Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Glenn W. Swift
University of Manitoba
Winnipeg, Canada
Abstract - The solution of an electric circuit problem is only The factor which distinguishes the saturation effect from the others
valid if the circuit elements have been validly modelled. The iron-cored is that energy loss is involved in the others, that is, energy is dissipated
coil is a common nonlinear circuit element, especially in power system as heat loss in the cases of hysteresis and eddy-currents. Saturation by
circuits, where the iron core is laminated grain-oriented silicon-iron itself does not introduce loss.
sheet. This paper attempts to show that eddy-current loss modelling Even though saturation is the predominant effect, it is sometimes
in such a core is at least as important as hysteresis loss modelling, and necessary to include loss-associated effects as for example in cases
demonstrates the accuracy of linear modelling of the eddy-current where the total system loss appears to be a major determinant as to
effect. If the circuit analyst has confidence in this complete model whether or not subharmonic oscillations will be self-sustaining [4].
he can then decide which aspects of the model can be ignored with
impunity when studying such circuit phenomena as ferroresonance, III. DISPLAY OF LOSSES
subharmonics and inrush current.
Consider a circuit element having an arbitrary voltage-current
I. INTRODUCTION relationship. If the relationship is shown on fe dt and i coordinates,
then the area of the closed curve resulting from periodic applied e
When analyzing electric utility power system networks it is some- or i represents the loss per cycle. See Fig. 1. The reason for this is
times necessary to simulate the dynamic behavior of a transformer or straight-forward:
reactor, that is, to simulate the time-dependent relationships among The loss per cycle is
current, voltage and flux for a winding on an iron core. Three
examples of problems in which nonlinear effects must be included, are T
ferroresonance (as for example in an unloaded transformer at the end W=f pdt, (1)
of an underground cable), subharmonics (as for example in the current 0
into an unloaded transformer at the end of a series-capacitor-com- where p is the power being dissipated and T is the time for one
pensated power transmission line), and transformer inrush current. cycle of the periodic voltage, current or flux. Referring to Fig. 1, let
The qualification "unloaded" is used here because that is the condition fe dt = y for notation convenience. Then the area enclosed by the
most likely to lead to ferroresonance or subharmonics. An unloaded contour is
transformer has one winding open-circuited and is therefore equivalent
to a reactor for calculation purposes. The term "iron core" as used y(T) T T T
here refers to a laminated core of grain-oriented silicon-iron sheet,
universally used in modern power transformers and reactors.
A= f idy=fiidt= fie dt= f pdt
y(0) 0 0 0
There are three' nonlinear effects introduced by iron cores:
1. saturation and comparing this with (1), it is seen that A = W, that is, the loop area
2. hysteresis, and on such a plot does equal the energy loss per cycle.
3. eddy-currents. Consider now, two cases: 1) a resistor, and 2) an iron-cored coil
In this study, the three effects are carefully distinguished, and in with negligible winding resistance. If sinusoidal voltage is applied in
this context it is of interest to examine prior papers concerned with each case, the loss cycles are as shown in Fig. 2. The iron-cored coil
iron-cored coil modelling. Some of these consider saturation only
[1,2,3]; some consider saturation and (pure) hysteresis only [4,5,6,7];
and some consider saturation and eddy-current effect only [8,9].
There are papers which consider all three effects, but for special
circumstances, e.g. isotropic iron (not laminated) [10], or single
iron grains [11 ] .
The central purpose of this paper is to show that
1. if hysteresis is to be considered in a particular circuit analysis,
then eddy-currents must also be considered, because they represent a
larger effect, and
2. a linear modelling of the eddy-current effect is very accurate
for commercial power transformers.
1 where Em is the peak value of the coil voltage e, and the constant of
B=-A fe dt
integration is zero in the steady state. Also,
where N is the number of coil turns, B is the effective core flux density, ie = K' coswt (l-sincot), (4)
and A is the effective core cross-sectional area; and the current i is
proportional to the magnetic field intensity H within the core. where K' is a constant incorporating K of (2) and the linear propor-
Experimentally, fe dt can be easily formed from e using an operational tionality between He and ie. Plotting fe dt vs. ie using (3) and (4)
amplifier connected as an integrator, and it is then possible to display gives the loss cycle of Fig. 3.
loss cycles like those of Fig. 2 on an oscilloscope or X-Y recorder.
4-0-
e a)
i -
(a) (b)
Fig. 2. Loss cycles for (a) resistor and (b) iron-cored coil.
It is well known that the shape of the contour of Fig. 2(b) is Fig. 3. Eddy-current loss cycle according to equations (3) and (4).
dependent on the rate at which the contour is traversed. For very slow
(essentially zero frequency) traverses of the loop, the loss can be
termed "pure" hysteresis loss and is attributable to domain wall V. A POSTULATED CIRCUIT MODEL
movements back and forth across crystal grain boundaries, non-
magnetic inclusions and imperfections [13]. Increasing the frequency It is here postulated that the eddy-current effect can be closely
increases the loss per cycle. Classically, any increase in loss above the simulated by a pure resistance branch in parallel with a non-frequency-
value at zero frequency has been attributed to "seddy-current effect", dependent branch. This simulation has been postulated before [181;
and for modern commercial grain-oriented silicon-iron sheet this effect what is added here is experimental veriflcation for a commercial
power transformer, and indication of the comparative magnitudes of
accounts for about three times as much loss as does the pure hysteresis
or zero-frequency effect [ 14]. Recent studies on domain wall motion
the two types of core loss. See Fig. 4 in which Fig. 4(d) is constructed
and shape tend to indicate that the pure hysteresis effect is frequency
dependent in some way [14], [15]. These studies were stimulated ih
by the fact that a classical calculation of eddy-current loss does not i
agree with measurements of the frequency-dependent loss. The dis-
crepancy has been called "anomalous loss" [ 15].
However one subdivides this total core loss, the fact remains that Re
there is a frequency-dependent part and a non-frequency-dependent (a)
part. For convenience, the frequency-dependent part will hereafter in
this paper be referred to as the eddy-current part. a)- v)
'a
As the preliminary justification for the postulation to follow, 1)
7l-
frequency of an applied cosine voltage e. Let He be proportional to a Fig. 4. Postulated simulation of the core losses.
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by addition of its constituent ie and ih. A single point in Fig. 4(d) is struction. In this case the eddy-current effect simulation did not
shown as derived from i' = i4 + ih by way of exaurnple. What has been produce as satisfactory results. A more complex simulation could be
done here, in essence, is to assume that the ellipse of Fig. 4(b) is a found to suit this kind of core but the author is not aware of a practical
close enough approximation to the contour of Fig. 3, and experimental need for such.
verification follows in the next section.
It is not hard to show that the area of the ellipse of Fig. 4(b) n.
obeys the classical eddy-current loss expression [18] when either
voltage magnitude or frequency is changed.
VI. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Fig. 5(e). Oscillogram of the switched voltage & current for the stalled condition & j = 1000.
and the last line of second paragraph in Conclusions should read "negligible secondary time-constant ."
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