The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on

Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009,

Taipei, Taiwan

STUDY ON WIND LOADS AND RESPONSES

OF TALL BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
Ming Gu
Professor, State Key Laboratory of Disaster Reduction in Civil Engineering, Tongji
University, Shanghai 200092, China, minggu@tongji.edu.cn
ABSTRACT
This paper introduces wind-resistant studies of our research team on tall buildings and structures. Wind tunnel
tests were carried out on 27 typical tall building models by using wind pressure scanning and HFFB techniques.
The characteristics of wind pressures and forces acting on these buildings were analyzed. Some results have been
adopted in a Shanghai code for structural design of steel tall buildings. Interference effects on wind forces and
wind pressures among two and three tall buildings were experimentally investigated with about 10,000 testing
cases. Regression analyses of the interference factors under different parameter conditions were made and the
main regression formulas are presented. Theoretical study on equivalent static wind loads of tall buildings and
structures are then introduced. Especially, a new concept of mode coupling factor and a modified SRSS
method for wind response and equivalent static wind load of complicated tall buildings and structures with
consideration of multi-mode contributions and their coupling effects are presented. Recently, two ultrasonic
anemometers, two cup anemometers and accelerometers were mounted on the top of Shanghai World Financial
Center with a height of 492m to measure the wind speed and wind characteristics and responses of the buildings,
the situation of which is briefly introduced. Finally, practical applications of wind-resistant studies on tall
buildings and structures, taking Guangzhou New TV Tower as an example, are presented.
KEYWORDS: TALL BUILDING, WIND PRESSURE AND FORCE, INTERFERENCE EFFECT,
EQUIVALENT STATIC WIND LOAD, FIELD MEASUREMENT, APPLICATION

Introduction
Recent years, many tall buildings and structures have been or are being constructed,
and more are being planned in the world. Wind loads and responses are the key factors for
their structural design.
Davenport (1961a, 1961b, 1963) laid the foundation stone of wind-resistant theory of
tall buildings in the 60s of last century. After that, researchers have made great development
in this important field.
The research team of the author has also made efforts in some issues in the field of
wind-resistance of tall buildings and structures. Characteristics of wind pressures and forces
in time domain and frequency domain acting on the tall buildings with various cross-section
shapes were experimentally investigated by using wind pressure scanning technique, HFFB
technique and aeroelastic model test technique (Quan, 2002; Ye, 2005; Tang, 2006; Zhang,
2009; Gu and Quan, 2004). Aerodynamic damping of some typical buildings was studied
through aeroelastic model wind tunnel tests (Quan et al., 2005; Quan, 2002). Basic principle
and methods of equivalent static wind loads on tall buildings and structures (Zhou, 1999; Ye,
2005; Tang, 2006; Shen, 2007; Zhang, 2009; Zhou et al., 1999a, 1999b, 2000, 2002; Gu and
Ye, 2001; Gu and Zhou, 2009) have also been our concerned problems. Especially, great
efforts were made on interference effects of wind loads among grouped tall buildings (Huang,
2001; Xie, 2004; Gu and Han, 2009; Xie and Gu, 2004a, 2004b, 2005, 2007, 2009; Gu et al.,
2005; Huang and Gu, 2005). Furthermore, field measurements of wind characteristics and
The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

building responses (Gu and Quan2009), local wind pressure characteristics of tall buildings
and design methods of claddingLuan, 2003; Gu and Han, 2009), wind-rain loads on tall
buildings and towers (Gu and Zhang, 2009), numerical simulation of wind loads and
aeroelastic responses of tall buildings (Chen, 1999; Fang, 2007; Yang, 2004; Chen et al., 1999,
2000; Yang et al., 2009; Zhang and Gu, 2008), comparison study on wind effects and
earthquake effects on tall buildings with consideration of soil-structure interaction (Hong,
2005; Hong and Gu, 2006), wind-induced fatigue life reliability of complicated steel
structures (Wang, 2009) and control methods of wind-induced vibration of tall buildings and
structures with consideration of aeroelastic effects (Chang and Gu, 1999; Gu and Peng, 2002;
Peng et al. 2003, 2004, 2007; Gu, 2007) were also paid attention to. A database system has
been initially constructed, in which some of the above results have been adopted and the
others will be added in the near future. Some of the above issues are introduced in this paper.
Finally wind-resistant study on Guangzhou New TV Tower with a height of 610 m (Gu et al.,
2006) is taken as a representative example from wind-resistant studies on dozens of real tall
buildings and structures carried out by the team.
Wind Pressures and Forces on Typical Buildings

Building Models and Testing Conditions

The building models for the test had different cross-section shapes, including square,
rectangular, triangle, Y-type, polygon, L-type, ladder shape, corner-modified square cross-
section shape and double-tower, which are shown in Fig.1. The heights of all the models were
60 cm, representing 300m high prototype buildings in terms of the scale ratio of 1/500. All of
the models were tested by using pressure scanning technique and some were further tested by
using HFFB technique.
Four categories of exposure conditions, corresponding to terrain categories, A, B, C
and D, were simulated in the wind tunnel at a length scale of 1/500 in accordance with the
Chinese load code. In addition, the simulated index of coherence function of fluctuating wind
speed ranged 7~9 (Zhang, 2004), which matched the suggestion by Simiu and Scanlan (1996).
For wind pressure experiments, the testing wind speed at the model top was 10-13m/s.
o
The testing wind direction increment was set to be very small, which was 1 , in order to make
a detailed research on the slopes of wind forces with respect to wind direction and further on
the constructions of wind forces. A DSM3000 scan valve system was used to simultaneously
measure the wind pressures.
The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

A
C

40
B
100 60

100
100
60
60
20

100

100
230

200

200
50

600

600
20

600
600

600

600
280

300

300
50

150 150
60 60 60 150 150
90 si de1 si de2
180 si de1 si de2

si de1 si de2
Fig.1 Cross sections of models
Characteristics of Wind Pressure Coefficients
The wind pressure coefficient is defined as follows.
C p (t ) = p (t ) /[0.5 U H 2 ] (1)
where U H is the wind speed at the top of the building.
From the test results, variations of mean and fluctuating wind pressure coefficients with
wind direction and the wind pressure coefficient distributions on the measuring layer plan and
along the height of all the models have been obtained. The Power spectrum density (PSD, for
short) of fluctuating wind pressures, correlation coefficients and coherence functions have
also been analyzed. But only some results are presented here due to the limited space of the
paper. Figs .2 and 3 show the wind pressure coefficients at typical taps on the measuring layer
2, the height of which is 50.95 cm above the ground level, of the triangular and Y-type
o
building models, respectively, under the terrain category B with 0 wind direction. The wind
pressure coefficients on the measuring layers 2 and 4 (corresponding to the heights on the
o
model of 50.95 and 35.7, respectively) of the triangular and Y-type building models at 0
wind direction are presented in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively. Figs. 6 and 7 indicate the wind
o
pressure coefficient distributions along height of triangular and Y-type buildings at 0 wind
direction, respectively.
The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

1.0
0.40
0.8

0.6 0.35
point 2-13
0.4 point 2-3
point 2-13 0.30
0.2 point 2-8
mean Cp 0.0 point 2-3
0.25
point 2-8

rms Cp
-0.2

-0.4 0.20
-0.6
0.15
-0.8

-1.0
0.10
-1.2

-1.4 0.05
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
o o
degree( ) degree( )

Fig.2 Mean and RMS Cps at typical points of the triangular model
0.35
1.0

0.8
0.30 point 2-1
0.6
point 2-11
0.4 point 2-14
0.25
0.2 point 2-1 point 2-4
point 2-11 point 2-8

rms Cp
mean Cp

0.0
point 2-14 0.20
-0.2
point 2-4
-0.4 point 2-8
-0.6 0.15

-0.8

-1.0 0.10

-1.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
o o
degree( ) degree( )

Fig.3 Mean and RMS Cps at typical measuring points of the Y-type model
0.22
1.0
0.21
0.8
0.20
0.6
0.19
layer-2
0.4 layer-4
0.18
0.2

rms Cp
mean Cp

0.17
0.0
0.16
-0.2 layer-2
-0.4
layer-4 0.15

-0.6 0.14

-0.8 0.13

-1.0 0.12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

point number point number

Fig.4 Mean and RMS Cps on the 2nd and 4th layers of the triangular model
0.35

1.0
0.30
0.8

0.6
0.25
0.4
layer-2
rms Cp

0.20
mean Cp

0.2
layer-4
0.0
layer-2 0.15
-0.2
layer-4
-0.4
0.10
-0.6

-0.8 0.05
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

point number point number

nd th
Fig.5 Mean and RMS Cps on the 2 and 4 layers of the Y-type model
1.0
1.0

0.8 point 13
point 3 0.8
point 8
relative Height

theory 2=0.32
relative Height

0.6
0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 point 13

point 3
point 8
0.0 0.0
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18

mean Cp rms Cp

Fig.6 Mean and RMS Cps along the height of the triangular model
1.0
1.0

0.8
0.8
point 11
Relative Height

point 1
Relative Height

point 4 0.6
0.6
point 8
theory 2 =0.32
0.4
0.4

point 11
0.2 0.2 point 1
point 4
point 8
0.0 0.0
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35

mean Cp rms cp

Fig.7 Mean and RMS Cps along the height of Y-type model
The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

Wind Forces
Wind forces acting on the buildings were then computed based on the wind pressures.
The wind force characteristics, including wind force coefficient, PSD, coherence function and
so on, were analyzed in detail. Figs. 8 and 9 show the variations of wind force coefficients on
different layers 1, 2, 3 and 4, which correspond to the heights of 57.15, 50.95, 43.8 and 35.7
mm on the building models, respectively, of the triangular and Y-type models with wind
directions in exposure category B. More results can be found in (Ye, 2005; Tang, 2006;
Zhang, 2009).
1.7 0.0 0.20
1.6 layer-1
-0.2
1.5 layer-2 0.16
layer-3 -0.4
1.4 -0.6 0.12
layer-4

mean CM
mean CD

mean CL
1.3
-0.8
1.2 0.08
1.1 -1.0
-1.2 0.04
1.0
0.9 -1.4 0.00
0.8 -1.6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 o
50 60
0.28 o 0.40 o 0.06 degree( )
degree( ) degree( )
0.35
0.24 0.05
0.30
0.25 0.04
0.20
rms CD

rms CL

rms CM
0.20 0.03
0.16
0.15
0.02
0.12 0.10
0.05 0.01
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
o o o
degree( ) degree( ) degree( )
Fig.8 Wind force coefficients of the triangular model vs. wind direction (Terrain type B)
1.4 0.4 layer-1 0.02
layer-2
1.3 0.2 layer-3 0.01
1.2 0.0 layer-4
0.00
mean CM
mean CD

mean CL

1.1 -0.2
-0.01
1.0 -0.4
0.9 -0.6 -0.02

0.8 -0.8 -0.03

0 10 20 30 40o
50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0.24 degree( ) 0.35 o
degree( ) 0.04 o
degree( )
0.22 0.30
0.03
0.20 0.25
rms CD

rms CL

rms CM

0.18 0.20 0.02

0.16 0.15
0.01
0.14 0.10
0.12 0.05 0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
o o
degree( ) degree( )
o degree( )

Fig.9 Wind force coefficients of the Y-type model vs. wind direction (Terrain type B)
Based on the wind force results of the building models and the wind parameters, i.e.,
mean wind speed and turbulent characteristics, the along-wind and across-wind and torsional
external excitation force parameters, including buffeting force and wake excitation force
coefficients and the corresponding shape modification factors, were derived. A new non-
dimensional PSD formula for wake vortex excitation was then proposed as follows.
nS s ( z; n) As Bs (n / ns ) 2+Cs
= (2)
s2 n2 2 n2
(1 2 ) + Bs 2
ns ns
where the parameters As, Bs and Cs were derived from the testing data and some are listed in
Table 1, the values of ns( = S tU Z / B( z ) ) of some typical buildings are also given in Table 1.
Furthermore, the coherence functions of the wake excitations were derived.
The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

Table.1 Parameters in reduced PSD formula and St number for typical buildings
Parameters
As Bs Cs St
Model
Square Square 1.5 0.28 0 0.11
cross-section bevel corner 2.1 0.11 0 0.13
Rectangular Long-side windward 3.5 0.028 1.4 0.1
cross-section Short-side windward 1.1 0.48 -0.24 0.075
Triangular 2.3 0.056 0 0.1
Y-type cross-section 1.445 0.26 0 0.13

Across-Wind Forces on Typical Tall Buildings Adopted in a Code

Based on the test results, variation laws of across-wind forces acting on some typical
buildings have been recognized. Fig.10 shows the variation laws of across-wind forces acting
on buildings of rectangular cross-sections with different side ratios and corner-modifications,
where H is the height of building, B and D are the width and depth of building cross section,
respectively, and b is the corner-cut size.

0.1 0.1
Model 1(H/B=6) Terrain B
0.1
Terrain B
Terrain A H/B=
D/B=
Terrain B 4
1/3
Terrain C 5
2 2

2 2
2 2

fSMx(f)/(0.5UH BH )

fSMx(f)/(0.5UH BH )
fSMx(f)/(0.5UH BH )

0.01 1/2
0.01 Terrain D 6 0.01
2/3
2

2
2

7
1/1
8
3/2
9 1E-3
2/1
1E-3
3/1
1E-3

1E-4

1E-4
0.1 0.1 0.1 1

fB/UH fB/UH fB/UH

(a) Effect of terrain condition (b) Effect of aspect ratio (c) Effect of side ratio
0.1
0.1

TerrainB
Terrain B
(b/B)=
(b/B)=
0.%
0.%
0.01 5.% 0.01 5.%
2 2
fSMx(f)/(0.5UH BH )

10%
2 2
fSMx(f)/(0.5UH BH )

10%
20% 20%
2

1E-3
1E-3

1E-4 1E-4

0.1 0.1

fB/UH fB/UH

(d) Effect of corner-cut size (bevel corner model) (e) Effect of corner-cut size (concave corner model)
Fig.10 Effects of parameters on the across-wind forces
The non-dimensional power spectrum density of across-wind forces of buildings was
assumed to have the following style.
fS Mx ( f ) S p (n / f p )
= (3)
{0.5U H2 BH 2 }2 {1 (n / f p ) 2 }2 + (n / f p ) 2
where S Mx ( f ) is the first generalized across-wind force spectrum, f is the frequency,
n = fB / U H , and U H is the mean wind speed at the top of the buildings. The parameters
f p , S p , and , being functions of aspect ratio, side ratio of the cross section of the
buildings and wind field condition, are as follows.
f p = 10 5 (191 9.48 w + 1.28 hr + hr w )(68 - 21 db + 3 db2 )
(4)
S p = (0.1 w 0.0004e )(0.84 hr 2.12 0.05 hr )(0.422 + db 0.08 db )

0 . 4 2 w1 2
(5)
1.7 w 1.26 0.63 hr 1.7 3.44 / db
= (1 + 0.00473e )(0.065 + e )e (6)
The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

= (0.8 + 0.06 w + 0.0007e )( hr0.34 + 0.00006e )(0.414 db + 1.67 db 1.23 )

w hr
(7)
hr = H / BD (8)
db = D / B (9)
w = 1( A); 2( B); 3(C ); 4( D) (10)
The above equations are suitable for estimating the across-wind forces of square
buildings with aspect ratios between 4 and 9, and rectangular buildings with side ratios
between 0.5 and 2.0 under the four categories of terrain.
As for the square buildings with corner modifications, the non-dimensional power
spectrum density of across-wind force, S Mm ( f ) , was suggested to have the following style.
S Mm ( f ) = C m ( f ) S M 0 ( f ) (11)
where S M 0 ( f ) is the power spectrum of across-wind force of the square building, i.e., S Mx ( f ) in
Eq.(3), and C m ( f ) is a non-dimensional ratio between S Mm ( f ) and S M 0 ( f ) , which is listed in
Table 2.
The RMS coefficients of the base moment and the base shear force are, respectively, as
C M = (0.002 w2 0.017 w 1.4) (0.056 db 2
0.16 db + 0.03)(0.03 ht2 0.622 ht + 4.357 ) (12)
And
C S = (0.018 w2 + 0.0006 w 2.4) (0.0375 db2
0.11 db + 0.0117)(0.04 ht2 0.928 ht + 6.7) (13)
where
ht = H / T , (T = min( B, D)) (14)

Table 2 Value of Cm ( f )
Non-dimensional frequency fB / U H
Cross- Wind
b/B
Section condition 0.100 0.125 0.150 0.175 0.200 0.225 0.250
5 0.183 0.905 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.10
Category 10 0.070 0.349 0.568 0.653 0.684 0.670 0.653
B
20 0.106 0.902 0.953 0.819 0.743 0.667 0.626
Bevel
corner 5 0.368 0.749 0.922 0.955 0.943 0.917 0.897

Category D 10 0.256 0.504 0.659 0.706 0.713 0.697 0.686

20 0.339 0.974 0.977 0.894 0.841 0.805 0.790
5 0.106 0.595 0.980 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Category B 10 0.033 0.228 0.450 0.565 0.610 0.604 0.594

20 0.042 0.842 0.563 0.451 0.421 0.400 0.400
Concave
corner 5 0.267 0.586 0.839 0.955 0.987 0.991 0.984

Category D 10 0.091 0.261 0.452 0.567 0.613 0.633 0.628

20 0.169 0.954 0.659 0.527 0.475 0.447 0.453

The above formulas have been adopted in a Shanghai code of Specification for Steel
Structural Design of Tall Buildings (2008). Also these formulas were also used to compute
across-wind dynamic responses of real tall buildings in their initial design stages. The
computation results were then compared with the detailed wind tunnel test and computation
results. It was found that they generally matched well.
The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

Across-Wind Aerodynamic Damping of Square Buildings

For super-tall buildings and structures, across-wind aerodynamic damping may have
great influence on the across-wind dynamic response. Thus an experimental study on this
problem was performed. An SDOF tall building aeroelastic model system was specially
designed for the test. The frequency, mass distribution and damping could be easily adjusted
for parametric study. Time-averaging method of random decrease technique was adopted in
the study to identify the aerodynamic damping ratios.
Figure 11 presents the variations of the across-wind aerodynamic damping ratios of a
square building model for different terrain conditions and for different structural damping.
Negative aerodynamic damping at the reduced wind speed of about 10-13 can be seen in the
figure. Based on the testing results and the analyses, a simplified formula for aerodynamic
damping ratio of the square building with aspect ratio of 6 were derived for practical purpose
as follows.
a =
( )
0.0025 1 (U * / 9.8) 2 (U * / 9.8) + 0.000125(U * / 9.8) 2
(15)
(1 (U *
/ 9.8) 2 ) 2
+ 0.0291(U * / 9.8) 2
Fig. 12 shows the comparison between computed responses of a building model
with/without considering the aerodynamic damping and those from a wind tunnel test on a
building aeroelastic model with the same parameters. It can be seen from the figure that the
computed dynamic displacements are much closer to those from the aeroelastic model tests if
the aerodynamic damping is taken into account. Eq.(15) has also been adopted in
Specification for Steel Structural Design of Tall Buildings (2008).
0.02
0.020

Terrain C
s=0.6%
0.015 s 0.60
Terrain A
s 1.20
Terrain B
s 1.88
Terrain C
0.01 0.010 s 2.17
Terrain D
a

0.005

0.000
0.00

-0.005

4 6 8 10 12 14 4 6 8 10 12 14

UH/(f1B) U/(f1B)

(a) Effect of terrain conditions (b) Effect of structural damping

Fig.11 Variations of aerodynamic damping ratio with different parameters
0.12

Terrain A, s=0.61
0.10
With a
Without a
0.08 Testing results

0.06
y/B

0.04

0.02

0.00
2 4 6 8 10 12
U/(f1B)

Fig.12 Comparison of computed RMS displacements with those from AE model tests

Interference Effect on Wind Forces and Wind Pressures on Tall Buildings

Description of Experiment and Data Processing

The wind tunnel measurements were carried out by using high force balance technique
and pressure scanning technique under different wind conditions. In the force balance test, the
principal building model, i.e., the interfered model, had a height of 600 mm and a square
cross section of breadth of 100 mm. The fundamental frequency of the balance-model system
was all higher than 100Hz. Two groups of interfering models of different heights and cross-
section breadths were adopted in the test to investigate the interference effects of height and
The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

breadth of the upstream building(s) on the principal building. The first group of the interfering
buildings had the same height h as the principal building with square cross-section but
different breadths of 0.5b , 0.75b , 1.0b , 1.5b and 2.0b , where b (= 100mm) was the breadth
of the principal building model, while the second group of interfering models had the same
square cross-section as the principal building model but different heights of 0.5h , 0.75h ,
1.0h , 1.25h and 1.5h , where h (= 600mm) was the height of the principal model. The breadth
ratio ( Br )/height ratio ( Hr ) were defined to be the ratio of the breadth/height of the
interfering building(s) to those of the principal building hereafter. All the building models
were orientated with one face normal to the wind, while the center-to-center spacing among
them varies in along-wind direction (x) and across-wind direction (y) in a coordinate grid
shown in Fig.13(a). The basic two- or three-building configurations mean that the principal
building and the interfering building(s) hereafter have the same square cross-section and sizes.
In the pressure scanning test, only the interference effects from one interfering
building was investigated. There were 496 measuring taps on the principal square building
model. The interfering building models had the same cross-section sizes as those of the
principal model, but had the heights 0.7, 1.0 and 1.3 times the height of the principal model.
The relative positions between the principal model and interfering model are indicated in Fig.
13(b). Totally, for the force and pressure tests, the testing cases were over 10,000.0.
-3.2b

-2.4b

-1.6b
Wind
b

B -0.8b

x
C
10.1b 9.1b 8.1b 7.1b 6.1b 5.1b 4.1b 3.1b 2.1b 1.1b
0.8b
y

1.6b

A 2.4b

3.2b

x
y

(a) Model arrangements for HFFB test (b) Model arrangements for pressure test
Fig.13. X-Y coordinate grid for positions of interfering buildings
The interference factor ( IF in short), which quantitatively describes the interference
effects, was defined as follows:
Mean wind force (or wind pressure or dynamic response)

IF =
of the principal building under int erference (16)
Mean wind force (or wind pressure or dynamic response)
of the isolated principal building

In fact, the interference effect among three buildings was very complex and was
difficult to be expressed in a simple style. In order to simplify the complexity of the problem
and further raise some clauses for building structural design codes, an envelope interference
factor ( EIF ) was proposed to describe the dynamic interference effects by maximizing the
IFs in the reduced velocity ranges of Vr = 2 ~ 9 .
Furthermore, regression analysis of the interference factors under different parameter
conditions was made and the regression formulas were derived. RIF hereafter represents the
regression interference factor. Only some typical results, especially the regression formulas of
three-building configurations, are presented in the following text.
Mean Force Interference Factor
Comparison of Mean IFs between Basic Two-building and Three-building Configurations
Statistical results for a thorough description of the mean interference factors of two-
and three-building configurations in the exposure category B are firstly shown in Fig.14,
The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

where p represents the percentage of the positions of the corresponding mean interference
factor over the whole test positions of the configurations. From this figure, one can see that
the shielding effects of three-building configurations are more significant than two-building
configurations. The channeling effect can also be found in the tests.

Fig.14 Comparison of distributions of MIF between two- and three-building configurations

Effect of Breadth Ratio of Three-building Configuration
The variations of the mean IF with Br of the interfering buildings can be linearly
regressed, which shows that for most of the positions of the interfered buildings the mean IF
decreases with the increase of Br . The regression results are very similar to those of the two-
building configuration (Xie and Gu 2004a, 2005). Correspondingly, the linear formulas of the
mean RIF in exposure category B with Br of the interfering buildings are as follows.
0.276 + 0.752 IF ( Br = 0.5)
0.123 + 0.876 IF ( Br = 0.75)
(17)
RIF = IF ( Br = 1.0)
0.175 + 1.102 IF ( Br = 1.5)

0.279 + 1.162 IF ( Br = 2.0)

Effect of Height Ratio of Three-building Configuration

The results show that two lower interfering buildings of Hr = 0.5 produce
insignificant interference effects, with most of the interference factors being within the range
between 0.9 and 1.0. The sensitive heights of interfering buildings for the mean interference
effects are from 0.75h to 1.25h , whereas the interference effects remain almost the same for
the higher interfering buildings. The mean RIF in exposure category B for the different
height ratios were simply formulated as follows.
1 ( Hr < 0.5)
0.787 + 0.195IF ( Hr = 0.5)
(18)
RIF = 0.366 + 0.637 IF ( Hr = 0.75)
IF ( Hr = 1.0)

0.103 + 1.110 IF ( Hr 1.25)

Effect of Upstream Terrain

The MIF s in the two typical exposure categories have statistically linear relationships,
and furthermore, the MIF s for different Br are almost the same. Thus, a simple formula
describing the linear relationship were derived as follows (Eq.(19)).
IFD = 0.099 + 0.924 IFB (19)
Moreover, for the effect of upstream terrain on the MIF of the different height ratio
configuration, strong linear correlations exist in the MIF s between the two upwind terrains
for all the configurations of height ratio. The MIF of any configurations of Hr in exposure
The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

category D can thus be simply predicted from the corresponding MIF in exposure category B
by the following equation (Eq(20)).
IFD = 0.078 + 0.982 IFB (20)

Dynamic Force Interference Factor

IFs of Basic Two-building Configuration and Three-building Configuration
Statistical analysis of the dynamic interference effects in along- and across-wind
directions was made and the results are shown in Fig.15. The results in Fig.15(a) reveal that
two interfering buildings can produce stronger interference effects (amplification) than a
single interfering building in the along-wind direction. But the interference effects in the
across-wind direction caused by two interfering buildings are generally weaker than those by
a single interfering building for most of the interfering building arrangements from Fig. 15 (b).
Even so, EIF is greater or equal to 3 for 1% of the whole sets of interfering building
arrangements of the three-building configuration.

(a) Along-wind (b) Across-wind

Fig.15 Comparison of EIF distribution between two- and three-building configurations
Effect of Height Ratio of Three-building Configuration
Results revealing the effects of the two interfering buildings with different heights on
the dynamic IF s are presented here. There is an indication from the regression analysis that
dynamic EIF s between the different height ratios (Hr=0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 1.25 and 1.5) still show
linear correlations.
Based on a great quantity of computation, the regression relations of EIF for different
Hr can expressed by Eq.(21). The values of C1 and C2 in Eq.(21) are listed in Table 1.
RIF = C1 + C2 EIF (21)
Table 2 Values of C1 and C2 in Eq. (21)
0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5
Hr C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2
Along-wind 1.011 0.031 0.698 0.408 1 1 -1.317 1.988 -1.524 2.256
Across-wind 1.018 0.068 0.627 0.45 1 1 -0.028 1.038 -0.067 1.118

Effect of Breadth Ratio of Three-building Configuration

It seems more difficult to find the satisfied regression dynamic factors of breadth ratio
than those of height ratio from the wind tunnel tests.
Effect of Upstream Terrain
The results indicated that the relations between EIFB and EIFD in the along-wind
direction can be expressed by linear formulas, while the relations between EIFB and EIFD in
the across-wind direction for the height ratio of H r 1 can be expressed by a second-order
regression polynomial rather than a linear formula. Then, the relation of EIFs between the two
upstream terrains for all the height ratio configurations can be expressed by Eq. (22) for the
The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

along-wind and across-wind directions, where C1, C2 and C3, can be found in Xie and Gu
(2007).
RIFD = C1 + C2 EIFB + C3 ( EIFB ) 2 (22)
As for the variations of the dynamic EIF for different Br in exposure categorie D with
those in category B, the regression results can be found in Eq.(23), where C1, C2 and C3, can
be found in Xie and Gu (2007).
EIFD = C1 + C2 EIFB + C3 ( EIFB ) 2 + C4 ( EIFB )3 (23)

Wind Pressure Interference Factor

Through the wind tunnel tests, a large amount of data of mean and fluctuating wind
pressures on the principal building interfered by an adjacent building with different heights
and relative positions and the corresponding wind pressure IFs have been obtained. The
results reveal that the increase of space between the two buildings amplifies mean pressure on
the windward face and magnitudes of mean suctions on the side walls, especially on its top
corner along leading edge. However, it has little effects on mean pressure on the leeward wall
of the principal building. In addition, considering the effects of changes in height ratios, for
the cases of small space between the two buildings, magnitudes of mean suctions on the
windward wall increase with the increase of height ratio but those on the side walls and
leeward wall of the principal building decrease. For the cases with large space between the
two buildings, mean pressure on the windward wall of the principal building decreases with
the increase of height ratio, but the magnitudes of mean suctions on the side walls increase at
first then decrease and those on the leeward wall decrease at first then increases. Fig. 16 only
shows the mean wind pressure IF on the side walls of the principal building interfered by
another adjacent building in a tandem arrangement. Also results and variation laws of
fluctuating wind pressures have been found, and accordingly the characteristics of fluctuating
pressure IF have also been recognized from the test data.

(a)x/B=2 (b) x/B=3 (c) x/B=4 (d) x/B=5 (e) x/B=6 (f) x/B=8
Fig.16 mean wind pressure IF on side walls of principal building (0wind direction, h = 1.0 )
The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

Equivalent Static Wind Loads of Tall Buildings and Structures

The gust loading factor method (GLF method), which was put forward by Davenport
(1967) for computing the wind-induced dynamic responses in alongwind, has been developed
and applied in almost all the current standards of the major countries. According to the gust
loading factor method, the equivalent static wind load is equal to the mean wind force
multiplied by the gust loading factor, thus the distribution of equivalent static wind load along
the building height obeys a 2 exponential law ( is the exponent of the mean wind velocity
profile), just as the mean wind force does. However, it has been recognized that the resonant
equivalent static wind load can be represented by inertial force of the building. The wind load
by the GLF method is evidently different from ( is the exposure of the first mode of
building) exponent resonant equivalent wind loads. On the other hand, both of the resonant
and background equivalent static wind load components provided by the Chinese Loading
Code (GBJ9-2001, hereafter referred to as GBJ code method) are equal to the inertial wind
force, and thus obeys the exponential law.
Basic Principle
The equivalent static wind load was separately evaluated as mean, background and
resonant components. The mean component is very simple and will not be discussed here.
The background response and the corresponding equivalent static wind load component was
computed by the load response correlation method (LRC method) (Kasperski and
Niemann,1999), while the resonant equivalent static wind load component was represented by
the inertial force.
Deviation Factors of Load Effects
Except for the mean wind load, the distributions of the background and resonant
equivalent wind load components by the different methods may be different from actual ones.
Fig.17 shows the typical deviation factors of the resonant and background equivalent
static wind load effects. It can be seen from Fig. 17 that the background deviation factors
from the GLF and GBJ methods are both sensitive to the parameter 0 (i.e. the type of
response) , and the latter will lead to unsafe background responses. It seems that the 2
exponent background equivalent wind load by the GLF method is a fairly good approximation
of the actual response of the background wind loads. However, the resonant factor of the GLF
method is also sensitive to parameter 0 .
Based on the above basic principle, theoretical studies have been made on methods of
equivalent static wind loads with high precision and convenience (Ye, 2005; Tang, 2006;
Shen, 2007; Zhang, 2009; Gu and Zhou, 2009).
1 .1 1.25 1.6

1.20
=1.0
1.5
=0.15 =0.5
1 .0
1.15 =0.10 1.4 =1.0 =1.5
=0.15 =2.0 =0
CR-2
CR-2

0 .9
1.10 =0.25 1.3
CB-

1.05
=0.35 1.2
0 .8
=0.15 =0.5
1.00 1.1
=1.0 =1.5
0 .7
=2.0 = 0 0.95 1.0

0 .6 0.90 0.9
0.0 0.4 0 .8 1.2 1.6 2.0 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0

0 0 0

(a) Background load effects (b) Resonant load effects (c) Resonant load effects
from GBJ from GLFI from GLFII
Fig.17 Deviation factors of load effects
An approximation Method for Resonant Equivalent Static Wind Load of Complex Structures
Multi mode contributions and their coupling effects may required to be taken into
account in computing the resonant response and resonant equivalent static wind load
The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

component for complex structures, such as complex tall TV towers, especially large-span roof
structures. A new concept of mode coupling factor for computation of coupling effects
between multi-mode resonant responses of the structures was proposed. On the base of mode
coupling factor, a modified SRSS method for computation of the resonant response and
resonant equivalent static wind load component contributed by multi-modes and their
coupling effects of the structures was raised.
The PSD of ith displacement response of the structure can be written as follows:
n n
Sii ( ) = ij H * j (i ) S Fj Fk ( ) H k (i )ik (24)
j =1 k =1

If the real part and imaginary part in Eq.(24) are notated by Re[ ] and Im[ ] , respectively,
Eq.(24) can be re-written as below.
n n n n
Sii ( ) = ijik Re[ H j (i ) H k (i )]S Fj Fk + ijik Im[ H * j (i ) H k (i )]iS Fj Fk
*
(25)
j =1 k =1 j =1 k =1

Based on the decomposition equation of Re[ H * j (i ) H k (i )] proposed by Vanmarcke (1972), a

simplified method for computation of resonant dynamic response with modal coupling of
structures under the action of turbulent wind was derived as follows.
n
R ,i =
j =1
2
R , ji (1 + j ) (26)

where
ik Re( S F F ( j )) Im(S F F ( j ))
jk = [ N jk j k
+ M jk ] j k
(27)
ij S F F ( j )
j j
S F F ( j ) j j

2 R , ji is the variance of the jth mode resonant displacement without mode coupling effects;
jk is the modal coupling factor considering the kth modal coupling effect on the jth resonant
n
response; similarly, j jk is the jth modal coupling factor considering all the modal
k =1
k j

coupling effect on the jth resonant response; N jk and M jk are both relative to the structural
frequency and damping ratio.
Eq.(26) is simple and convenient for computation of resonant dynamic responses of
the structures with mode coupling effects under actions of turbulent wind. The present method,
developed based on SRSS method, was called the modified SRSS method (MSRSS).
Accordingly, a formula for resonant equivalent static wind load distributions with multi-mode
contributions and their coupling effects was proposed.
Field measurements of wind speed and responses of a 492 m tall building
Two ultrasonic anemometers, two cup anemometers and accelerometers have just
been mounted on the top of Shanghai World Financial Center with a height of 492m (Fig.18)
to measure the wind characteristics and responses of the super-tall building. Several sectional
records of monsoon have been obtained and analyzed. It is hoped to record typhoon data and
the building responses recently.
The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

Fig.18 Photos of Shanghai World Financial Center and an ultrasonic anemometer

Practical applications
Our research team has finished wind-resistant studies on dozens of tall buildings and
structures. In this paper the study on Guangzhou New TV Tower is introduced.
Tower model and test situation
Guangzhou New TV Tower with a height of 610m is presently the tallest TV tower in
the world. Its exterior geometry configuration is unique and very complicated, which can be
seen in Fig. 19. The main tower body is a spatial steel structure system. Twenty-four vertical
steel pipes together with horizontal annular components and spiral oblique rods compose the
external frame. The cross-section of the tower body is ellipse, being large at both ends and
small in the middle. The major axis and minor axis at tower bottom are respectively 80 and 60
m, and these quantities at the tower body top are 54 m and 40.5 m. Five closed functional
areas are unequally distributed on the tower body along height.
Because of the special exterior geometry, it was impossible to measure the wind
pressures on the entire tower through the wind tunnel test of the full rigid tower model.
Moreover, it was also very difficult to measure the wind forces on the tower by using high-
frequency balance technique to the whole tower model since the tower structure was too
slender and the contribution of the high-order modes must be taken into account for the
computation of dynamic responses. Thus a special experimental procedure was adopted for
the wind tunnel test.
According to the architectural characteristics, the main tower and antenna were
divided into 19 sections for experiments as shown in Fig. 19. The sectional models were built
as light but rigid as possible. The natural frequencies of balance with most of the sectional
models are greater than 70 Hz.
Through analysis of site situation of the TV Tower, the terrain category was classified
as C according to the Building Structure Design Code of China (GB 50009-2001). Since the
entire tower was divided into 19 sections and each section (especially the upper tower which
influences the overall wind force greatly) was not very high, the mean wind speed and
turbulence intensity vary little on each of the section. Therefore it was reasonable to take the
experiment under the spatial homogeneous turbulence wind field produced by passive grid
turbulence generator. That is, the mean wind speed and turbulence intensity did not vary
along height for each of the sectional model in the test, while the mean wind profile would be
considered when calculating the wind forces acting on the real tower. Five kinds of
homogeneous turbulence wind fields with different turbulence intensity were simulated
corresponding to different heights of the tower sections, which were 10%, 11%, 12%, 14%
and 18%, respectively. Furthermore, on account of high turbulent intensities in oncoming
wind and the complicated flow situation caused by interference situation among the structural
members, the effect of Reynolds number was not specially considered in the test.
The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

For the tower body, not only the tested sectional model was fixed on the balance, but
also the other two sectional compensation models with the same shapes as the just
neighbouring sectional models were mounted with small gaps between the tested model and
the compensation models to simulate the three-dimensional flow of prototype structure as far
as possible. The photographs of test model and installation are shown in Fig. 20.
Wind Forces from Test
Mean and extreme (maximum and minimum) force coefficient distributions along the
tower height as a function of wind direction acting on all the sections were obtained from the
test. Fig. 21 shows the mean, maximum and minimum wind forces along the height of tower
under wind speed of 100 year return period (the wind speed at gradient height is 52.4 m/s ) at
typical wind directions.
Wind-induced Responses and Equivalent Static Wind Loads
In light of structure features and consulting with the Structural Design Code of China
(GB 50009-2001), the parameters used to calculate the wind-induced buffeting are given
below. (1) terrain category C, (2) reference wind pressure: 0.55 kPa for 100-year return period
and 0.26 kPa for 10-year return period, respectively, (3) structural damping ratio: 1.5% for the
main tower and 1.0% for the antenna, respectively, (4) mode number participating in vibration:
50.
Fig.22 shows the variation curves of displacements (average, maximum and minimum
responses) of the antenna top (elevation of +618.0 m) as a function of wind direction (100
year return period). The displacement of the antenna top is two times of that of the antenna
bottom (elevation of +454.0 m), indicating the obvious whipping effects of the antenna. The
internal forces of tower are also been computed, which have the similar trends to the
displacements.
The acceleration of antenna top is 36.4 times of that of the antenna bottom, which
indicates that the whipping of the antenna has much more influence on the acceleration than
on the displacement. From the power spectrums of acceleration it can be found that high-
order modes contribute to the acceleration responses in both X and Y directions. The first and
second modes make the major contributions to the acceleration of antenna bottom, while
much more modes have contribution to the acceleration of antenna top.
Fig. 23 gives the equivalent static wind loads for dynamic displacements of the tower.
For the convenience of design application, the equivalent static wind loads were distributed to
the external frame and internal core wall of the TV Tower in the proportion of mass
distribution. The response distributions were calculated and are shown in Figs. 24 and 25.
Furthermore, the RMS responses calculated by CQC method are also presented in Figs. 24
and 25, which were regarded as the exact values. The comparison of the results obtained by
the two methods indicates that the equivalent static wind loads presented in this paper have
high precision and can be applicable for the structural design of the tower.
Concluding Remarks
This paper introduces wind-resistant studies of our research team on tall buildings and
structures, including some issues of basic researches and applied researches. While dealing
with high-rise buildings over 1km in height, wind engineering researchers will be faced with
more new challenges, even problems currently not aware of. This needs more of our endeavor
to resolve engineering design problems, as well as to further the development of wind
engineering in the meantime.
The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

Section

Number

460.800

459.200

1111
t

h
section
10
t
10
h
9
section
8
th
9
7
section
8th
6
section

th
57
section
4

3
th
6
section
2

1
th
5
section

h
(a) main tower body (b) antenna
Fig.19 Sectional models of the tower

Fig.20 Photographs of sectional model of the tower in wind tunnel

600 600 600

500 500 500

400 400 400

Height(m)
Height(m)

Height(m)

300 300 300

200 200 200

100 100 100

0 0 0
-400 -200 0 200 -400 -200 0 200 -2000 -1000 0 1000

Fx(KN) Fy(KN) Mz(KN.m)

0.00 degree wind direction, 100-year return period

The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

600 600 600

500 500 500

400 400 400

Height(m)

Height(m)

Height(m)
300 300 300

200 200 200

100 100 100

0 0 0
-800 -600 -400 -200 0 -800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 -4000 -2000 0 2000
Fx(KN) Fy(KN) Mz(KN.m)

90. 00 degree wind direction, 100-year return period

Fig.21 Distributions of mean, maximum and minimum wind forces along the tower
-3
5 5 3.0x10

Rz(rad)
Ux(m)

Uy(m)

0 0 0.0

-3
-5 -5 -3.0x10
0 90 180 270 360 0 90 180 270o 360 0 90 180 270 360
o
Wind direction ( ) Wind direction ( ) o
Wind direction ( )

Fig.22 Displacement of the antenna top (average, maximum and minimum response) as a
function of wind direction (100-year return period)

External frame + internal core External frame + internal core External frame + internal
External frame External frame External frame
600 Internal core 600 Internal core 600 Internal core

500 500 500

400 400 400

Height (m)

300 300 300

200 200 200

100 100 100

0 0 0
0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300 0 2000 4000

Fx(KN) Fy(KN) Mz(KN.m)

Fig.23 Equivalent static wind loads acting on the center of core tube (corresponding to RMS
of displacement, 90 wind direction, 100-year return period)
The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering, November 8-12, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan

600 600 600

500 500 500

400 400 400

Height (m)
300 300 300

200 200 200

100 CQC's result 100 CQC's result 100 CQC's result

ESW L's result ESWL's result ESW L's result

0 0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.0000 0.0002
Ux (m ) Uy (m ) Rz (ra d )

Fig.24 RMS displacement of structure (90 wind direction, 100-year return period)
CQC's result CQC's result
CQC's result CQC's result
CQC's result ESW L's result ESW L's resu
ESW L's result ESW L's result
600 600 ESW L's result600 600 600

500 500 500 500 500

400 400 400 400 400

Height (m)

300 300 300 300 300

200 200 200 200 200

100 100 100 100 100

0 0 0 0 0
0 3500 7000 0 3500 7000 0 60000 0 1000000 0 200000
Fx ( KN ) Fy (KN ) Mz ( KN m) Mx ( KN m ) My ( KN m)

Fig.25 RMS internal force of structure (90 wind direction, 100-year return period)
Acknowledgements
Financial supports for this study from the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (Grant Nos. 50621062 and 90715040) are gratefully appreciated.
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