissolves in excess concentrated ammonia.
I-:Yellow precipitate of .AgI is formed which is insoluble in concentrated ammonia.
Reagent (conc. H2SO4)
Concentrated sulphuric acid is an oxidizing agent
and it is strong enough to oxidize HBr to Br2 and HI
to I2. However, it is not strong enough to oxidize
HF and HCl.
Chlorine with cold dilute sodium hydroxide
Cl2(aq)+2NaOH(aq)NaCl(aq)+NaClO(aq)+H2O(l)
0 -1 +1
Chlorine with hot concentrated sodium hydroxide.
3Cl2(aq)+6NaOH(aq)5NaCl(aq)+NaClO3(aq)+3H2O(l)
0 -1 +5
Both these reactions are disproportionation which are reactions in which a single substance becomes
oxidized to a higher oxidation state and reduced to a lower oxidation state.
In the above reactions, chlorine has been reduced to Cl- ions and oxidized to either chlorate(I) or chlorate(V)
ions.
Titanium, Vanadium, Chromium, Manganese, Iron, Cobalt, nickel and
copper.
(Scott) Tickled Vanna's Cranium.Mean Females Come Nightly to Club
(Z.)
Scabby, tell valerie carry mi funds come now, copper,zeen.
1. They have variable oxidation numbers.
2. They form coloured complexes by combining with one or more ligands.
4. Many transition elements and their compounds can be used as catalysts
because of their ability to change oxidation states.
5. Transition elements have magnetic properties.
COMC
Sc [Ar] 4s23d1
Ti [Ar] 4s23d2
V [Ar] 4s23d3
Cr [Ar] 4s13d5
Mn [Ar] 4s23d5
Fe [Ar] 4s23d6
Co [Ar] 4s23d7
Ni [Ar] 4s23d8
Cu [Ar] 4s13d10
Zn [Ar] 4s23d10
[Ar] - 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p6 4s 3d
There is a general decrease in the atomic
radii, thus there is a small increase in the
ionization energy.
As the nuclear charge increases across the period, each additional electron
enters the penultimate 3d orbital which increases the shielding experienced by
the 4s electrons. This results in a relatively small increase in the effective
nuclear charge as the shielding effect nullifies(cancels), to a large extent, the
increase in nuclear charge, thus causing a small increase in the energy required
to remove one mole of electron.
In octahedral complexes, two of the five d orbitals experience repulsion and are
pushed to a higher energy level.The energy gap corresponds to energies in the
visible region of the spectrum. Electrons in the lower d energy level can then
absorb the visible light which corresponds to the energy gap and jump up to the
higher d energy level. The colour of the complex is the complement of the
colours absorbed from the visible light.
Add ammonium vanadate to sodium hydroxide then mix it with sulphuric acid forming an
orange solid containing V. Shake this solution with granulated zinc causing a colour
change from blue (V) to green (V) to violet (V)
OBGV
ob stetrician gyna vag....
All of the cell potentials are positive, so zinc can gradually reduce ammonium vanadate.
 In transition elements, the delocalized electrons are from the 4s and 3d
Discuss qualitatively the melting point and orbitals, while calcium's delocalized electrons are only from the s
conductivity of transition elements when compared orbitals, thus the metallic bonding in the transition metals are stronger
than that of calcium, thus transition elements are better conductors of
to those of calcium as a typical s-block element.
electricity than calcium.

Discuss qualitatively the density of transition Transition elements have a higher atomic mass than
calcium, so for each mas per unit volume more molecules
elements when compared to those of calcium are found there than that of calcium with a smaller atomic
as a typical s-block element; mass.

Discuss qualitatively the atomic and ionic radii and
first ionisation energy of transition elements when
compared to those of calcium as a typical s-block
element;
Calcium has a larger atomic radii than transition elements because it has a
smaller shielding effect than transition elements since it has less electrons,
while since transition elements have more electrons to shield it's valence
electrons it has a smaller atomic radii than that of calcium, thus the first
ionisation energies for transition elements are greater than that of calcium.

Co-ordination number 4-Tetrahedral([Ni(CN)4]2+)

Predict the shapes of complexes of or square planar (very rare) (Ni(CO)4)
transition elements Co-ordination number 6-Octahedral
([Cr(H2O)6]2+, [Fe(CN)6]3-)

discuss the use of

Previously discussed but light green to
Fe3+(aq)/Fe2+(aq), MnO4-(aq)/Mn2+(aq),
red brown for Fe system.
Cr2O72- (aq)/Cr3+(aq) as redox systems.

If the stability constant of the new complex is greater than the stability constant of the existing complex the
Explain the principle of ligand exchange. new complex would form readily, and the old ligand would be displaced. If the stability constants of both
complexes are similar, then one complex would predominate over the other, if the concentration of one
Stability constants and the CO/O2 haemoglobin ligand is greater than the other.

and Example 1 This occurs with the CO/O2 haemoglobin complex:- haemoglobin and CO complex has a greater
stability constant(new complex) than the O2 and haemoglobin complex(old complex), this is why CO can act

NH3(aq)/Cu2+(aq) systems. as a poison.

Example 2 This occurs with the NH3 (aq) and Cu2+ system.
On first addition, copper(II) hydroxide is produced:-
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ + 2OH- [Cu(OH)2(H2O)4] (s) + 2H2O
Co+ and conc HCl goes from pink to dark blue, but adding
Perform experiments to demonstrate On second addition:- [Cu(OH)2(H2O)4] + 4NH3 [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+ + 2H2O
water to the solution causes it to be pink again.
ligand exchange. Include reactions Cu2+
The (aq)complex
tetraammine and has conc HCl
a greater goes
stability
the solid dissolves to form the deep blue solution
from
constant than pale blue
the copper(II) to green
hydroxide complex, to
therefore

yellow and this can be reversed by adding distilled water.

involving Co2+(aq), Cu2+(aq). pgy

Clean a platinum or nichrome (a nickel-chromium alloy) wire by dipping it into concentrated hydrochloric acid
identify cations: K+, Na+, Ca2+, Ba2+, Cu2+ by and then holding it in a hot Bunsen flame. Repeat this until the wire doesn't produce any colour in the
flame.When the wire is clean, moisten it again with some of the acid and then dip it into a small amount of
their flame tests the solid you are testing so that some sticks to the wire. Place the wire back in the flame again.
Na strong persistent orange
Refer to atomic emission spectra, see Unit 1 K lilac (pink)
Ca orange-red

Module 1, Specific Objective 1.7. Ba pale green

Cu blue-green (often with white flashes)

identify cations Mg2+(aq), Al3+(aq), Ca2+(aq) Cr3+(aq),, Mn2+(aq), Fe2+(aq), Fe3+(aq), Cu2+(aq),
Zn2+(aq), Ba2+(aq), Pb2+(aq), NH4+(aq)
and
identify anions: CO32-, NO3-, SO42-,
Include the reactions with HCl(aq), conc H2SO4,
Pg. 253 of chem explained and pg. 168
of study guide.
SO32- (aq) , Cl-, Br-, I-, CrO42-;
Pb2+
(aq), Ag (aq),followed by NH3(aq), Ca(OH)2(aq),
Ba2+(aq), followed by dilute acid. For NO3- use copper
turnings and conc H2SO4 or add aluminium (powder)
or zinc (powder) in the alkaline solution and
confirmatory tests for gases where applicable
When you look at the flame through a diffraction grating or
spectroscope, coloured lines of the emission spectrum in
Key Points the visible region are seen. The colours seen in the flame
test are due to the most obvious lines in the emission
spectrum.
 Ammonia (NH3) Turns damp red litmus
Testing for NH3:
paper blue.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Turns limewater

Testing for CO2:
milky

Chlorine (Cl2) Bleaches damp litmus

Testing for Cl:
paper.

Hydrogen (H2) 'pops' with a lighted

Testing for H2:
splint.

Testing for O2 : Oxygen (O2) Relights a glowing splint.

Forms dense white fumes with

Testing for Hydrogen chloride:
ammonia gas.

A reddish brown gas which turns moist

Testing for NO2:
blue litmus red

Turns potassium dichromate from

Testing for SO2:
orange to green