Cross Drainage Works

Definition: A cross drainage work is a structure carrying

the discharge from a natural stream across a canal
intercepting the stream.
Canal comes across obstructions like rivers, natural drains
and other canals.
The various types of structures that are built to carry the
canal water across the above mentioned obstructions or
vice versa are called cross drainage works.
It is generally a very costly item and should be avoided by:
Diverting one stream into another.
Changing the alignment of the canal so that it crosses
below the junction of two streams. 2
TYPES OF CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS
Depending upon levels and discharge, cross drainage
works may be grouped into following types:
A. Canal crossing over a Drain
An Aqueduct
Siphon Aqueduct
B. Canal crossing under a Drain
Super passage
Siphon
C. Canal crossing a Drain at the same level
Level crossing
Drainage Inlet and Outlet
3
A. Canal crossing over a Drain
Aqueduct
The aqueduct is just like a bridge where a canal is taken over
the deck supported by piers instead of a road or railway.
Generally, the canal is in the shape of a rectangular trough
which is constructed with reinforced cement concrete.
Sometimes, the trough may be of trapezoidal section.

4
 An inspection road is provided along the side of the trough.
The bed and banks of the drainage below the trough is
protected by boulder pitching with cement grouting.
The section of the trough is designed according to the full
supply discharge of the canal.
A free board of about 0.50 m should be provided.
The height and section of piers are designed according to
the highest flood level and velocity of flow of the drainage.
The piers may be of brick masonry, stone masonry or
reinforced cement concrete.
Deep foundation (like well foundation) is not necessary for
the piers. The concrete foundation may be done by
providing the depth of foundation according to the
5
availability of hard soil.
Aqueduct: Canal crossing over a Drain and
6
Water level in the drain fairly below the canal bed
7
Siphon Aqueduct:
In case of the siphon Aqueduct, the HFL of the drain is much
higher above the canal bed, and water runs under siphonic
action through the Aqueduct barrels.
The drain bed is generally depressed and provided with
pucca floors, on the upstream side either by a vertical drop
or by glacis of 3:1.
The downstream rising slope should not be steeper than
5:1.
When the canal is passed over the drain, the canal remains
open for inspection throughout and the damage caused by
flood is rare. However during heavy floods, the foundations
are susceptible to scour or the waterway of drain may get
choked due to debris, tress etc. 8
9
 The sloping apron may be constructed by stone pitching
or cement concrete.
The section of the drainage below the canal trough is
constructed with cement concrete in the form of tunnel.
This tunnel acts as a siphon.
Cut off walls are provided on both sides of the apron to
prevent scouring.
Boulder pitching should be provided on the upstream
and downstream of the cut-off walls.
The other components like canal trough, piers,
inspection road, etc. should be designed according to
the methods adopted in case of aqueduct.
10
B. Canal crossing under a Drain
Super passage
The hydraulic structure in which the drainage is passing
over the irrigation canal is known as super passage. This
structure is suitable when the bed level of drainage is
above the FSL of the canal and water of the canal passes
clearly below the drainage.
A super passage is similar to an
aqueduct, except in this case the
drain is over the canal.
The FSL of the canal is lower
than the underside of the trough
carrying drainage water. Thus,
the canal water runs under the
gravity. 11
 The drainage is taken through a rectangular or
trapezoidal trough of channel which is constructed on
the deck supported by piers.
The section of the drainage trough depends on the high
flood discharge.
A free board of about 1.5 m should be provided for
safety.
The trough should be constructed of reinforced cement
concrete.
The bed and banks of the canal below the drainage
trough should be protected by boulder pitching or lining
with concrete slabs.
The foundation of the piers will be same as in the case
12
of aqueduct.
Canal Siphon or Super passage Siphon
It is just opposite siphon aqueduct. In this case, the canal
passes below the drainage trough. The section of the
trough is designed according to high flood discharge. The
bed of the canal is depressed below the bottom level of
the drainage trough by providing sloping apron on both
sides of the crossing.

13
 The sloping apron may be constructed with stone
pitching or concrete slabs. This way the trouble of silting
is minimized
The section of the canal below the trough is constructed
with cement concrete in the form of tunnel which acts
as siphon. For example, lower Jhelum canal is siphoned
under the Rasul-Qadirabad link canal.
Cut-off walls are provided on upstream and downstream
side of sloping apron.
Other components are same as in the case of siphon
aqueduct.

14
Selection of Suitable Type for Cross Drainage Works
The factors which affect the selection of suitable type of
cross drainage works are:
Relative bed levels and water levels of canal and
drainage.
Size of the canal and drainage.
Availability of suitable foundation
Economical consideration
Discharge of the drainage
Construction problems
15
Furthermore, following considerations are also
important:
When the bed level of the canal is much above the
HFL of the drainage, an aqueduct is the obvious
choice.
When the bed level of the drain is well above FSL of
canal, super passage is provided.
The necessary headway between the canal bed level
and the drainage HFL can be increased by shifting the
crossing to the downstream of drainage. If, however, it
is not possible to change the canal alignment, a
siphon aqueduct may be provided.
16
 When canal bed level is much lower, but the FSL of canal
is higher than the bed level of drainage, a canal siphon is
preferred.
When the drainage and canal cross each other
practically at same level, a level crossing or Inlet and
Outlet may be provided. This type of work is avoided as
far as possible.
Compared to an aqueduct a super passage is inferior
and should be avoided whenever possible. Siphon
aqueduct is preferred over siphon unless large drop in
drainage bed is required.

17
The considerations which govern the choice between
aqueduct and siphon aqueduct are:
Suitable canal alignment
Suitable soil available for bank connections
Nature of available foundations
Permissible head loss in canal
Availability of funds

18
Selection of Site for a Cross Drainage Structure
The site for cross drainage structure should be such that:
A. The canal and the drain should cross each other at a
right angle. Acute or obtuse angle crossing should be
avoided.
B. There should be sufficient straight reaches of canal and
drain on both the upstream and the downstream sides.
C. A sufficient reach of drain on the upstream should be
stable and uniform.
D. The foundation should be suitable for cross drainage
works.
19
Classification of Aqueduct and Siphon aqueduct
Depending upon the nature of the sides of the aqueduct or
siphon aqueduct it may be classified under three headings:

Type I: Sides of the aqueduct in earthen banks with complete

earthen slopes.
The original canal section is retained and no fluming is done.
The sides of the aqueduct are kept in earthen banks with
complete earthen slopes.

20
Type II: Sides of the aqueduct in earthen banks, with outer
slopes supported by masonry wall.
In this case, canal continues in its earthen section over the
drainage but the outer slopes of the canal banks are
replaced by retaining wall, reducing the length of drainage
culvert.

Type III: Sides of the aqueduct made of concrete or

masonry.
The canal section is reduced by fluming and sides of the
canal are made of masonry or concrete in stead of earthen
slopes.
21
Design of Aqueduct and Siphon Aqueduct
Head Loss
Total head loss = head loss @(entrance + exit + transition)
In properly designed transitions almost 80-90% of head
loss is recovered as Potential Energy i.e. depth at exit.
Head loss at Entrance and Exit = f(shape)
Head loss in transition = f(type & material of construction)
Roughness coefficient:
For steel, n = 0.012
For concrete, n = 0.014

22
Velocities
For economy, canal and drain sections are flumed to 50%
at crossing site through concrete trough.
Velocity in canal: 2 m/sec

Bed slope
In open trough: Flow is uniform, bed is kept parallel to
slope of energy line.
In closed trough: Flow is non-uniform, energy has to be
computed. Closed troughs are kept horizontal to carry
roads, inspection paths, etc.
23
Example
A distributary canal is to cross a Branch canal. Prepare
hydraulic design of an aqueduct with the following data:
Branch canal Distributary
Full supply discharge 20 cumec 10 cumec
Bed width 18.3 m 13 m
FSL 106.43 109.05
Bed level (BL) 104.90 107.71
Slope 1:6,666 1:6,666
Mean velocity 0.64 m/s 0.61 m/s
Angle of crossing 90o 90o
24
Aqueduct: Distributary crossing a Canal

25
Solution:
For economy, branch canal as well as distributary are
flumed at the entrance and exit of crossing, as shown
below.

26
Branch canal
Reduce waterway of the branch canal from 18.3 to 11.0 m by
providing 3 spans of 3.7 m with 2 piers of 0.8 m width each.
Distance b/w abutment to abutment = 11.0 + (2 x 0.8)
= 12.6 m
Discharge intensity, q = Q/12.6 = 20/12.6 = 1.82 cumec/m
Critical depth, Dc = (q2/g)1/3 = 0.969 m
Assume depth of crossing = 1.4 m
Assumed bed level = FSL of canal depth
= 106.43 1.4 = 105.03 m
Adopt bed level same as bed level of the secondary canal. 27
Distributary canal
In order that trough bottom remains above the FSL of branch
canal, keep the BL of the trough at 107.71.
Assume,
thickness of the slab = 0.5 m

Bottom of trough slab @ 107.71 0.5 = 107.21

It is 0.78 m (=107.21 - 106.43) above the FSL of branch canal.
Distributary canal will have a rectangular RCC trough,
designed as lined canal, with
Hydraulic slope = 1:6,666; n = 0.014 for RCC;
depth = 109.05-107.71 = 1.34 m;
bed width = 9.25 m (flumed from 13.0 m) 28
Discharge, Q = 10 + 10% = 10 + 1 = 11 cumecs
Perimeter, P = B + 2D = 9.25 + (2x1.34) = 11.93 m
Area, A = BD = 9.25 x 1.34 = 12.95 m2
Hydraulic radius, R = A/P = 12.95/11.93 = 1.08 m
1 23 12
Velocity, V R S 0.92 m/sec
n
Discharge, Q = A.V = 12.95 x 0.92 = 11.91 > 10 cumec
Hence, the section is adequate.

29
Design of Siphon
Loss of Head
Due to:
shape of Inlet and Exit;
skin friction in pipes/conduits; and
bends.
Designed for minimum losses.
At entrance PE changes into KE.
Proper design to avoid loss of KE in form of eddies causing
scouring/erosion of bed and sides.
Velocity
Siphon barrels designed to withstand high-self cleansing
velocities (2.5 ~ 3.0 m/sec). 30
Plan of Transition

31
Uplift Pressure on Siphon Structure
The whole siphon structure is subjected to uplift pressure
under the following varying conditions:
a. Uplift pressure when the canal or drain is empty and
siphon is running full.
b. Pressure acting on the barrels when the canal is running
and the siphon is empty.

32
Scour
The barrels (under the canal/drain bed) are to be protected
against scour due to flow of water.

33
Example
A canal is crossing a stream. Design a suitable cross
drainage structure knowing the following data:
Stream
Discharge, Q = 400 cfs
Highest flood level = 475.58 (at the point of crossing)
Bed width, B = 100 ft
Canal
Q = 100 cfs; V = 2.5 ft/sec; n = 0.0225 (unlined);
FSL = 478.70 ft; Bed level = 474.70 ft;
Full supply depth = 4 ft; BW = 10 ft;
Hydraulic slope = 1:4,000 Free board = 1.5 ft
34
Solution:
To determine which type of cross drainage structure would
be suitable for this place, consider the following:
i. Canal discharge = 100 cfs; Stream discharge = 400 cfs;
Stream discharge > Canal discharge
ii. HFL of stream = 475.58; BL of canal = 474.70;
Difference = 0.88 ft, i.e. too small as Free board of an
aqueduct
Hence, canal will cross the stream through a siphon.
Length of siphon = BW of stream + 10% + Side slopes
= 100 + 10 + (2 x 45)
= 200 ft 35
Discharge of siphon = 100 + 10% = 110 cfs
Assume velocity in the barrels = 4 ft/sec (for self cleansing
purposes)
Design of square concrete barrels:
A = Q/V = 110/4 = 27.5 ft2
Let, side of barrel = a
Area of barrel, A = a x a = a2 = 27.5 ft2
a = 5.25 ft
Barrel will be pre-cast concrete sections.

36
Scour
13
q 2
Scour depth, R 0.9
f
q = Q / B = 400/100 = 4 ft2/s
Assume, f = 1.0
13
4 2

R 0.9 2.27 ft
1

Maximum scour depth = 2 R = 2 x 2.27 = 4.54 ft

Barrel will be laid in the following shape at a level at least
4.54 ft below the bed level.

37
Head loss = Inlet loss + Frictional loss through the barrel +
loss at bends + Exit loss
Loss at inlet, hi = 0.5 V2/2g = (0.5 x 42)/(2 x 32.2) = 0.12 ft
Frictional loss: It can be measured by the slope of energy
line or the water surface in the barrel. It is calculated by
Mannings formula.
Total head loss due to friction,
hf = S x Length of siphon barrel
Area of the barrel, A = 27.5 ft2
Wetted perimeter, P = 4 x 5.25 = 21 ft
Hydraulic mean depth, R = A / P = 27.5/21 = 1.31 ft
38
Putting the values in Mannings equation,
1.486 2 3 1 2
V R S
n
1.486
4 1.312 3 S1 2
0.014
that yields, S = 0.03
head loss due to friction, hf = S x Length of barrel
= 0.03 x 200 = 6.0 ft
V2
Head loss at bends, h b 2f
2g
2 4
where f Sin 2 Sin
2 2
and tan -1 (0.2) 11.3o
39
Putting the values, we get
f = 0.009992 and hb = 0.005 ft
Loss of head at Exit, h e 0.5
V 2 V12
2g
where, V = Velocity in barrel = 4.0 ft/sec
V1 = Velocity in canal = 2.5 ft/sec
Putting the values, he = 0.012 ft
Total head loss = hi + hf + hb + he
= 0.12 + 6.0 + 0.005 + 0.012 = 6.14 ft
FSL of canal on d/s of the siphon = FSL Head loss
= 478.70 6.14 = 472.56 40ft
Example
A canal is crossing a stream. Design a suitable cross
drainage structure knowing the following data:
Stream
Discharge, Q = 12.33 cumec
Highest flood level = 475.58
Bed width, B = 30 m
Canal
Q = 2.5 cumec; V = 0.58 m/sec; BW = 1.95 m;
Bed Level = 474.7; Full supply depth = 1.30;
Free board = 0.46 m; Hydraulic slope = 1:4,000
41
Solution
To determine which type of cross drainage structure would
be suitable at this place, consider the following:
i. Canal discharge = 2.5 cumecs;
ii. Stream discharge = 10.33 cumecs
iii. Stream discharge > Canal discharge
iv. HFL of stream is at 475.58; BL of canal is at 474.70
Difference = 0.88 m, which is too small as free board
for an aqueduct.
Hence, Canal will cross the stream through a siphon.
42
Length of siphon = BW of stream + 10% + Side slopes
= 30 + 10% + 2(15) = 63 m
Discharge of siphon = 2.5 + 10% = 2.75 cumec
Assume velocity of the barrels = 2.44 m/sec
Design of concrete square barrels,
A = Q / V = 1.02 m2
Let, side of barrel = a
Area of barrel, A = a2 = 1.02 m2
Therefore, a = 1.01 m
provide pre-cast barrels. 43
Scour
13
q
2
Scour depth, R 1.35
f
q = Q / B = 12.33/30 = 0.411 m2/s
Assume, f = 1.0
13
(0.411) 2

R 1.35 0.747 m
1

Maximum scour depth = 2 R = 2 x 0.75 = 1.5 m

Barrel will be laid in the following shape at a level at least
1.5 m below the bed level.

44
0.5

45
46
47
Level Crossing
The level crossing is an arrangement provided to regulate
the flow of water through the drainage and the canal
when they cross each other approximately at the same
bed level.
The level crossing consists of the following components:
1. Crest Wall
2. Drainage Regulator
3. Canal Regulator

48
Crest Wall: It is provided across the drainage just at the
upstream side of the crossing point. The top level of the
crest wall is kept at the full supply level of the canal.
Drainage Regulator: It is provided across the drainage
just at the downstream side of the crossing point. The
regulator consists of adjustable shutters at different tiers.
Canal Regulator: It is provided across the canal just at
the downstream side of the crossing point. This regulator
also consists of adjustable shutters at different tiers.

49
Inlet and outlet
In the crossing of small drainage with small channel no
hydraulic structure is constructed. Simple openings are
provided for the flow of water in their respective
directions. This arrangement is known as inlet and outlet.
In this system, an inlet is
provided in the channel bank
simply by open cut and the
drainage water is allowed to
join the channel
At the points of inlet and
outlet, the bed and banks of
the drainage are protected by
stone pitching.
50
Comprehensive Design Principles of Cross Drainage
Structures
Following steps are involved in comprehensive design of a
cross drainage work:
(A) Determination of drainage parameters
(i) Design flood discharge and high flood level (H.F.L.)
(ii) Waterway required for the drain.
(iii) Velocity of flow through the barrel.
(iv) Height of opening or clearances.
(v) Number of spans or openings.

51
(B) Determination of canal parameters
(i) Size of canal waterway or its contraction.
(ii) Design of transitions.
(iii) Bank connections.
(C) Determination of hydraulic forces
(i) Head loss through barrels.
(ii) Uplift pressure on the roof of the barrel or trough.
(iii) Uplift pressure on the floor of the barrel.
After determining the above parameters structural design can
be done.
52
53
As the piers reduce the actual waterway available, the length
between the abutments (Pw) may be increased by 20 percent.
When the waterway is fixed from Lacey's regime perimeter
equation, the regime condition in the drain upstream and
downstream of the structure is not disturbed appreciably.
To confine the drainage water to the desired waterway, guide
banks may be constructed.

(iii) Velocity of flow through barrel:

The velocity of flow through the barrel may range from 1.8
m/sec to 3 m/sec to avoid silting/scouring in case of low/high
velocity.
54
(iv) Height of Opening:
There should be sufficient headway or clearance left between
the H.F.L and the bottom of the canal bed.
A clearance of 1 m or half the height of the culvert, which
ever is less would be sufficient. Hence,
Height of opening = Depth of flow + Clearance or headway
(v) Number of spans:
Number of spans are provided on the basis of the following
two considerations:
(a) Structural strength required, and
(b) Economical consideration.
55
For example, when arches are used the number of spans to
be provided may be more.
When the cost of construction in the foundation is rather
high, small number of spans should be adopted and then
R.C.C. beams may be used.
(vi) Canal waterway:
Generally fluming ratio is taken to be 1/2. This ratio is
adopted in such a way that the velocity of flow in the trough
does not go above critical velocity limit.
To avoid the possibility of formation of a hydraulic jump
velocity of flow is generally kept not be more than 3 m/sec.
In case of hydraulic jump head is lost and large stresses are
produced in the structure. 56
(vii) Length of contraction or approach transition:
Knowing the throat width, length of contraction can be
determined after fixing the convergence ratio.
The convergence ratio is generally taken as 2 : 1 (horizontal:
lateral), i.e., not steeper than 30.

(viii) Length of expansion or departure transition:

Length of expansion on the downstream side of the aqueduct
may be fixed after knowing the expansion ratio. The
expansion ratio is generally taken as 3 : 1 (horizontal: lateral),
i.e., not, steeper than 22.5. 57
To maintain streamlined flow and also to reduce loss of head
the transitions are generally made up of curved and flared
wing walls.
Transitions can be designed by following methods:
(a) Hind's method;
(b) Mitra's hyperbolic transition method;
(c) Chaturvedi's semi-cubical parabolic transition method.
Hind's method is used when the water depth in the normal
section and the flumed trough also varies.
Remaining two methods can be used only when water depth
remains constant in the normal canal section as well as the
trough section. 58
(a) Hind's method for design of transition:
This method is based on the principle that there is
minimum loss of head, flow is stream lined and normal
flow conditions in the canal are restored before the
canal discharges pass down on to the earthen section
immediately after curved and flared transitions.
The design procedure can be outlined as follows:

59
60
61
62
63
64
Step 5: The T.E. line, WS line and the bed line can be drawn as
follows:
(a) the total energy line can be drawn by joining these points
at four sections by a straight line.
(b) The bed line may also be drawn as straight lines between
adjacent sections if the fall or rise of bed level is small. The
corners should be rounded off.
In case the drop in the bed line is appreciable the bed lines
should be joined with a smooth tangential reverse curve.
(c) Between any two consecutive sections the drop in water
surface level may result due to (i) drop in T.E. line between
the two sections; (ii) increased velocity head in contraction;
and (iii) decreased velocity head in expansion.
65
This drop in water surface gets negotiated by two parabolic
curves as shown in Figs. for contraction and expansion
transition.

Water surface curve in approach Water surface curve in departure

transition transition

66
67
68
69
(b) Mitra's hyperbolic transition method:
This method is based on the principle that
(i) Along with discharge the depth of flow in the canal is also
constant; and
(ii) rate of change of velocity per unit length of transition is
constant throughout the length of transition.
From Fig. it may be seen that:
Bo = normal bed width of canal;
Bt = bed width in the throat or trough;
Bx = bed width at any distance x from the extremity of the
trough; and
L = total length of transition.
70
71
Thus Bx gives bed width at any distance x
from the throat.
72
73
(ix) Bank connections:
An aqueduct requires four sets of wing wall, (two for
the canal and two for the drain (as shown in
following Figure).

Arrangement of Wing walls

74
Canal wing walls on the upstream and downstream
side of the aqueduct protect and retain the earth in
the canal banks.
The foundation of the canal wing walls should not be
left in the embanked earth.
The wing walls should be based on the sound
foundation in the natural ground.
In the transitions the side slopes of the natural section
(generally 1.5:1) are warped to conform with shape
(generally vertical) of the trough over the drain.

75
Drainage wing walls are provided on the upstream and
downstream of the barrel to protect and to retain the
natural sides of the drain.
As the bed of the drain gets scoured during floods the
drainage wing walls should be taken deep into the
foundation below maximum scour depth.
The wing walls should be taken back sufficiently into the
top of the guide banks.
The wing walls should be designed to permit smooth
entry and exit of the flow in the drain.

76
Example
Design an aqueduct with the following data:
Canal
Discharge 30 cumecs
Bed width 20 m
Depth of water 1.50 m
FSL 251.50 m
Drain
High flood discharge 250 cumecs
HFL 247.50 m
High flood depth 2.50 m
General ground level 250.0 m

77
Solution

For design the earthen banks are

discontinued and the canal water is
taken in trough.

For affecting economy the canal is

flumed.

78
 1 2 3 4

Flow B Bt

Lc Lb Le

Canal Waterway

79
(1) Drainage waterway

Laceys regime perimeter

Let the clear spans between piers be 8.0 m and the
pier thickness be 1.5 m:
Provide 8 bays of 8 m each = 64.0 m
Provide 7 piers of 1.5 m each = 10.5 m
Hence total length between abutment = 74.5 m

80
(2) Canal waterway
Bed width of canal = 20 m (Given)
Let the width be flumed to 10 m.
Provide 2:1 splay in contraction and 3:1 splay in expansion
Length of contraction transition = Lc =

Length of expansion transition = Le =

Length of the flumed portion from abutment to abutment
= 74.50 m
In the transition the side slope of the section will be
warped from to vertical.
81
(3) Head loss and bed levels at different sections
1 2 3 4

Flow B Bt

Lc Lb Le

At section 4 4
Area of section, A = BD+zD2 = (20x1.5)+1.5(1.5)2 = 33.375 m2
Velocity, V = Q/A = 30/33.375 = 0.89 m/s
Velocity head = m

R.L. of bed = 250.00 (Given)

R.L. of water surface = 250.00 + 1.50 = 251.50 m
R.L. of Total Energy Line (T.E.L.) = 251.50 + 0.04 = 251.54 m82
At section 3 3
Area of section, A = 10 x 1.5 = 15 m2
Velocity, V = Q/A = 30/15 = 2.0 m/s
Velocity head = m

Loss of head in expansion from section 3-3 to 4-4 =

Hence,
Elevation of T.E.L. at section 3-3 = 251.54 + 0.049 = 251.59 m
R.L. of the water surface = 251.59 0.204 = 251.386 m
Elevation of the bed (to maintain constant depth of water) =
251.386 - 1.50 = 249.886 m

83
From section 3-3 to 2-2, area and velocity are constant.
Hydraulic radius in the rectangular trough, R = A/P =

Using Mannings Equation for flow in the rectangular trough

Hence,
Loss of head in the trough = length of trough x slope
= 74.5 x 0.0008
= 0.063 m 84
At section 2 2
R.L. of T.E.L. = 251.590 + 0.063 = 251.653 m
R.L. of water surface = 251.653 - 0.204 = 251.449 m
R.L. of bed = 251.449 1.50 = 249.949 m = 249.95 m
Take R. L. of bed = 249.96 m

85
At section 1 1
Loss of head in contraction from section 1-1 to 2-2 =

R.L. of T.E.L. = 251.653 + 0.033 = 251.686 m

R.L. of water surface = 251.686 - 0.04 = 251.646 m
R.L. of bed = 251.646 1.50 = 250.146 m = 250.15 m
Take R. L. of bed = 250.16 m

86
(4) Transitions

(i) Expansion Transition

Transitions are worked out according to Mitras
formula

Hence for different values of x, the values of Bx are

calculated

Bx (m) 10.0 11.1 12.5 14.29 16.67 20.0

(ii) Contraction Transition
Similarly, using Mitras formula:

For different values of x, the values of Bx are calculated

as shown in below Table.

Bx (m) 10.0 11.1 12.5 14.3 16.67 20.0

88
 1 2 3 4

B = 20m Bt = 10m

Lc = 10m Lb = 74.5m Le = 15m

T.E.L. 251.68 251.65 251.59 251.54

W.S.E 6 3 251.38 0
251.50
251.64 251.44
. 6 9 6 0

G.L. 250.16 251.96 249.89 250.00

0

89
DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR SIPHON AQUEDUCT

In addition to the above considerations the following

criteria should be adopted while designing the siphon
aqueducts:

90
91
limited to 2 to 3 m/sec.
92
Thus head loss in barrel or head causing flow can be calculated,
i.e.
u/s HFL = d/s HFL + loss of head
and
Top of River protection works = u/s HFL + Free board

93
(xi) Uplift pressure on the roof of the barrel:
As the barrel runs full during floods there exists positive pressure
in the barrel, due to which the barrel the roof is subjected to the
uplift pressure.
Knowing the pressure head on the u/s and d/s side of the barrel,
uplift pressure diagram for the roof may be drawn.
d/s pressure head = height of the water level above
bottom of the roof
u/s pressure head = loss of head in the barrel
+ pressure head on d/s side
The loss of head in the barrel may be obtained from Unwin's
formula.

94
Following figure shows the profile of hydraulic gradient line that
may exist. It may be seen that maximum uplift pressure occurs at
the u/s end of the barrel roof.

95
While designing the trough it is necessary to consider two
extreme conditions, i.e.
(a) The barrel runs full during maximum flood and there is no
water in the canal trough. This condition gives maximum uplift
pressure acting on the trough.
(b) The canal trough is carrying full discharge but the barrel does
not run full and hence there is no uplift on the roof of the barrel.
In order to limit the thickness of the trough it is advisable to
provide RCC roof with reinforcement at the bottom to take load
of the canal trough and reinforcement at top to resist uplift
pressure by bending.

96
(xii) Uplift pressure on the floor of the barrel:
Unlike other hydraulic structures aqueducts are subjected to two
different types of uplift pressures from two different sources.
They are the following:
(a) Static uplift pressure due to rise in water table:
Usually water table rises up to bed level of the drain, particularly
in case of siphon aqueduct whose floor bed is depressed below
the bed of the drainage.
Due to that a static uplift pressure acts on the floor bed.
Static uplift pressure = bed level of the drain - floor level
of the barrel

97
(b) Uplift pressure due to seepage of canal water to the drain:
Since there exists a difference of level between canal water level
and the drainage water level seepage takes place where
conditions are favorable. This seepage head is maximum when
canal runs with full capacity and there is no flow in the drain
below.
As shown in Figure the seepage
flow in this case is not simple
but flow pattern is three
dimensional everywhere.
The seepage flow starts from
either side of impervious canal
trough bed and reappears on
either side of the impervious
barrel floor in the drain.
98
Bligh's creep theory is applied for seepage analysis, as explained
below:
(For major works, however, it is essential to check the results of
Preliminary design so obtained by model studies.)
Referring to Fig. and taking the case of the first barrel where seepage
will be maximum,

99
The floor thickness of the barrel is designed considering total uplift
pressure created by static uplift condition and canal seepage flow
mentioned above.
In order to limit the thickness of the floor RCC construction may be
adopted as then part of the pressure is resisted by weight of the
floor and remaining by bending strength of the floor. In such
arrangement the pressure gets transferred to the piers and are
resisted by the entire weight of the superstructure.
When it is seen that uplift pressure is very high it can be reduced
by providing suitable safe guards. They are
(a) Increase the length of impervious floor of the canal bed so that
creep length is increased;
(b) Provide drainage holes or relief holes in the floor of the barrel in
conjunction with inverted filter below the floor. To avoid choking of
the relief holes and filter below the drain sill. Relief holes should be
provided with flap valves. 100
Design Problem 1
Give general design of a suitable crossing for the following
available data:
Drain:
Catchment area of drainage = 21.5 sq. km
The value of 'C' in Dicken's formula = 20. [Use formula Q = C A3/4 ]
Gauge reading at the site of crossing is 1.25 m during high flood
Earthen canal:
Full supply discharge = 30 m3/sec; Full supply depth = 1.7 m
Bed width = 15.0 m; Side slopes = 1 : 1
Width of inspection path along both banks of canal = 3.6 m
The bed of the canal is 3.5 m higher than bed of the drain.
Good foundation is available at site and the cost of construction in
foundation is low.
Assume missing data suitably. 101
Solution:
High flood depth of the drain = 1.25 m. (Given)
The bed of the canal is 3.5 m higher than the bed of the drain.
Thus, Clearance between bed of canal and H.F.L = 3.5 1.25 =
2.25 m.
Hence an aqueduct may be constructed.
Step 1: As per Dicken's formula,
High flood discharge of the drain = Q = C A3/4
= 20 x 21.53/4
= 199.68 or 200 m3/s
Step 2: Lacey's regime perimeter equation, Pw = 4.825 Q1I2 gives
drainage waterway.
Hence, Drainage waterway = 4.825 x 2001/2 = 68.30 m

102
Step 3: Since good foundation is available it is proposed to adopt
smaller span. The drainage may be passed through the masonry
arched barrels.
The span of the arch may be kept 5 m. Provide 13 spans.
clear waterway = 13 x 5 = 65 m.
Actually Pw gives wetted perimeter. Since the drain is small
assuming side slope of 1.5:1
Bed width of drain = 68.30 - 2 (1.5 x 1.25) = 64.55 m.
Hence provision of 13 Nos. of 5 m spans is sufficient.
Step 4: Thickness of piers is given by formula, t = 0.55 S1/2 , where
S is span of arch in metres.
Hence, t = 0.55 x 51/2 = 1.235 m
The piers may be given a batter of 1: 15.

103
104
105
106
Step 11: Thickness of augment at top is also given by Trautwine's
formula,
t = 0.22 R + 0.11 r + 0.50
:. t = 0.22 x 3.625 + 0.11 x 1 + 0.50 = 1.407 m.
Front face of the abutment is kept vertical while backbater of 1:5
is given.
Step 12: For economy the canal is flumed over the drain with a
fluming ratio of 2/3.
:. Flumed Bed width of canal = 15 x 2/3 = 10 m.
The section of the canal over the drain is kept rectangular. The
section is built with RCC. The height of side walls kept 0.4 m
higher than the F.S.D.

107
108
Design Problem 2
Design a siphon aqueduct with the data given below. Make
suitable assumptions where necessary:
Canal
Full supply discharge = 30 cumec; Bed width = 24 m;
Full supply depth = 1.25 m; Side slope = 1.5: 1 (H: V); and
Bed level = 100.0 m.
Drain
Maximum flood discharge = 500 cumec; HFL = 100.5 m; and
Bed level = 98.0 m.
Normal Ground level = 100.0 m; Lacey's silt factor = 1.0; and
Rugosity coefficient, N = 0.016.

109
110
Design of canal waterway
(vi) Since the drain waterway is quite wide it would be
economical to flume the canal over drain. The fluming ratio of
1/2 and a trough section with vertical sides may be adopted.
:. Width of trough = 24/2 = 12 m.
and Length of trough = 114.75 m (from (iii) above)
The entire trough may be constructed by reinforced concrete.
The thickness of trough bottom and sides may be kept 0.4 m.
(vii) Approach transition may be given 2 : 1 splay for contraction.
:. Length of approach transition = 2 x (24-12)/2 = 12 m
(viii) Departure transition may be given 3 : 1 splay for expansion
:. Length of departure transition = 3 x (24-12)/3 = 18 m
In both the transitions the side slopes of the canal section will be
warped from the normal slope of 1.5 : 1 to vertical.
111
X 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Bx 12.0 13.1 14.4 16.0 18.0 20.6 24.0
112
 x 0 3 6 9 12 15 18
Bx 12.0 13.1 14.4 16.0 18.0 20.6 24.0

113
(ix) Head loss and bed levels at different sections

1 2 3 4

Flow B Bt

Lc Lb Le

114
115
116
117
Uplift pressure on the roof of the barrel:
To calculate uplift pressure on the roof of the barrel it is
necessary to know the U/S H.F.L. from which maximum ordinate
of hydraulic gradient line can be obtained. It is design uplift
pressure for deciding thickness of the roof of the barrel.
u/s H.F.L. = d/s H.F.L + loss of head in barrel
(xi) Loss of head in barrel can be worked out from Unwin's
formula:
2 2
= 1 + 1 + 2
2 2
2
may be neglected.
2
v = Velocity through barrel = 2 m/sec.
f1 = Coefficient of loss of head at entry = 0.505

118

f2 = Coefficient for friction loss in barrel = a (1 + 0.305 )

where a and b are constants and for smooth cement plaster may
be taken to be: a = 0.00316 and b = 0.10
62.6
For barrel opening, = = = = 0.907
2:2 2(6:2.6)
0.1
f2 = 0.00316 (1 + 0.305 ) = 0.00327
0.907
L = Length of barrel = Outer width of the trough section
= 12 m + 2 (thickness of trough wall) = 12 + 2 x 0.4 = 12.8 m
12.8 (2)2
Hence, = 1 + 0.505 + 0.00327 = 0.316
0.907 2
Hence, u/s H.F.L. = 100.50 + 0.316 = 100.816 m

119
Level of H.G. line at u/s end of barrel
= u/s H.F.L - head loss at entry
22
= 100.816 - 0.505 = 100.816 - 0.103 = 100.713 m (1)
2
R.L. of bottom of trough = R.L. of roof of barrel
= R.L. of canal bed - thickness of trough
= 100.00 - 0.40 = 99.60 m (2)
Maximum uplift on the roof of barrel is = (1) - (2)
= 100.713 - 99.60 = 1.113 m
The 0.4 m thickness of concrete exerts downward pressure equal to
0.4 x 2.25 = 0.9 m.
Obviously thickness of 0.4 m plane concrete is not sufficient to
withstand uplift pressure of 1.113 m. Therefore it is necessary to
provide reinforcement in the 0.4 m slab to resist balance (1.113 -0.9
= 0.213 m) pressure by bending action. This situation considers drain
is in maximum flood and canal is empty. 120
Alternative condition is canal is running full but barrel does not
run full. In that case the slab thickness of 0.4 m has to withstand
load of water. It is therefore necessary to provide suitable
reinforcement at the bottom of the slab also.
Uplift pressure on the floor of the barrel:
Uplift pressure from two sources is acting on the floor. They are
(a) Static head and (b) Seepage head from canal
(xii) Static uplift pressure on the floor of the barrel
= Bed level of drain - Depressed floor level of barrel
RL. of Floor of barrel = RL. of trough bottom - Height of barrel
= (100.00 0.4) - (2.6) = 99.6 - 2.6 = 97.0 m
If thickness of floor of the barrel is assumed to be 1.0 m.
The RL. of bottom of barrel floor = 97.0 - 1.0 = 96.0 m
:. Static uplift pressure = 98.00 - 96.00 = 2.00 m.
121
(xiii) The maximum seepage acts when canal runs full and there is no
flow in the drain.
To find residual uplift pressure acting at the centre of the first barrel
Bligh's creep theory may be adopted. Refering the Figure,
(a) Total creep length
= (Length approach transition) + (1/2 barrel span)
+ (1/2 barrel floor length)
Length of approach transition = 12 m;
1/2 barrel span (0.5 x 6) = 3 m;
Floor length of barrel = (Out side of trough width)
+ (u/s & d/s pier projections)
+ (u/s & d/s horizontal length or ramp & apron)
+ (u/s & d/s cut-off thickness)
122
Uplift pressure due to seepage

123
Outside width of trough = (12 + 2 x 0.4) =12.8 m;
u/s and d/s pier projections = (take) 0.9 m each;
Horizontal length of d/s ramp joining depressed floor (level 97.0)
to bed level of drain (level 98.0) = 5 m; with 5:1 rising slope.
Keep u/s additional apron = 5 m
u/s and d/s cut off thickness = 0.5 m each = 2 x 0.5 = 1.0 m
:. Floor length of barrel = 12.8 +1.8 + 5.0 + 5.0 + 1.0 = 25.6 m
and 1/2 barrel floor length = 0.5 x 25.6 = 12.8 m
:. Total creep length = 12 + 3 + 12.8 = 27.8 m
(b) Total seepage head = (Canal F.S.L at 1-1) - (R.L. of bottom of
barrel floor) = 101.442 - 96.0 = 5.442 m
From Fig. residual uplift pressure at point b, i.e., centre of the first
barrel can be calculated proportionately as follows:
5.442
Residual uplift at b = x 12.8 = 2.5 m
27.8 124
(xiv) Total uplift pressure = (static uplift) + (Residual seepage
uplift) = 2.0 + 2.5 = 4.5 m.
Assuming specific gravity of the material used in barrel floor to be
2.25, one metre thick floor will resist 1 x 2.25 = 2.25 m uplift
pressure due to self weight.
Thus there still remains (4.5 - 2.25) m uplift pressure to be
resisted. It requires reinforcement to resist balance uplift
pressure by pending strength of the floor. In addition relief holes
may be provided in the floor of the barrel in conjunction with
inverted filter. The cost section of the siphon aqueduct is shown
in Fig.

125
Cross-section of Siphon Aqueduct

126
(xv) The depth of cut-off should be such as to extend beyond the
deepest scour depth.
The depth of cut-off below H.F.L may be kept 1.5 times scour
depth.
Scour depth is given by Lacey's formula,
1 3
2 1 1 3
= 1.35 = 0.47
1 3

Putting f = 1.0 and Q = 500 cumec yields, R = 3.73 m

and 1.5 R = 5.595 m
R.L. of the bottom of u/s cut-off
= u/s H.F.L - 5.595 = 100.816 - 5.595 = 95.221 m say 95.2 m

R.L. of the bottom of d/s cut-off

= d/S H.F.L - 5.595 = 100.50 - 5.595 = 94.905 m say 94.9 m
127
Protection works beyond floor:
(xvi) Length of u/s protection = 2 x Depth of u/s cut-off
:. On the u/s of impervious floor of the barrel 0.4 m thick brick
pitching for 6 m length may be provided supported by a toe wall
1 m deep and 0.4 m thick.

(xvii) Length of d/s protection = 2.5 x Depth of d/s cut-off

:. On the d/s of the impervious floor also 0.4 m thick brick
pitching for 8 m length may be provided supported by a toe wall
1.5 m deep and 0.4 m thick.

128