Psychological theories of crime:

How do personal traits influence criminal activity ?

Psychologists have been focusing in recent years on developing theories of crime and
criminal behaviour and understanding criminal motivations. One of the key research areas
has been understanding to what extent personality and personal traits influence offending
patterns and criminal behaviour. This essay will aim to explain some of the psychological
theories of crime. The essay will explore the intersection between personality and criminal
behaviour, focusing on how personal traits influence crime and criminality.

To be able to understand how criminal activity is influenced by personal traits we need to

understand what crime is. According to Online Oxford Sociology Dictionary (2015) crime is
described as an offence which goes beyond the personal and into the public sphere,
breaking prohibitory rules or laws, to which legitimate punishments or sanctions are
attached, and which requires the intervention of a public authority (the state or a local body).
However, the definition of crime is arguably affected by changes of moral and ethical
perceptions over time. What in the past was considered a crime might not be seen as such
by society in the present day. For this reason, a legal definition of crime is not enough.
Societys understanding and definition of crime is linked to its social constructs, accepted
morals, beliefs and religion (Oxford Sociology Dictionary, 2015). This suggests that
perceptions of crime can change across both time and geographical space, and that an
understanding of criminal activity must take the context of crime into account.

In the mid-nineteenth century, a biological interpretation of criminal activity came from the
Italian School of Criminology. The Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso (1961) argued that
criminality was a biological trait active in some human beings. Lombroso developed the idea
that an individual could deviate from social norms because of their biological proclivity.
Lombrosos biological interpretation supports the idea that biology or a biological factor can
have influence on a persons criminal activity. However, the question remains as to what
extent it is biology that makes us criminals. Alternatively, it may be the traits that people
experience during their lives that lead them to commit a criminal offence

In order to understand this problem criminologists and psychologists developed the

Psychological Theory of Crime. This psychological idea is formed of three major theories.
The first theory is centered on the notion that individuals early childhood experience or traits
can influence his or her future decisions in terms of committing an act of crime. The
Psychodynamic Theory suggests that the unconscious mental processes can affect early
childhood personality, which then controls the personality of an individual. Sigmund Freud
(1954) argued that are three elements of structure in developing the human personality. The
first structure that develops in the human brain is the Id. The id is the primitive and instinctual
part of the mind that is composed of hidden memories. In id are established the sexual and
the aggressive drives. Freud argued that the id consists of all the biological components of
personality at birth. It is suggested that the id is the impulsive part of our psyche that is
responsible to deal with the instincts. The id acts according to the pleasure principle where
all of an individuals needs should be obtained immediately. The id is the part of the human
psychological structure that is looking to avoid pain.( Freud 1954)

The second element of a human personality structure to develop is the EGO. Freud, and
Strachey (1961, p.25) state that The ego is that part of the id which has been modified by
the direct influence of the external world. Freud argues that the ego develops in order to be
the mediator between the id and the external world. Freud and Strachey argue that the ego
works by reason and operates according to the reality principle in order to satisfy the ids
demands. The ego suspends the id pleasure principle in favor of the reality principle. In
addition, they argues that the ego decides how to behave, whereas the id seeks pleasure
and aims to avoid pain.

In Freuds theory, the last component of human personality to develop is the super ego.
Freud suggests that, the super ego begins to emerge around the age of five. However, the
superego is the aspect of the personality that contains what we acquire from the parents,
their ideas and moral standards. In his theory, we can see that the superegos function is to
control the id and that superego causes feelings of guilt. Overall Freud through his theory
disapproves of the Biological Theory beliefs of the Italian School, which suggests that
individuals are born with criminal genes. In Freuds view, people are born the same and they
gain the moral standards and views of society from their parents. (Freud, and
Strachey,1961)

A study done by Michael Mosley shows that early childhood experience can have an impact
in the way that person will act in the future. the reason may be childhood abuse, which can
create killers by causing physical damage to the brain. The pre-frontal cortex is especially
vulnerable. Page a man who brutally murdered a 24-year-old woman when she caught him
breaking into her home. As a baby Page was frequently shaken by his mother, and as he got
older the abuse got worse. His mother would use electrical extension cords, shoes, whatever
was handy. These were not once a year beatings, they were beatings that occurred almost
daily. Early physical abuse, amongst other things could have led to the brain damage, which
could have led to him committing this violent act. But only a small proportion of those who
have a terrible childhood grow up to become murderers BBC News. (2017). In a study
done by Childhood Domestic Violence Association is suggested that kids who grow up with
domestic violence in childhood are 6 times more likely to commit suicide and 50% more
likely to abuse drugs and alcohol. 74% more likely to commit a violent crime against
someone else. 3 times more likely to repeat the cycle in adulthood, CDV (2007)

The second component of psychological theory is the Behavioral Theory. The Behavioral
Theory argues that human behavior is developed through learning experiences. Albert
Bandura (1969) argues that crimes are a learned response to a life situation. Bandura
suggests that the individuals are not born violent, but in fact, they are learning through a
process of observation called imitation. In other words, Bandura argues that if a child is born
in a violent environment he will learn to be violent from the parents. If the child is exposed to
a criminal environment, through his experiences he is most likely to become a criminal or to
perceive crime in a different manner. Through his behavioral theory, Alberto Bandura further
develops an understanding of how personal traits influence criminal activity.

The above information suggests that humans are not born criminals, as they are seemingly
all born the same. Through the environment and social learning, such as family and school
groups, and media sources, people develop an inclination to become violent or criminals.
Perhaps it is the case that it is the environment that people are born into, and the learning
that occurs within that environment, that decides their fate. It is from this understanding of
behavioral theory that more advanced ideas of the processes behind human choices
developed.

The third point of the psychological theory is the Cognitive Theory, this is based on the idea
that an individuals perception and how she or he manifests this affects their potential to
commit crime. The Cognitive Theory tries to understand how criminals perceive the world
around them. Bandura argues that the individuals are affected by the dynamic of the
surrounding environment. However, in the same time, a person has the liberty to choose
their decision-making and how to behave is society. Bandura also believes that the way a
person acts is maintained through experience or anticipated consequences more than
immediate consequences. Is deductible that most likely a person who had a criminal
experience where the result was positive in obtaining what is desired, the person might
commit a crime again. Where if the crime result was negative in a form of punishment the
person is most likely not to offend again. Bandura agrees with Freuds vision about the
human personality. However, Bandura argues that in the end the decision on how to react in
certain situations or how to behave is society is completely up to the individual. Is
understandable that personal trait at early ages, social environment and family can have a
significant impact in our criminal inclination but is not certain. However the belief on how can
a person be more likely to commit a crime through his personal traits is not clear, and to
what extent personal trait influences a person`s criminal activity. Perhaps in the end it all
comes down to ration, and the way a person rationally interprets their personal traits is really
influencing the course of further actions.

Clarke, and Cornish(1982) argue that criminal behaviour is not different from non-criminal
behaviour, and is not determined by the psychological nor biological factor. In their Rational
Choice Theory, they believe that people voluntary chose to committee crime and they see
crime being as a way to obtain what they want in a faster manner and to be more rewarding
than non-criminal behaviour. Wilson and Herrnstein (1998) argue that crime is due to
personality traits, and that personal trait inclines a person to commit crimes. No matter what
people choose to do (be a criminal or obey the law),they do it because they prefer it(Wilson
and Herrnstein 1998 p.43.). They argue that when people choose to do a crime, the person
is not consciously deliberating about what to do. It is also suggested that a person can
choose between committing and not a crime. In addition, the consequences in their mind
consists in rewards and punishment. It is suggested by Wilson and Herrnstein(1998), that
some people are criminals by opportunity. In certain point if a persons sees the opportunity
of committing a crime without being punished most people will ignore their judge in order to
fulfil quick gains. In the end the Rational Choice theory suggest that a person are rational
enough to judge the benefits of the criminal and non-criminal behavior. Is suggested that
crime occurs when someone believes that a criminal action has better / faster benefits at
lower costs than the non-criminal behavior.

For a better understanding on how personal traits can influence criminal activity,
understanding how intellectual immaturity affects a person might help. Arbuthnot and
Gordon, (1988) argue that intellectual immaturity consists in the capacity of a person to see
the long term consequences of their anti-social action, and that the person is strictly
laminated to the present and accords a small importance to the future. They argue that the
person main focus is on the present and that she or he is not able to discriminate between
delinquency and non-delinquency. They also argue that the intellectual immaturity not occurs
due to a low IQ but to a low capacity to establish a good rational rapport between gains and
loss in the vision of a criminal act.

How do personal traits influence criminal activity. In conclusion is hard to determine exactly
how personal traits influence the criminal activity due to the numerous factors that can occur.
By biology, a person can be born with a mental ill what could have an influence towards the
criminal activity. Personal experience in early childhood can be another factor to influence
criminal activity. The environment that e person is born in, family or the perceptions over
what is good or bad could be the reasons that get a person to commit a crime. However,
criminology as a discipline will continue to study criminal behaviour and will try to understand
the causes behind crime and criminal behaviour.

Bibliography

Arbuthnot, J. and Gordon, D.A., 1988. Crime and cognition: Community applications of
sociomoral reasoning development. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 15(3), pp.379-393.

Bandura, A., 1969. Social-learning theory of identificatory processes. Handbook of

socialization theory and research, 213, p.262.
Wolfgang, M.E., 1961. Pioneers in Criminology: Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909). The journal
of criminal law, criminology, and police science, 52(4), pp.361-391.

Clarke, R.V. and Cornish, D.B., 1985. Modeling offenders' decisions: A framework for
research and policy. Crime and justice, 6, pp.147-185.

Freud, S. and Bonaparte, P.M., 1954. The origins of psychoanalysis (Vol. 216). London:
Imago.

Freud, S. and Strachey, J., 1961. Beyond the Pleasure Principle: Transl. and Newly Ed. by
James Strachey. Hogarth Press.

Tosti, G., 1897. The sociological theories of Gabriel Tarde. Political Science Quarterly, 12(3),
pp.490-511.

Piaget, J., 1964. Part I: Cognitive development in children: Piaget development and
learning. Journal of research in science teaching, 2(3), pp.176-186.

Knepper, P., 2001. Explaining criminal conduct: Theories and systems in criminology.
Carolina Academic Press.

Wilson, J.Q. and Herrnstein, R.J., 1998. Crime human nature: The definitive study of the
causes of crime. Simon and Schuster.

Citations

Freud, S. and Strachey, J., 1961. Beyond the Pleasure Principle: Transl. and Newly Ed. by
James Strachey. Hogarth Press.

http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001/acref-
9780199533008-e-441?rskey=0dDqni&result=441

BBC News. (2017). Are murderers born or made? - BBC News. [online] Available at:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-31714853 [Accessed 7 Apr. 2017].

CVD.(2017). 10 Startling Statistics About Children Of Domestic Violence. [online] Available

at: http://cdv.org/2014/02/10-startling-domestic-violence-statistics-for-children/ [Accessed 20
Apr.2017]