Section 2: Theories and Research concerning intercultural competence

Chapter 1
Explain the purpose of this book- p. 2. This book is written to provide conceptual tools
for understanding how a cultural difference can affect interpersonal communications.
Along with this the book comes with suggestions about adjustments we as an individual
may need to take to make the necessary adjustments when dealing with these cultural
differences. (ted Talks videos on culture)
List and explain the five imperatives for intercultural competence.
1. The demographic Imperative for Intercultural Competence; This discusses how
many people are becoming more comfortable with multiple racial and cultural identities.
This shows that many are not afraid to cross borders or move to new places for a better
life, workforce, or place to raise a family. Borders are now just something that can be
crossed and many people are all about being welcoming and helpful to new races,
religions, etc. Here in the United States we are considered a melting pot or place where
many races, religions, cultures etc. are able to work, and reside in close proximity and not
bat an eye. It is something our country is founded upon.
2. The Technological Imperative for Intercultural Competence- The creation of
technology has in essence shrunk the world. We are able to research and communicate
with those from different places of the world. Our understanding of another country,
religion, culture is now within our fingertips. All we have to do is type away and the
information is now made available. Traveling has also become easier so the mixing of
cultures is increasing. The technical imperative has increased the urgency for intercultural
competence.
3. The Economic Imperative for Intercultural Competence- This puts us on a global
scale. Trade, economics all depend on other countries. Tourism is very popular around the
world and can generate a small or even large profit for many countries. The economic
wealth is linked to its worldwide business partners.
4. The Peace Imperative for Intercultural Competence- Discusses how we need to
understand and appreciate those who are different than us. Hate crimes can cause tension
and targeting a specific race, religion, or culture can affect a lot of society and cause extra
grief, hate, or tension among social groups. Having peace and learning to understand and
respect one's differences allows for a better intercultural competence.
5. The interpersonal Imperative for Intercultural Competence-This sort of ties in all the
previous Imperatives for intercultural competencies. It creates a world where interactions
(human) are dominant. The quality of one's daily life can be affected and will increase in
one's ability to communicate competently with other cultures. The challenge of
communicating in an intercultural world occurs in our families, homes, work settings,
school, and neighborhoods. It happens when a new child enters a new school. A teacher
who has a diverse class. In the work field when you deal with different clients. Having an
understanding and respect for one's differences helps us and them out with intercultural
competence.
Define communication.
Communication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual process in which
people create shared meanings (p.12) Is a complex system
There are 6 characteristics to define communication
1. Symbolic- a symbol, word, action, or object, that represents a meaning. The
meaning may include sensations or details about something. A message is then
communicated using a variety of symbols. A person's behavior may be symbolic or a non
verbal example would be the well-known peace sign.
2. Interpretive-No matter how one communicates there is always an interpretive
process. We must take the time to interpret the symbolic meaning of others behaviors and
actions. One of the first outcomes of communication is understanding what it is the other
person(s) is trying to communicate. The second outcome is reaching an agreement on an
issue or topic that is being discussed. To communicate requires an understanding.
3. Transactional- those who are communicating work together to create and sustain
meaning. We are simultaneously sending and receiving messages throughout the entirety
of the communication process. Now a days communication is interactional where one is
receiving the message while the other continues it with feedback.
4. Contextual- This refers to the place where people meet, it is the spot or meaning
behind why a conversation is taking place. It includes the physical, social, and
interpersonal settings within which messages are exchanged.
5. Physical Contexts- This is in reference to the actual place the conversation is
taking place. This place can influence the communication process in many obvious ways.
Knowledge of the physical context often provides important information about the
meanings that are intended and the kinds of communication that are possible(p. 17).
6. Social context- This is about the shared expectations that people have about how
interactions should occur at different types of events. For example the way one
communicates at a funeral is different compared to a party or a wedding. However,
difficulty arises when it becomes intercultural because a culture may have a different way
or style of communicating at these events.

Biblical Links
Genesis 11:6-9 6The LORD said, Behold, they are one people, and they all have the
same language. And this is what they began to do, and now nothing which they purpose
to do will be impossible for them. 7Come, let Us go down and there confuse their
language, so that they will not understand one anothers speech. 8So the LORD
scattered them abroad from there over the face of the whole earth; and they stopped
building the city. 9 Therefore its name was called Babel, because there the LORD
confused the language of the whole earth; and from there the LORD scattered them
abroad over the face of the whole earth.
Chapter 2
Define culture-Beliefs, values, norms, and social practices, which affect the behaviors of
a relatively large group of people. Not something you are born with, it is taught through
friends, family, and those with whom the child is around. These four characteristics
provided one's way of life.
Culture: culture is a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, norms,
and social practices, which affect the behaviors of a relatively large group of people (pg.
25).
Beliefs - Often referred to as the basic understanding of a group of people about what the
world is like or what can be deemed true or false.
Values- Focuses on what is good or bad or even based on what is important to a specific
group of people.
Norms- Are like a set of rules that justify or state what is appropriate behavior. This is
why some people have expectations on how others should act. However, it can change
from place to place which why it can be confusing as to why things are occuring when
your norms are different than your host cultures norms.
Social Practices- best described as predictable behavior patterns that people within a
certain culture typically follow.

Explain why cultures differ and why those difference continue to exist.
There are six reasons as to why culture differences may still exist in the world today.
They are: history, ecology, technology, biology, institutional networks, and interpersonal
communication patterns.
1. History- as it sounds it refers to that culture's history such as wars that have occurred,
religious leaders, advancements, rules, rights etc. The history of a culture can help
explain why they may want or not want different things or why things are valued as
respectful or disrespectful.
2. Ecology- Refers to the outside or external environment in which a culture lives. This
refers to the cultures climate, weather patterns, land formations, water formations,
availability of foods, availability of raw materials.
3. Technology- Are the inventions that a culture has created or borrowed which may
include; microchips, hydraulic techniques, paper clips, barbed wire, and even weapons.
When technology changes it can radically change the balance of forces which can
maintain a culture. When a country or countries make a technological advancement, it
puts them at a better advantage in areas where other countries who do not yet have this
technology. It can change how wars are fought, how people travel, and ways and means
of communication.
4. Biology- inherited characteristics from cultural members due to common ancestry.
They are hereditary differences that have adaptations suited towards that cultures
environment.
5. Institutional Networks- formal organizations in societies that structure activities for
large members of people. This includes; education, religion, work, government, social
organization, and professional association. It is how people are bound or come together.
For example, in religion, those of specific religions go to different places such as a
church, mosque, temple, etc. to worship, congregate together, and share their beliefs.
6. Interpersonal Communication Patterns- refers to the face-to-face, nonverbal, and
verbal coding systems that a culture has developed to convey meaning and intentions.
Patterns may include links among parents, siblings, teachers, peers, along with other
social contacts. Verbal communication gives a culture a language and a common set of
categories and distinctions to organize on how to organize perceptions. Nonverbal- help
to define the boundaries between members and non-members of a culture. It is how
space, time, touch and gestures are interpreted and used. Interpersonal communication
help to maintain the structure of a culture for it is the way things are transmitted with
beliefs and practices from one generation to another.
Define intercultural communication. (note p. 46 and p. 52 and other references)
Is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual process in which people from
different cultures create shared meanings. (pg 46). Vague meaning where you are the
judge on if the two people or groups come from a different cultural background or not.
Occurs when a large and important cultural differences created dissimilar interpretations
and expectations about how to communicate competently (pg. 49). If people are very
different then it is intercultural but if they share many similarities even though from a
different culture, then it is not intercultural.
Refers to interactions among people from different nations. (pg. 52).
Answer the questions in the examples on p. 47 and ff.
Example 1- 1. When Dele and Anibal first begin their studies in the United States their
communication is intercultural. Two different cultures (44).
2. When they complete their studies it could go either way if it intercultural
communication because they still have a different background but common studies and
interests.
3. At first I would say it is intercultural communication because they are more familiar
with their host culture and need time to readjust back into their home culture.
Example 2-1. The culture of Massachusetts is different enough from that of Colorado to
say that Janets communication is intercultural.
2. The feelings may have been similar or different depending on the type of people who
went to that college. She may feel more comfortable there but it does not mean the people
living in those dorms would have the same background.
 Example 3-1. Hamids communication in intercultural because Hamid is experiencing
U.S. culture throughout his entire day except at home. HE wishes to live the life he wants
to live rather than the one his parents have set out for him.
Example 4-1. I think Janes communication is still intercultural because even though
they work for the same company the way things get run in another country can be
different.
2. Her age and gender may be a problem in Korea however it will also depend on what
type of interpreter they send. If it is male it may turn out to be all right because the person
doing the direct communication is not female.
3. Yes, if she were going to London I may change my answer because London is very
similar to that of the U.S. plus they speak English.
Example 5-1. Her assessment is decent, however, seeing it and understanding it can still
be different than living it.
2. Yes, intercultural communication can take place even if they share no common
language. Non-verbal and gestures can help you communicate as well.
3. I do not think it will be less intercultural. I think her exposure to the films will allow
her to act in a more respectable manner.
Example 6-1. I do not think Johns communication with his new boss in intercultural
communication. It is more like a new way of doing things that he needs to figure out. The
stress of the new job, plus how things are run, plus new location can cause a lot of
fatigue.
Example 7-1. Jorge is correct and there is enough differences to make the
communication intercultural.
2. It is very important to understand how to speak the language properly in another
culture as to not offend anyone. Some cultures have words that have many different
meaning depending on your vocal pitch or even facial expressions.
Explain the continuum of intercultural- allows you to rate items on a scale based on
how intercultural an action or contact may be. Goes from greatest intercultural to least.
Greater being two different cultures, two different languages, religions etc. coming
together to interact. Least being similar language, background, just different area in the
same country.

1 Corinthians 11:2
Now I praise you because you remember me in everything and hold firmly to the traditions, just
as I delivered them to you

Chapter 3
What is competent intercultural communication?
Competent communication is interaction that is perceived as effective in fulfilling certain
rewarding objectives in a way that is also appropriate to the context in which the
interaction occurs. (61).
Communication competence is best determined by the people who are interacting with
one another. Behaviors should be regarded as appropriate. You should use symbols that
are expected to be used in a given context. Will also depend on the relationship or type of
interaction that is being done.

List and describe the components of intercultural competence (p. 66)

Context- an impression or judgement that a person is interculturally competent is made
with respect to both a specific relational context and a particular situational context. Will
also depend on cultural expectations about what behaviors are permitted in a setting or
situation in which people communicate.
Appropriateness and Effectiveness appropriateness refers to the behaviors that are
regarded as proper and suitable given the expectations generated by a given culture.
Effectiveness refers to the behaviors that lead to the achievement of a desired outcome.
Knowledge- the cognitive information you need to have about people, the context, and
the norms of appropriateness that operate within a specific culture. One should have
cultural-general information which provides insight into intercultural communication
process. Another knowledge part one should have is cultural-specific information. This is
used to understand the specifics of a particular culture. Gives you insight as to the
specific customs or rules that the culture may follow.
Motivations- includes peoples overall set of emotional associations as they anticipate
and actually communicate interculturally. The more willing you are to try the new things
offered in a new culture and be aware the easier it will become to be interculturally
competent.
Feelings- the emotional or affective states that you experience when you communicate
with someone from a different culture. Feelings are your emotional and physiological
reaction to thoughts and experiences. It regards your general sensitivity to other cultures
and your attitudes toward the specific culture and individuals you react with.
Intentions- these are what guide your choices in a particular intercultural interaction.
Your intentions are the goals, objectives, plans and desires that focus on and direct your
behavior.
Skills- your actual performance of those behaviors that are regarded as appropriate and
effective.
Apply BASICs of intercultural competence to yourself as you prepare to go to your
country. (pg. 68).
Display of respect- The ability to show respect and positive regard for other people and
their culture. In Slovakia all people are referred to by their surname and last name. No
one is ever called by just their first name. If it is a family member then you may call them
by their surname and first name. In a business transaction if a woman is present they are
the ones who initiate the handshake.
Orientation to knowledge- The recognition that individual experience shape what they
know. Slovakia is a small country that has only had its independence or country to them
since the year of 2004. Before this they went through a very rough history. Their
background still heavily influences them today. They have a mixture of architectural
styles, trading routes, and understandings of how the land can be used. Though a small
country they have been owned and part of larger ones and understand the functionality of
them. Children go to school and learn about their unique history and of the basic subject
as we do.
Empathy- The capacity to behave as though you understand the world around you. In
Slovakia it is very difficult to say exactly how this is shown or affected. They feel
towards others and they can be blunt. In other cultures many try to save face in their own
way.
Interaction Management- Skills in regulating conversation and taking turns. In Slovakia
woman initiate the handshake. If you are new to a deal they tend to beat around the bush
before getting to the point. However, if they have done business with you before or if you
are family then they can be rather blunt or straight to the point in order to get things done
quickly and efficiently.
Task Role Behavior- Behaviors that involve the initiation of ideas related to group
problem-solving activities.
 Relational Role Behavior- Behaviors associated with interpersonal harmony and
mediation
Tolerance for Ambiguity- The ability to react to new and ambiguous situations with
little visible discomfort
Interaction Posture- the ability to respond to others in descriptive non evaluative, and
non-judgmental ways
Application
Biblical Links

Apply BASICs of intercultural competence to yourself as you prepare to go to your

country:
Behavioral Assessment Scale for Intercultural Competence (BASICs) P. 73
(8 types of communication behaviors)
Display of Respect
Orientation to Knowledge
Empathy
Task role behaviors
Relational role behaviors
Tolerance for Ambiguity
Interaction Posture

Application: D- I- E : Description, Interpretation and Evaluation

D- Description
Description details specific perceptual cues
I- Interpretation
Interpretations attempt to explain the behavior or statements
E- Evaluation
Evaluations follow based on ones background knowledge.
 Biblical Links

Galatians 3:28

There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is no male and
female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus

1 Corinthians 12:12-30

For just as the body is one and has many members, and all the members of the body,
though many, are one body, so it is with Christ. For in one Spirit we were all baptized
into one bodyJews or Greeks, slaves or freeand all were made to drink of one Spirit.
For the body does not consist of one member but of many. If the foot should say,
Because I am not a hand, I do not belong to the body, that would not make it any less a
part of the body. And if the ear should say, Because I am not an eye, I do not belong to
the body, that would not make it any less a part of the body
Chapter 4: (Sandra)
Cultural Patterns: Shared beliefs, values, norms, and social practices that are stable over time and
that lead to roughly similar behaviors across similar situations are known as cultural patterns.
Cultural patterns affect perceptions of competence.
They cannot be seen, heard, or experienced directly.
Consequences of cultural patterns: shared interpretations that are evident in what people say and do are
readily observable.
They provide the basic set of standards that guide thought and action.
Four components of cultural patterns:
 Beliefs: are an idea that people assume to be true about the world. Beliefs, therefore, are a set
of learned interpretations that form the basis for cultural members to decide what is and what is
not logical and correct. Central Beliefs include the cultures fundamental teachings about what
reality is and expectations about how the world works. Peripheral Beliefs refer to matters of
personal taste. They contribute to each persons unique configuration of ideas and expectations
within the larger cultural matrix.
Values: Cultures differ not only in their beliefs but also in what they value. Values involve
what a culture regards as good or bad, right or wrong, fair or unfair, just or unjust, beautiful or
ugly, clean or dirty, valuable or worthless, appropriate or inappropriate, and kind or cruel. Values
are desired characteristics or goals of a culture, a cultures values do not necessarily describe its
actual behaviors or characteristics. Values are often offered as the explanation for the way in
which people communicate.
Norms: are the socially shared expectations of appropriate behaviors. When a persons
behaviors violate the cultures norms, social sanctions are usually imposed. Norms can vary within
a culture in terms of their importance and intensity, norms may change over a period of time,
whereas beliefs and values tend to be much more enduring.
Social Practices: are the predictable behavior patterns that members of a culture typically
follow. Social Practices are the outward manifestations of beliefs, values, and norms. One type of
social practice is informal and includes everyday tasks such as eating, sleeping, dressing, working,
playing, and talking to others.

4 major conclusion in Kluckhohn and Strodtbecks about the functions of

cultural patterns
1. People in all cultures face common human problems for which they must find solutions.
2. The range of alternative solutions to a culture's problem is limited.
3. Within a given culture, there will be preferred solutions, which most people within the culture will select,
but there will also be people who will choose other solutions.
4. Over time, the preferred solutions shape the cultures basic assumptions about beliefs, values, norms, and
social practices-the cultural patterns.
5 major elements in Kluckhohn and Strodtbecks view of cultural patterns
1. What is the human orientation to activity?
2. What is the relationship of humans to each other?
3. What is the nature human beings?
4. What is the relationship of human to the natural world?
5. What is the orientation of humans to time
Discover (and list) your own cultural patterns and analyze them in relationship to the
culture you have selected. Note areas of possible conflict.
Orientations Questions:
Activity Orientation: defines Is it important to be engaged in activities in order to be a good member
how the people of a culture of ones culture?
Can and should people change the circumstances of their lives?
view human actions and the Is work very different from play?
expression of self through Which is more important, work or play?
activities. Is life a series of problems to be solved or simply a collection of events to
be experienced?
Social Relations Orientation: To what extent are some people in the culture considered better or superior
describes how the people in a to others?
Can social superiority be obtained through birth, age, good deeds, or
culture organize themselves material achievement and success?
and relate to one another. Are formal , ritualized interaction sequences expected?
Self-Orientation: describes Do people believe they have their own unique identities that separate them
how peoples identities are from others?
What responsibilities does the individual have to others?
formed, whether the culture What motivates people to behave as they do?
views the self changeable, Is it possible to respect a person who is judged bad in one part of life but
what motivates individual is successful in another part of life?
actions, and the kinds of
 people who are valued and
respected.
World Orientation: provides
answers to questions such as
the following:
Time Orientation: the final
aspect of cultural patterns
concerns how people
conceptualize time.
Are human beings intrinsically good or evil?
Are humans different from other animals and plants?
Are people in control of, subjugated by, or living in harmony with the
forces of nature?
How should time be valued and understood?
Is time a scarce resource, or is it unlimited?
Is the desirable pace of life fast or slow?
Is time linear or cyclical?

Biblical Links

Romans 12:2

Do not be conformed to this world, but be transformed by the renewal of your mind, that by
testing you may discern what is the will of God, what is good and acceptable and perfect.

Chapter 5: (Sandra)

Hulls High and Low Context Taxonomy:

High-Context Cultures
Prefer high-context messages
Meaning implied by physical setting
Presumed to be part of internalized beliefs, values, norms and social practices
Little info provided in coded, explicit transmitted message
Reactions reserved
 Purpose of communicating is to sustain harmony (p.112)
Examples: Japanese, African American, Mexican, Latino
Low-Context Cultures
Prefer low-context messages
Meaning is explicit
Vested in explicit code
Reactions explicit and readily observable
Purpose is to convey exact meaning
Verbal messages are coded to provide clear feedback (ex., Do you understand?)?
Examples: German, Swedish, European American and English
High context:
Meanings internalized emphasis on nonverbal codes (seems preprogrammed)
Little interpretation is left to chance.
Communicative behaviors have specific and particular message
Easy to identify members
Message embedded in rules and rituals of situations
Easy to tell who is acting according to those norms
Fixed and specific expectations for behaviors deviations are easy to detect.
Commitment among group members strong
Group is source of identity loyalty to family and groups is strong
Low context:
Meaning in others behavior
Message is expressed precisely and specifically in words (ex. p.110)
Bonds between people is fragile
Extent of involvement and commitment to long-term relationships is lower
Wider acceptance of different rules and rituals for social situations

Hofstedes Cultural Taxonomy

Hofstedes Dimensions (Page 121)
1.Power Distance
2.Uncertainty Avoidance
3.Individualism vs. Collectivism
4.Masculinity vs. Feminism
5.Long Term vs. Short Term Time Orientation
6.Indulgence vs. Restraint
7.Monumentalism vs. Self-Effacement (stability vs. Change)

Schwarts Cultural Taxonomy

Globe Cultural Taxonomy:
Builds on Hofstede and Kluckhohn and Strodtbecks work (Ch. 4)
See page 125 in Ch. 5
 1.Power Distance
2.Uncertainty Avoidance
3.In-Group collectivism
4.Institutional Collectivism
5.Gender Egalitarianism
6.Assertiveness
7.Performance Orientation
8.Future Orientation
9.Humane Orientation

Cavaets for Taxonomies:

There is no right or wrong approach
Each approach takes the whole of cultural patterns beliefs, values, norms, and social practices
and divides them in different ways.
B. The parts of the system are interrelated.
C. Individual members of a culture may vary greatly from the pattern that is typical in that culture
Cultures organized by the amount of information implied by the context of the communication itself,
regardless of the specific words spoken.
Cultural Patterns-Hall:
High-context cultures prefer to use high-context messages.
Low-context cultures prefer to use low-context messages.
Some cultures have a majority of messages that are high-context, others have messages that are
mostly low-context, and yet others have a mixture of both.

High-context culture:
Meanings are internalized
Large emphasis on nonverbal codes.
Messages are almost preprogrammed
Much more is taken for granted and assumed to be shared
Most messages are coded so they do not need to be explicitly and verbally transmitted.
Reactions to messages are likely to be reserved

Low-context cultures:
Meaning of others behaviors is in the plainly and explicitly coded messages.
The details of the message are expressed precisely and specifically in the words that people use.
Little of the communication is taken for granted, and the speaker is responsible for
communicating.
To be understood accurately, messages should be transmitted explicitly and directly.
Reactions in low-context cultures are very explicit

Ingroups and Outgroups

 Communication differs when communicating with in-group and out-group members.
Ingroup-a group to which a person belongs.
Outgroup-a group to which a person does not belong.
In high-context cultures, it is very easy to determine who is a member and who is not.
Determining group membership in low-context cultures is not as easy
The emphasis placed on the individual in contrast to the group as a source of self-identity differs in high-
context and low-context cultures.
In a high-context culture, the commitment between people is strong and deep.
In a low-context culture, bonds between people are very fragile and the extent of involvement and
commitment to long-term relationships is lower

Power Distance:
Refers to the concerns that cultures have regarding the issue of human inequality.
Are all men are created equal or are
Some people superior to others?
Are inequalities good or bad, right or wrong?
Can power be distributed unequally?
An power holders be challenged?
Cultures that prefer small power distances believe in the importance of minimizing social or class
inequalities.
Cultures that prefer large power distances all believe that each person has a rightful and protected place in
the social order.
*In families:
High-children obey
Low-children seek reasons
In schools:
High-conformity, rote learning
Low-independence, challenge, question
In business:
High-autocratic
Low-participative

Hofstede Uncertainty Avoidance:

Addresses how members of a culture adapt to changes and cope with uncertainties.
Do people prefer or tolerate change?
What strategies are employed?
Are people threatened by the ambiguity?
Low uncertainty avoidance cultures have a high tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity.
Minimize rules and rituals that govern social conduct and human behavior
Accept and encourage dissent.
Tolerate people who behave in ways that are considered socially deviant.
Low uncertainty avoidance cultures have a high tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity.
 Taking risks and try new things.
Tend to live day to day.
View individual achievement as beneficial.
They need few rules to control social behaviors
Unlikely to adopt religious rituals that require precise patterns of enactment.
High uncertainty avoidance cultures have a low tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity.
Avoiding uncertainty is a cultural value.
Desire or even demand consensus about societal goals.
Do not like to tolerate dissent or allow deviation in the behaviors of cultural members.
Try to ensure certainty and security through an extensive set of rules, regulations, and rituals.
To cope with a world of unpredictability, they invent rules and rituals to constrain human behaviors.
They tend to be worried about the future and, thus, have high levels of anxiety and are highly resistant to
change.
Uncertainties in life are regarded as a continuous threat that must be overcome, so they develop many
elaborate rules and rituals (with precise sequences) to control social behaviors.
Individualism vs. Collectivism:
Involves peoples relationships to the larger social groups of which they are a part.
People must live and interact together for the culture to survive.
Addresses the degree to which a culture relies on and has allegiance to the self or to the group.
People in highly individualistic cultures take care of themselves and, perhaps, their immediate family
members.
Autonomy of the individual is paramount.
Independence, privacy, self, the all-important I.
Good for the individual, not the group.
Do not perceive a large chasm between ingroup and outgroup members.
More likely to speak out and be confrontational.
People in highly collectivistic cultures value a group orientation.
Require an absolute loyalty to the group which can include the nuclear family, the extended family, a caste,
or a jati (a subgrouping of a caste).
Decisions are always based on what is best for the group.
The groups to which a person belongs are the most important social units.
Individuals are expected to support the group over the self, the group is expected to take care of its
members.
Dependent on organizations and institutions.
Focus on a we consciousness.
Emphasize belonging.
Large distance between ingroup and outgroup.
Ingroup requires unquestioning loyalty.
Outgroup members are inconsequential.
Use face-saving strategies
Masculinity/ Femininity:
Gender expectations-the extent to which people prefer:
achievement and assertiveness (masculine) or
nurturance and social support (feminine).
Masculine cultures believe in achievement and ambition.
People should be judged on their performance.
Achievers should display material goods.
Support ostentatious manliness and products associated with male behavior.
Men should be assertive and women nurturing.
Sex roles are clearly differentiated and sexual inequality is seen as beneficial.
Feminine cultures believe in the importance of life choices that improve intrinsic aspects of the quality of
life.
Service to others and sympathy for the unfortunate.
Prefer equality between the sexes.
They have less prescriptive gender roles.
 Accept nurturing roles from men and women.
Men are far less interested in achievement.
Equality between the sexes is the norm.
Long-Term vs. Short Term:
Focuses on how cultures relate to the concept of time.
A persons point of reference about life & work.
Categorized on a continuum from long to short.
Cultures that promote a long-term orientation toward life admire persistence, thriftiness, and humility.
Cultures that promote a short-term orientation toward changing events have an expectation of quick results
following ones actions
Indulgence vs. Restraint:
Juxtaposes hedonism with self-discipline.
Cultures high on the indulgence side of the continuum encourage pleasure, enjoyment, spending,
consumption, sexual gratification, and general merriment.
Cultures high on the restraint side of the continuum encourage the control of hedonistic gratifications, and
discourage the pleasures and enjoyment associated with leisure activities.
GLOBE Cultural Patterns:
GLOBE is an acronym for Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness.
Project GLOBE is based on Hofstedes work on value dimensions and on Kluckhohn and Strodtbecks
work on value orientations.
Power Distance: Degree to which cultures believe that social and political power should be distributed
disproportionately, shared unequally, and concentrated among a few top decision makers.
Uncertainty Avoidance: The extent to which cultures feel threatened by the unpredictability of the future
and therefore try to establish more structure in the form of rules, regulations, rituals, and mandatory
practices
Ingroup Collectivism: Reflects the degree to which people express pride, loyalty, and solidarity with their
family or similar group
Institutional Collectivism: Represents the degree to which cultures support, value, and prefer to distribute
rewards based on group versus individual interests.
Gender Egalitarianism: The extent to which a culture minimizes differences in gender expectation for men
versus women.
Assertiveness: Describes the extent to which people value and prefer tough aggressiveness or tender non-
aggressiveness.
Performance Orientation: Refers to the degree to which a culture encourages and rewards people for their
accomplishments.
Future Orientation: Refers to the extent to which a culture plans for forthcoming events.
Describes the degree to which cultures advocate:
long-term planning and deferred gratification or the deeply felt satisfaction that comes from experiencing
the simple pleasures in life.
Humane Orientation: The extent to which cultures encourage and reward their members for being
benevolent and compassionate toward others or focused on self-interest and self-gratification.
Dimensions: Helps clarify our understanding of cultural patterns by separating:
Cultural practices (the ways that people typically behave in everyday communication interactions) from,
Cultural values (or what people regard as important and believe is ideal).
Also helps to explain the complex nature of cultural patterns.
Intercultural Competence:
Taxonomies serve as useful devices for people to understand and appreciate cultural valuations.
The categories help people describe the fundamental aspects of culture and provide mechanisms to
understand all intercultural communication events.
The competent intercultural communicator must recognize that cultural variations will always be a factor in
intercultural communication
To improve your competence, create a profile of a cultures values.
Seek out information about cultural patterns.
Study the patterns of your own culture.
Be willing to reflect on your preferences.
 Mentally consider your own preferences by juxtaposing them with the description of the typical person
from another culture

Biblical Links
1 John 2:15-17

Do not love the world or the things in the world. If anyone loves the world, the love of
the Father is not in him. For all that is in the worldthe desires of the flesh and the
desires of the eyes and pride in possessionsis not from the Father but is from the world.
And the world is passing away along with its desires, but whoever does the will of God
abides forever.

Chapter 6 (Sandra)
Cultural Identity:
ones sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group. It is formed in a process that
results from membership in a particular culture, and it involves learning about and accepting the
traditions, heritage, language, religion, ancestry, aesthetics, thinking patterns, and social
structures of a culture (130)
Three Areas of Identity Formation
1.Cultural Identity
2.Social Identity- Social identity being the specific participation in a group within your culture.
These groups will add to an individual's self-concept in that they have similarities in age, gender,
work, religion, ideology, social class, place (neighborhood, region, and nation), and common interests
(131). What makes up ones social identity can range from your professional field of study to small
clubs (sports/hobby/religious).
3.Personal Identity-Personal identity are made of of unique interests outside ones cultural or social
group. This ranges from likes and dislikes of cooking, food, activities, and even academics.

Cultural Identity: A sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group .and includes:
Traditions
Heritage
Language
Religion
Ancestry
Aesthetics
Thinking patterns
Social Structure
 Cultural Identity is formed: cultural identities are often developed through a process involving three stages:
unexamined cultural identity, cultural identity search, and cultural identity achievement.
Unexamined Cultural Identity: ones cultural characteristics are taken for granted, and consequently there is
little interest in exploring cultural issues.
Cultural Identity Search: involves a process of exploration and questioning about ones culture in order to
learn more about it and to understand the implications of membership in that culture.
Cultural Identity Achievement: is characterized by a clear, confident acceptance of oneself and an
internalizations of ones cultural identity.

Social Identity:
Social Identity develops as a consequence of memberships in particular groups within ones culture
Includes perceived similarities
Age
Gender
Work
Religion
Ideology
Social class
Common interests
Personal Identity:
Based on unique characteristics of individual
May differ from characteristics of others in their culture
Includes abilities, talents, quirks, preferences
Three Stages of Cultural Identity Formation:
Three Stages of Cultural Identity Formation
1.Unexamined Cultural Identity stage
Ones cultural characteristics taken for granted
2.Cultural Identity Search
Exploration and questioning about ones culture in order to learn more about it and understand
implications
3.Cultural Identity achievement
A clear, confident acceptance of oneself and internalization of ones cultural identity
Ethnocentrism:
Ethnocentrism is a learned belief in cultural superiority (p.150)
The tendency people have to evaluate others according to their own standards and experience
While this tendency can help bind people together, it can also present serious obstacles to cross-
cultural interactions

Stereotypes:
Stereotypes are socially constructed generalization about categories of people
They usually obscure differences within groups
They can be informative but sometimes are negative and play to ethnocentric ideas of the other
 Can be inaccurate
Assumed to apply to all people in group
Group average can be wrong or exaggerated
Exaggeration can differ between positive and negative traits of a group

Prejudice and Bias:

Ethnocentrism leads people to believe that their own ways are good and natural
Prejudice implies a lack of thought or care in making a judgment about others
While racial and ethnic prejudice can be expressed both positively and negatively, it is most often
negative

Biblical Links

Revelation 7:9

After this I looked, and behold, a great multitude that no one could number, from every nation,
from all tribes and peoples and languages, standing before the throne and before the Lamb,
clothed in white robes, with palm branches in their hands,

Chapter 7 (Sandra)
Power of Language:
Language is learned unconsciously, without awareness, and is too often taken for granted
Many intercultural situations are characterized by a heightened awareness about the nature of ones
language use
Verbal Codes: a set of rules about the use of words in the creation of messages
Rule systems in verbal codes govern the composition and ordering of symbols
The relationship between rule systems and what they stand for is often highly arbitrary, particularly
verbal symbols
Syntactics: Relationship of words to one another (rules that govern the sequence of words)
Pragmatics: The study of how language is actually used and the effect that language has on human
perceptions and behavior
Translation:Use of verbal signs of your language to understand the verbal signs of another language
Interpretation: The oral process of moving from one code to another.
More widely used in global economic and political environment of today
Equivalence: If the goal in interpreting from one language to another is to represent the source language
as closely as possible, a simpler way of describing the goal is with the term equivalence
Types of Equivalence:
Vocabulary Equivalence
Finding a word in the target language that has same meaning as source language
Idiomatic Equivalence
Expressions with meaning contrary to literal meaning of words used- Eat your heart out
Grammatical-syntactical Equivalence
Transferring grammatical rule system from one language to another
Experiential Equivalence
Words that have meaning in one culture but not in another-no experience with concept being described (i.e.,
television)
Conceptual Equivalence
How different cultures define reality
Importance of Language:
How do initial experiences with language shape or influence the way in which a person thinks?
Do the categories of language influence how we think and behave?
 Firmer view
Suggests that language is like a prison, once you learn a language you are irrevocably affected by its
particulars (p.178)

Softer View
Language shapes how we think and experience the world, but this influence is not unceasing

Differences in Language:
Variation in Vocabulary (p.179)
Fewer or more words to explain world existing within (Eskimos and the word Snow)
Variations in Linguistic Grammars
Patterns of culture reflected in language
Concept of time, value of showing respect and social hierarchies determines degree to which
language demands certain words and grammar structure to show relationship (he/she, amico/amica)
Linguistic Relativity
Components of language create habitual response patterns to the people, events and mesage3s that
surround you.

Languages and Intercultural Communication:

Language, Ethnic Group Identity and Dominance
Language used to identify those in the group from those outside.
Some believe the heart of a culture is its language
If culture dies its language dies
 Alternative versions within culture
Dialects, accents, jargon, argot(specialized language used to define boundaries of group-i.e., gangs)
Code switching
Use of a particular language by those who speak multiple languages

Verbal Codes and Intercultural Competence:

Learning foreign language teaches us about that culture
Learn to appreciate those who struggle to communicate in second language
Language learning important link between competence and verbal codes
Learning a New Verbal Code:
Learning a new language requires time and energy
Functioning in a culture that speaks a language different from your own can be extremely tiring and
exasperating. (ex. bl. Pepper/wax paper)
Recognizing the possibility of irritability and fatigue when functioning in unfamiliar linguistic
environment is an important prerequisite to intercultural competence.
Biblical Links

Isaiah 50:4

The Lord God has given me the tongue of those who are taught, that I may know how to sustain
with a word him who is weary. Morning by morning he awakens; he awakens my ear to hear as
those who are taught.

Chapter 8
Explain nonverbal codes
Non-verbal codes are not language based. They are what we perceive based on body
language and movement. Non-verbal codes have several characteristics. It is multi-
channeled which means that it can occur in a variety of ways. They are also multi-
functional, they can fulfill several goals or communicative functions simultaneously are
most often acted spontaneously and subconsciously.
List and explain cultural universals in nonverbal communication.
- Same body parts are used for non-verbal expressions
- Non-verbal channels are used to convey similar information, emotions, values,
norms, and self-disclosing messages.
- Accompany verbal communication and can be used in art or ritual.
- Are used to coordinate and control a range of contexts and relationships that are
similar across cultures.
- Cultures differ in specific repertoire certain movements, body positions, posture,
vocal intonations, special requirements etc.
- Display rules- when and under what circumstances various non-verbal expressions
are required, preferred, permitted, or prohibited. (how far apart people should stand while
talking).
- Interpretations- another difference amongst cultures, gestures can be random where
they have no particular meaning to anyone, idiosyncratic which means the gesture is
unique to special individuals or relationships. Or shared which means the meaning is
significant and is shared amongst a group of people
Provide examples of nonverbal messages in intercultural communication.
-Physical appearance- body characteristics- sends a nonverbal message- Im clean kept,
tall short, friendly, upset, happy etc. can create a meaning amongst individuals.
- Environment- what surrounds us during our communication is it a formal setting such
as an office for an interview, a warm setting such as outdoors in the park or in the comfort
of a family room. Does the room seem private for privacy, is it familiar and how much
distance all plays into how one should act and speak.
- Body movements- Kinesthetic behaviors include gestures, head movement, body
movement, facial expression, eye movement and other physical displays.
- Personal space- space can reveal character about people in that culture.

Describe/explain cultural meanings of touch, time, and voice.

- There are 5 meanings to touch
o Affect- the expression of positive and negative feelings of emotion
o Playfulness- touch can be shown that things shouldnt be taken seriously
o Control- indicates social dominance- used to say stay here Move over
o Ritual- involving introduction or departure such as hugging, handshake, farewell etc.
o Task-related- as casual brief contacts of hands when passing an object, or formal and
prolonged like when a physician takes your pulse.
- Voice includes pitch and rate of talking. May also include the conversational rhythm
and volume that speech is spoken. Your voice can tell a person if you are tense, nervous,
happy, worried, afraid, upset etc. tones are used in different ways, some use it to
differentiate meaning to a word.
- Time
o Chronemics- two perspectives; time orientations and time systems
o Time orientation- value or the importance of the passage of time within a culture or
group of people.
o Past oriented cultures- events are circular, they regard many traditions and highly
respect elders and parents.
o Present oriented cultures- current experiences as most important. Participate in event
because of pleasure seeking at the time and not how it will affect the future.
o Future oriented cultures- believe that some form of the future is most important.
Current activities are not appreciated on their own but what do they provide for us in the
future. By doing this now. this will be my result.
o Time systems- implicit culture rules that are used to arrange set of experiences in some
meaningful way.
o Technical time systems- precise measurement of time such as a clock
o Formal Time Systems- the way members of a culture describe and comprehend units
of time. Can vary from culture to culture in America we use minutes seconds and hours.
Others may use seasons, position of the sun or some other form to communicate.
o Informal time systems- assumptions cultures make how time should be used or
experienced. Like after guests arrive at a party should dinner be served, when is
appropriate to ask a question in class. Etc.

Biblical Links

1 Corinthians 14:10

There are doubtless many different languages in the world, and none is without meaning,
Chapter 9
Explain cultural variations in persuasion.
- Persuasion involves the use of symbols to influence others. It can be mediated
through television, video, music and even art. A daily conversations amongst people can
lead people to persuade others that their view or opinion on something should be valued.
Like trying to get people to try a new food, new restaurant, discussion of politics, what
outfit to wear, etc.
- Who can be regarded as an authority
- What cultures consider to be acceptable evidence
- How evidence is based to create a persuasive argument
- When ideas are accepted as reasonable
- Those ideas are what are referred to as persuasive style and it can vary from culture
to culture.
- Evidence is what the persuader will use to try and convince those they are trying to
persuade. There are no universal standards as to what constitutes evidence or how it
should be properly brought up.
- Referring to a culture's dominant patterns may help people determine what is best
or correct to persuade someone. Can be referred to as ones persuasive style.
- Quasilogical style- use of statistics, testimony, and witnesses as evidence. Evidence is
then connected to help form a conclusion.
- Presentational style- appeals more to the persons emotions- husband uses this in
architecture. They try to play to their buyers emotions and sell things to them based on
looks, designs and the buyer's goals rather than statistical evidence.
- Analogical style- tries to establish an idea or conclusion and persuade the person
listening with a story or parable.
Explain value of talk and silence and rules for conversations.
- Pg 216- how much one should talk and how much one should stay quiet.
- In America we value the voice, it is used in persuasion, in court, we sweat by our
voice as being the truth. Silence is looked at as negative thing, we are shy, uninterested,
uncomfortable etc.
- Other cultures such as Asian cultures value silence. to be always talking is against
nature217
- Rules for conversation
o Direct style- verbal messages are explicit in revealing the speaker's true intentions and
desires
o Indirect styles- it's like beating around the bush, instead of just saying no directly they
may allude to it with stories or excuses or in a way say no without directly saying it
o Elaborate style- use of metaphors, stories, and long sentences to get to the point.
Almost like listening to a long story every time where every detail cannot be missed, left
out, or forgotten.
o Succinct style- only the precise amount of information is given.
o Personal style- where the individual is at the center of the action
o Contextual style- emphasis on social roles,
o Instrumental style- communication is goal oriented and depends on explicit verbal
messages
o Affective Style- more emotional and requires sensitivity to both the verbal and
nonverbal codes.
 Biblical Links

1 Corinthians 11:1-2

Be imitators of me, as I am of Christ. Now I commend you because you remember me in

everything and maintain the traditions even as I delivered them to you.

Chapter 10
Describe interpersonal relationships in various cultures/types.
- Strangers- someone who you do not know, have not met before
- Acquaintances- someone you know but only casually. Talk is still formal and polite,
broad topics discussed. Small talk.
- Friends- refers to many different types of relationships like good friend close
friend best friend. Someone with whom you know very well and possibly have a close
personal bond to. Friendships are voluntary and usually occur because you share in an
activity together.
- Romantic partners- varies from culture to culture- in America it is someone with
whom you have dated, grown very fond of and are close to. You decided to move past
being friends and share intimate conversations and outings. Some cultures this next step
is what the parents decide and you have no control over.
- Family- depending on culture will define family. In America interaction with family
is usually mother father and children in the household. Grandparents may move in. Other
cultures is where the whole family plus extended family all live together or very near
each other. See page 230
- Dimensions of interpersonal relationships-
o Control- social status or dominance. Can be conveyed through specific name titles.
o Affiliation- degree of friendliness, liking, social warmth, or intimacy that is being
communicated. Willingness to approach or avoid people. In high contact culture people
tend to stand and sit very close to one another where in low contact cultures space is
required between each other.
o Activation- way people react to the world around them. Cultures differ in ways in what
they may consider acceptable and appropriate levels of activation.

Explain these terms: face, facework and maintenance of face.

 - Face- favorable social impression that a person wants others to have of him or her.
o Social- not the way the person thinks of themselves but how they want others to regard
them.
o Impression- may not be shared by all, differ from a person's self image.
o Favorable- social attributes that people want others to acknowledge.
- Control face- people's need for others to acknowledge their individual autonomy and
self sufficiency. The desire to have freedom of action
- Approval face- an individuals requirements for affiliation and social contacts. Is the
need people have for others to acknowledge their friendliness and honesty.
- Admiration face- individual's needs for displays of respect from others. Wanting to be
acknowledged for talents or accomplishments.
- Facework- refers to actions people take to deal with their own and others face needs
- See page 238
Explain the connection between interpersonal relationships and intercultural
competence.
- Intercultural relationships- to strengthen one should build knowledge and
understanding of another culture.
o Reduction of anxiety- anxiety/uncertainty management theory-incorporates emotional
or motivational component of intercultural competence.
o Uncertainty-person lacks knowledge, information, and ability to understand and
predict the intentions and behaviors of another.
o Anxiety- individuals degree of emotional tension and his or her ability to cope with
change, to live with stress, and to contend with vague and imprecise information
Cause of anxiety and uncertainty
Expectations about future interactions
Incentive value- perceived likelihood that a person can provide or reward you with
certain wants or needs
Degree of defiance- inconsistent with the common norms
o Consequences of uncertainty and anxiety management
Expectancy violations theory- explain when deviations from expectations will be
regarded as positive or negative.
Emotional consequences may include- self-disclosure, heightened interpersonal
attraction, increases in intimacy behaviors, more frequent non-verbal displays of positive
emotions, increased likelihood that future intercultural contacts will be regarded as
favorable.
- Competence in intercultural relationships requires that you understand the meanings
attributed to particular types of interpersonal relationships. You have to have a
willingness to understand face nonverbal and verbal codes. Need to have knowledge of
the differences.

Biblical LinksRomans 12:1-2

I appeal to you therefore, brothers, by the mercies of God, to present your bodies as a
living sacrifice, holy and acceptable to God, which is your spiritual worship. Do not be
conformed to this world, but be transformed by the renewal of your mind, that by testing
you may discern what is the will of God, what is good and acceptable and perfect.

Chapter 11
Define social episodes and include the nature and components of social episodes.
- Social episodes- interaction sequences that are repeated over and over again.
Episodes occur and are very predictable.
- Components of a social episode
o Cultural patterns- shared judgments about what the world is and what it should be.
Expectations with how people should act. These patterns are formed from cultures
beliefs, values, customs and how they think about the world.
o Social roles- set of expected behaviors associated with people in a particular position.
The role that you take in a particular social episode strongly suggests to you the way in
which you should act.
o Rules of interaction- provide a predictable pattern or structure to social episodes and
give relationships a sense of coherence
o Interaction scenes- made up of recurring, repetitive topics that people will talk about in
social conversations. Page 256 has a wonderful example on how conversations can go.
o Interaction contexts- setting or situations within which social episodes occur.
Explain contexts of intercultural communication and focus on the educational
context.
- Health care contexts- affects doctors, nurses, counselors and health care workers as
well as patience and families.
o Culture's influence on the health care context- reflects cultural patterns. Social patterns
can lead to very clear expectations about the right and wrong way to treat an illness.
o Magico-religious or personalist approach- health and illness are closely related to
supernatural forces. One need to call on a healer
o Holistic or natural approach- humans desire to maintain a sense of harmony with the
forces of nature
o Biomedical or western approach- people who are thought to be controlled by
biochemical forces.
- Family and gender roles in the healthcare context- the role of the individual patient in
contrast to the role of the family. Responsibilities of family members in the health care
contexts differ widely across cultures.
- Conversational Structures, language, and nonverbal communication
o Because of different interaction rules, the medical interview between caregiver and
patient can be another source of intercultural communication pg 262-263
o Intercultural competence in the healthcare context-
Health care professionals need to be aware of the cultural differences and respect them
and abide by them as much as possible within their practice.
- The educational context- educational system
o Cultures influence- differences in cultural backgrounds may produce developmental
variations in childrens cognitive, physical, and motor abilities.
o The role of the teacher- responsibility to demonstrate intercultural communication
competence. Their job is to understand the difference and react/behave accordingly.
- Classroom interaction cultural characteristic also influence what is appropriate and
effective communication within the classroom. How to act and communicate
appropriately amongst one another.
- Verbal styles can also vary
- Families in the educational system- how you go about interacting with the parents,
administration, and others.
o Getting parents involved
o Teachers evaluation of student behavior
- Intercultural competence in the educational context
 o The starting point for development in cultural competence in the educational context is
to understand ones own cultural background. Recognize their students influence.

Biblical LinksColossians 4:5

Walk in wisdom toward outsiders, making the best use of the time.

Chapter 12

Explain the outcomes of intercultural contact

- Intercultural communications creates stress for most individuals
- Attitudes among culture members
o Alports study- intercultural contact needs support from the top
o Those involved have personal stake in the outcome
o Intercultural contact can reduce perceived threat
o Consequences related to perceived outcomes of both parties having positive common
or personal goals.
- People's reactions can change over time called adaptation
o Adaptation- describe how individuals respond to their experiences in other cultures.
o adaptation is the process by which people establish and maintain relatively stable,
helpful, and mutually shared relationships with others upon relocating to an unfamiliar
culture setting (291)
o Physical, biological, and social change.

Explain culture shock versus adaptation

- Culture shock- precipitated by the anxiety that results from losing all our familiar
signs and symbols of social intercourse.
- Very difficult to cope with new area because much that they are familiar with has
changed.
- Can start with a high followed by a low then back to a high
- Re-entry shock- may occur when an individual returns home and must re-adapt.
- Negative reaction to a new culture
- Adaptation- refers to the pattern of accommodations and acculturation that results
from peoples contact experience with another culture.
Explain types of adaptation
- Culture Shock - Oberg
- Assimilation- deemed relatively unimportant to maintain one's original cultural
identity but it is important to establish and maintain relationships with other cultures.
- Separation- individual does not want to maintain positive relationships with members
of other groups.
- Segregation- separation occurs more politically and economically powerful culture
does not want the intercultural contact
- Seclusion- nondominant group chooses not to participate in the larger society to
retain its own way of life. Amish are a good example
- Marginalization- individual or group can retain their culture heritage nor maintain
positive contacts with the other culture groups. Often caused by confusion and alienation.
Explain forms of acculturation
Pg. 295-296
What are ethical considerations for intercultural competence? Are cultural values
relative or universal?
- When in Rome- suggests the visitors conform to the country's culture and their
customs. Can cause a problem if contradicts one's beliefs or morals.
- Are cultures values relative or universal- is it acceptable to judge the people of the
culture when they are radically different. Every culture has its own set of values. One
should be tolerable.
- Do the ends justify the mean? goes about asking questions like should intercultural
contacts be encouraged? All? It is up to us and our ethics on how we go about answering
these questions.
- Cultural values are relative and can change amongst cultures and sometimes even
amongst families.
Apply to your personal beliefs. Apply to Christian beliefs.
- I for one try to very respectful and understanding of other culture. I conduct myself in
a very proper way when not in my own home or out with friends. I understand cultural
differences and try to understand them. I do not however conform to their beliefs. I
respect them but there are some issues or customs that I may not wish to participate in. I
would hope they would have the same respect for me as I do for them if something within
my culture made them uncomfortable I would not require them to participate.

Biblical Links

1 Corinthians 15:10

But by the grace of God I am what I am, and his grace toward me was not in vain. On the
contrary, I worked harder than any of them, though it was not I, but the grace of God that
is with me.