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TRANSFORMERS:
t
Weight of
Specific weight of t/f = f
t
KVA rating of
f
E
Emf per turn in Iry = N1 = 4.44 Bmax An f
1
ry E2
Emf per turn in II = = 4.44 Bmax An f
N2
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For an ideal two-winding transformer with primary voltage V1 applied
across N1 primary turns and secondary voltage V2 appearing across N2 secondary
turns:
V1 / V2 = N1 / N2
The primary current I1 and secondary current I2 are related by:
I1 / I2 = N2 / N1 = V2 / V1
For an ideal step-down auto-transformer with primary voltage V1 applied
across (N1 + N2) primary turns and secondary voltage V2 appearing
across N2 secondary turns:
V1 / V2 = (N1 + N2) / N2
The primary (input) current I1 and secondary (output) current I2 are related by:
I1 / I2 = N2 / (N1 + N2) = V2 / V1.
For a single-phase transformer with rated primary voltage V1, rated primary
current I1, rated secondary voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2, the voltampere
rating S is:
S = V1I1 = V2I2
For a balanced m-phase transformer with rated primary phase voltage V1, rated
primary current I1, rated secondary phase voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2,
the voltampere rating S is:
S = mV1I1 = mV2I2
The primary circuit impedance Z1 referred to the secondary circuit for an ideal
transformer with N1 primary turns and N2 secondary turns is:
Z12 = Z1(N2 / N1)2
E1 V1
Bm
f f
V1
Bmax = constant = constant
f
N1 N2
I0
Iw I
V1 R0 X0 E1 E2
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No load current = I0 = I + Iw = I0 0
Iw = I0 cos 0
I = I0 sin 0
No load power = v1 I0 cos 0 = v1 Iw = Iron losses.
v1 v1 No load power
R0 = ; X0 = Iw =
Iw1 I V1
Transferring from to :-
R1 R 21
I22 R 2 = I12 R 21
I 2
R 21 = R 2 2
I 1
R2
=
K2
R
R 21 = K22
From to :-
I12 R1 = I22 . R11
I12
R11 = I22
. R1
R11 = R1 . K 2
ry
P. U resistance drop ref to I =
I1 R01 I1
or E1 I1
P. U resistance ref to Iry
I12 R01
= E1 I1
1. Hysteresis loss :
Steinmetz formula :-
x
Wh = Bmax . f . v Area under one hysteresis loop.
Where
= stienmetz coefficient
Bmax = max. flux density in transformer core.
f = frequency of magnetic reversal = supply freq.
v = volume of core material
x = Hysteresis coeff (or) stienmetz exponent
= 1.6 (Si or CRGo steel)
2. Eddycurrent loss:
Eddy current loss ,(We ) R ce Ie2
As area decreases in laminated core resistance increases as a result conductivity decreases.
2 2 2
We = K. Bma x f .t
thickness of laminations.
Supply freq
Constant
(it is a function of )
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During operation of transformer :- V1
Bm
f
V1
Case (i) :-
f
= constant, Bmax = const.
we f 2
we = B f 2
Const.
V1
Case (ii) :- constant, Bm const.
f
V 2
we f1 . f 2
we V1 2
wi = wh + we
A V11.6
wi =
f0.6
+ BV1 2
As VA rating is choosen as base then the P.U iron loss are also constant at all load conditions.
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Under the assumption that small amount of iron losses corresponds to VSC and stray load
losses are neglected the wattmeter reading in S.C test can be approximately taken as F.L
Cu losses in the transformer.
Wse F.L Cu loss
ISC2 . R 01
WSC
R 01 = 2
ISC
Efficiency :-
output power
Efficiency of transformer is given by =
input power
output power
=
output power+losses
E2 I2 cos 2
=E
2 I2 cos 2 + F.L cu losses+Iron losses
E2 I2 cos 2
F.L = E2 I2 cos 2 + I22 R02 + Wi
x (E2 I2 ) cos 2
x of F.L =
x (E2 I2 ) cos 2 + x 2 (I2 2 R 02 ) + Wi
KVA cos
Transformer efficiency =
KVA cos + wi + Cu losses
I R02 I X02
=2 cos 2 2 sin 2
V1 V1
P.U resistance P.U reactance
% Regulation = (P. U R) cos 2 + (P. U X) sin 2 100
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AUTO TRANSFORMER:
Primary applied voltage, Vab = Secondary voltage V2 referred to primary + primary leakage impedance
drop + secondary leakage impedance drop ref. to primary.
N1 N2 N1 N2
Vab =
N2
V2 + I1 (r1 + jx1 ) + (I2 I1 )(r2 + j x2 ) N2
LV
K of auto transformer = HV
(KVA)induction = (V1 V2 ) I1
I/P KVA = V1 I1
(KVA)induction (V1 V2 ) I1
i/p KVA
= V1 I1
LV
=1
HV
=1K
(KVA) induction = (1 K) i/p KVA
=1K
Wt. of conductor in auto t/f = (1 K) (wt. of conductor in 2 wdg t/f)
Thus saving of conductor material if auto t/f is used} = K {conductor wt in 2 wdg transformer.
(% FL losses)Auto t/f = (1 K)(% FL losses)2 wdg t/f
(% Z)AT = (1 K) (% Z)2 wdg t/f
1
(KVA)AT = (KVA)2 wdg t/f .
1K
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DC MACHINES :
S = No of commutator segments
P = No of poles
2C
U = No of coil sides / No of poles = S
C = No of coils on the rotor
A = No of armature parallel paths
Ia = Armature current
phasor sum coil emf chord 2
Distribution factor (K d ) = = =
arthematic sum of coil emf arc
elecrrical angle of coil
Pitch factor ( K p ) = 1800
*100%
P
0electrical = 2 0mechanical
ZI
Armature mmf/Pole (Peak) , ATa = 2AP
a
ZI pole arc
AT (Compensating Winding) = 2AP
a
* pole pitch
B
AT(Inter pole) = ATa + i lgi
0
Where Bi = Flux density in inter pole airgap
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For a series generator with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia,
armature resistance Ra and field resistance R f, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea - ( IaRa + IaR f )= Ea - Ia(Ra + R f)
The field current is equal to the armature current.
The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux at angular
speed are:
Ea = k f Ia = km Ia
T = k fIa2 = kmIa2
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.
Note that for a series generator:
- induced voltage is proportional to both speed and armature current,
- torque is proportional to the square of armature current,
- armature current is inversely proportional to speed for a constant Ea
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The airgap power Pe for a series generator is:
Pe = T = EaIa = km Ia2
Cumulatively compounded DC generator : - ( long shunt)
(a) Ia = If + IL
(b) Vt = Ea - Ia (R a + R s )
V
(c) Isf = Rx = shunt field current
f
(d) The equivalent effective shunt field current for this machine is given by
Nse Armature reaction MMF
Isf =Isf + Ia - ( )
Nf Nf
Shunt Motor:
For a shunt motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia and
armature resistance Ra, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea + IaRa
The field current I f for a field resistance R f is:
If = V / Rf
The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux at angular
speed are:
Ea = k f = km
T = k fIa = kmIa
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.
Note that for a shunt motor:
- induced voltage is proportional to speed,
- torque is proportional to armature current.
The airgap power Pe for a shunt motor is:
Pe = T = EaIa = km Ia
V Ra PZ
The speed of the shunt motor , = K - (K)2T Where K =
2A
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Series Motor :
For a series motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia,
armature resistance Ra and field resistance R f, the terminal voltage V is:
constant losses (P k) = Pw f + Pi o
Efficiency
The per-unit efficiency of an electrical machine with input power Pin, output
power Pout and power loss Ploss is:
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Pin = Pout + Ploss = Pout / = Ploss / (1 - )
Temperature Rise:
R1 / (1 - 0) = R2 / (2 - 0) = (R2 - R1) / (2 - 1)
where 0 is the extrapolated temperature for zero resistance.
The average temperature rise of a winding under load may be estimated from
measured values of the cold winding resistance R1 at temperature 1 (usually
ambient temperature) and the hot winding resistance R2 at temperature 2, using:
= 2 - 1 = (1 - 0) (R2 - R1) / R1
Copper Windings:
If 1 is 20 C and is 1 degC:
Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = / (1 - 0) = 1 / 254.5 = 0.00393
Aluminium Windings:
The value of 0 for aluminium is - 228 C, so that:
= 2 - 1 = (1 + 228) (R2 - R1) / R1
If 1 is 20 C and is 1 degC:
Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = / (1 - 0) = 1 / 248 = 0.00403
The temperature coefficient of resistance of aluminium at 20 C is 0.00403 per
degC.
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The dielectric dissipation factor of the insulation system is the tangent of the
dielectric loss angle between VC and V:
tan = VR / VC = RS / XC = 2fCRS
RS = XCtan = tan / 2fC
The dielectric power loss P is related to the capacitive reactive power QC by:
P = I2RS = I2XCtan = QCtan
The power factor of the insulation system is the cosine of the phase
angle between VR and V:
cos = VR / V
so that and are related by:
+ = 90
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SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES:
Principle of operation :-
Whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux, an emf is induced in that conductor
Coil span () :- It is the distance between two sides of the coil. It is expressed in terms of
degrees, pole pitch, no. of slots / pole etc
Pole pitch :- It is the distance between two identical points on two adjacent poles.
Pole pitch is always 180 e = slots / pole.
P
elec = mech
2
Slot pitch or slot angle :- (T)Slot angle is the angle for each slot.
P(180)
For a machine with P poles and s no. of slots, the slot angle = = d
180
= s
p
2E cos/2
KP =
2E
Kp = cos /2
cos n
Pitch factor for nth harmonic i.e, K pn = 2
180
chording angle to eliminate nth harmonics ()=
n
n1
coil spam to eliminate nth harmonics ,() = 180
n
Distribution factor | spread factor | belt factor | breadth factor(kd) :-
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m
sin
2
Kd =
m sin
2
The distribution factor for uniformly distributed winding is
mr
sim
kd4 = mr 2
2 180
mn
sin
For nth harmonic, kdn = 2
n
m sin
2
360
To eliminate nth harmonics ,phase spread (m) =
n
Generally, KVA rating, power output kd and Eph (induce emf) k d . Tph .
60
KVA60 (3 ) Pout60 (3 ) kd60 sin m120 sin 30 120
KVA120 (3 )
= Pout120 (3)
=
kd120
= 2
120
m60
=
sin 60
60
= 1.15
sin
2
60
KVA60 (3) Pout60 (3) kd60 sin 90
KVA90 (2)
= Pout90 (2)
= kd90
= 2
90 = 1.06
sin 60
2
60
KVA60 (3) Pout60 (3) kd60 sin 180
= = = 2
180 = 1.5
KVA180 (1) Pout180 (1 ) kd180 sin 60
2
1
Speed of space harmonics of order (6k 1) is (6k . Ns
1)
120 f
where Ns = synchronous speed = p
2S
The order of slot harmonics is 1
P
Slot harmonics can be eliminated by skewing the armature slots and fractional slot winding.
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m
sin
Is kd1 = 2
i.e., same that of fundamental
m sin
2
2s
Pith factor for slot harmonics, k p 1 = k p1 = cos 2
p
The synchronous speed Ns and synchronous angular speed of a machine with p pole
pairs running on a supply of frequency fs are:
s = 2fs / p
NS N
Slip S =
NS
120 f
Where NS = = synchronous speed
p
The magnitude of voltage induced in a given stator phase is Ea = 2 Nc f = K
Where K = constant
Pm = sTm
Synchronous Generator:
For a synchronous generator with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and
synchronous impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
E = (V cos + Ia R a )2 + (V sin Ia Xs )2
+ lag p.f
leading p.f.
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Synchronous Motor:
For a synchronous motor with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and synchronous
impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
Voltage regulation :
|E| |V|
% regulation = |V|
100
E V = Ia Zs
EV
% regulation =
V
Ia Zs
= 100
V
regulation Zs
As Zs increases, voltages regulation increases.
Ia Zs
Condition for zero | min. voltage regulation is, Cos ( + ) = 2V
Condition for max. Voltage regulation is, =
Ifm 1 1
Short circuit ratio (SCR) = Ifa
=
Zs (adjusted)|unit
=
Xs (adjusted)|unit
1 1
SCR
Xa Armature reaction
armature mmf
a =
reluctance
armature mmf
a =
airgap
1
a
Air gap length
1
Armature reaction a
Airgap length
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1
SCR Airgap length
Armature reaction
1
P SCR
Xs
Power SCR
Large value of SCR represent more power output.
Synchronizing power coefficient or stability factor Psy is given as
dp d EV
Psy = = sin
d d Xs
EV
= cos
Xs
Psy is a measure of stability
stability Psy
1
But Psy X SCR
s
Stability SCR
Stability SCR Air gap length
When the stator mmf is aligned with the d axis of field poles then flux d perpole is set up
and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is X d .
When the stator mmf is aligned with the q axis of field poles then flux q per pole is set up
and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is X q.
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Ef Vt Vt2 1 1
P= Xd
sin + 2
X sin 2
q Xd
2
Ef Xq 1 E Xq
+ 4V
f
Cos = 4V
t Xd Xq 2 X t d Xq
EV V2
Reactive power flow (Q) = sin( ) sin ;
Z2 Zs
Condition for max. power output :-
EV V2
P= cos( ) cos
Zs Z2
dp
= 0 for max power condition
d
ie = 0
If R a = 0; = = 90 ; then max power is given by
=
EV V2
Pmax = cos
Zs Zs
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INDUCTION MACHINES:
Power of
rotor shaft
ns nr
The slip of induction machine is (S) = ns
Ns Nr
= Ns
Where Ns is synchronous speed in rpm
ns is synchronous speed in rps
Nr = Ns (1 s)
Ns Nr = SNs
P . SNs PNs
Rotor frequency, f2 = 120
=S 120
= Sf1
For an induction machine with rotor resistance Rr and locked rotor leakage reactance Xr, the
rotor impedance Zr at slip s is:Zr = Rr + jsXr
The stator circuit equivalent impedance Zrf for a rotor / stator frequency ratio s is:
Zrf = Rrs / s + jXrs
For an induction motor with synchronous angular speed s running at angular speed m and
slip s, the airgap transfer power Pt, rotor copper loss Pr and gross output power Pm for a
gross output torque Tm are related by:
Pt = sTm = Pr / s = Pm / (1 - s)
Pr = sPt = sPm / (1 - s)
Pm = mTm = (1 - s)Pt
The power ratios are:
Pt : Pr : Pm = 1 : s : (1 - s)
The gross motor efficiency m (neglecting stator and mechanical losses) is:
m = Pm / Pt = 1 - s
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But during running conditions the frequency of the rotor becomes, running with speed Nr
P(Ns Nr ) P SNs
120
= 120
= Sf1
fr = Sf1
Emf under running conditions is
E = 2 fr Kw2 Nphr 1
= SE2
= sx2
= r22 + x22
= r22 + (sx2 )2
E
=
r22 + x22
The rotor current I2 lags the rotor voltage E2 by rotor power factor angle 2 given by
sx
2 = tan1 2
r 2
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Pg = F2 I2 cos 2
Per phase rotor resistance
cos 2 =
Per phase rotor impedance
r2 /s
=
(r2 /s)2 + (x2 )2
r2 /s
Pg = E2 I2
(r2 /s)2 + (x2 )2
`
E2 r2
= I2
(r2 /s)2 + (x2 )2 s
r2
= I22 s
Pg is the power transferred from stator to rotor across the air gap. There fore Pg is called air
gap power
r
Pg = I22 2 s
2 1S
= I2 r2 + I22 r2
S
1S
Pm = (1 S) Pg = I22 r2
S
S
Rotor ohmic loss = Pm = SPg
1S
Pm (1S)Pg Pg
Te = r
= (1S)s
= s
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Power available at the shaft can be obtained from Pg as follows.
Output or shaft power, Psh = Pm Mechanical losses
Ratio of Rotor input power, rotor copper losses and gross mechanical output is
1
Ir2 R 2 /s : Ir2 R 2 : Ir2 R 2 1
s
1 : S : (1 S)
Rotor copper losses = S Rotor input
Gross mechanical output =(1 S) Rotor input.
S
Rotor copper losses = (Gross Mechanical output)
1S
Efficiency of the rotor is approximately
Gross mechanical power output
Equal to rotor = Rotor input
(1S) Rotor input
=
Rotor input
=1S
NS N
=1
NS
N
=
Ns
N
rotor Ns
Total torque is
m Ve2 r2
Te = r2 2
Nm
s Re + + (x2 + Xe )2 s
s
m is the number of stator phases.
Torque equation can be written as
m r
Te = I22 s2
s
m
Te = rotor input per phase.
s
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Thus the slip SmT at which maximum torque occurs is given by
r2
SmT =
Re2 + X2
Substituting the value of maximum slip in the torque equation, gives maximum torque
m Ve2
Tem =
s
2Re + Re2 + X22
r2
If stator parameters are neglected then applying maximum transfer theorem to r2 /s then
s
=x2
Nm = Ns (1 Sm )
Nm = Ns (1 R 2 /x2 )
Starting torque:-
At starting, slip S = 1.00, starting torque is given by
m Ve2 r2
Test = s
(Re + r2 )2 + X2
Since r1 or Re is neglected
Te 2X r2
Tem
= r 2
s
2 + X2
s
2Tem
Te = SmT S
+
S SmT
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Losses and efficiency :-
There are three cases in iron losses.
Case (i) : If the ratio of voltage to frequency is constant and flux is also constant then
Iron loss = Hysteresis loss + eddy current loss
Ph = K h + Bm1.6 Pe = K e f 2 Bm2
V V
Given is constant. As Bm
f f
Bm is constant
Ph f and Pe f 2
Case (ii) : If the ratio of voltage to frequency is not constant and flux is also not constant
v
const const
f
Ph = K h f Bm1.6 Pe = K e f 2 Bm
2
Ph v1.6 f 0.6 Pe v 2
v 1.6
= Kh f
f
Ph v1.6 Pe v12
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GD Psc 3 Isc2 r1
= 3 Isc2 r1
GF
Wound rotor
GD I22 r2 r2 I 2
= I12 r1
= I2
GF r1 1
I 2
= 2 st Sfl
I2 fl
The above equation valids of rotor resistance remains constant.
Te.st I 2
Te.fl
= Ist Sfl
fl
Test I 2
Tesf
= Isc Sfl .
fl
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