Paul Robeson

This article is about the singer and activist. For his son, restored by the 1958 United States Supreme Court deci-
see Paul Robeson, Jr.. sion, Kent v. Dulles, but his health broke down. He retired
and he lived out the remaining years of his life privately
Paul Leroy Robeson (/robsn/; April 9, 1898 Jan- in Philadelphia.
uary 23, 1976) was an American singer and actor who
became involved with the Civil Rights Movement. At
Rutgers College, he was an outstanding football player, 1 Early life
then had an international career in singing, with a dis-
tinctive, powerful, deep bass voice, as well as acting in 1.1 Childhood (18981915)
theater and movies. He became politically involved in
response to the Spanish Civil War, fascism, and social
injustices. His advocacy of anti-imperialism, aliation
with communism, and criticism of the United States gov-
ernment caused him to be blacklisted during the Mc-
Carthy era. Ill health forced him into retirement from
his career.
Robeson won an academic scholarship to Rutgers Col-
lege, where he became a football All-American and
the class valedictorian. He received his LL.B. from
Columbia Law School, while playing in the National
Football League (NFL). At Columbia, he sang and acted
in o-campus productions; and, after graduating, he be-
came a participant in the Harlem Renaissance with per-
formances in The Emperor Jones and All Gods Chillun Birthplace in Princeton
Got Wings. Robeson initiated his international artistic r-
sum with a theatrical role in Great Britain, settling in Paul Robeson was born in Princeton, New Jersey, in
London for the next several years with his wife Essie. 1898, to Reverend William Drew Robeson and Maria
Louisa Bustill.[1] His mother was from a prominent
Robeson next appeared as Othello at the Savoy Theatre
Quaker family of mixed ancestry: African, Anglo-
before becoming an international cinema star through
American, and Lenape.[2] His father, William, whose
roles in Show Boat and Sanders of the River. He became
family traced their ancestry to the Igbo people of present-
increasingly attuned towards the suerings of other cul-
day Nigeria,[1] escaped from a plantation in his teens[3]
tures and peoples. Acting against advice, which warned
and eventually became the minister of Princetons With-
of his economic ruin if he became politically active, he
erspoon Street Presbyterian Church in 1881.[4] Robeson
set aside his theatrical career to advocate the cause of the
had three brothers: William Drew, Jr. (born 1881),
Republican forces of the Spanish Civil War. He then be-
Reeve (born c. 1887), and Ben (born c. 1893); and one
came active in the Council on African Aairs (CAA).
sister, Marian (born c. 1895).[5]
During World War II, he supported Americas war ef-
In 1900, a disagreement between William and white -
forts and won accolades for his portrayal of Othello on
nancial supporters of Witherspoon arose with apparent
Broadway. However, his history of supporting pro-Soviet
racial undertones,[6] which were prevalent in Princeton.[7]
policies brought scrutiny from the FBI. After the war
William, who had the support of his entirely black con-
ended, the CAA was placed on the Attorney Generals
gregation, resigned in 1901.[8] The loss of his position
List of Subversive Organizations and Robeson was in-
forced him to work menial jobs.[9] Three years later when
vestigated during the age of McCarthyism. Due to his
Robeson was six, his mother, who was nearly blind, died
decision not to recant his public advocacy of pro-Soviet
in a house re.[10] Eventually, William became nancially
policies, he was denied a passport by the U.S. State De-
incapable of providing a house for himself and his chil-
partment, and his income, consequently, plummeted. He
dren still living at home, Ben and Paul, so they moved into
moved to Harlem and published a periodical critical of
the attic of a store in Westeld, New Jersey.[11]
United States policies. His right to travel was eventually
William found a stable parsonage at the St. Thomas

1
2 2 THEATRICAL SUCCESS AND IDEOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATION (19231939)

A. M. E. Zion in 1910,[12] where Robeson would ll
in for his father during sermons when he was called
away.[13] In 1912, Robeson attended Somerville High
School, Somerville, New Jersey,[14] where he performed
in Julius Caesar, Othello, sang in the chorus, and excelled
in football, basketball, baseball and track.[15] His athletic
dominance elicited racial taunts which he ignored.[16]
Prior to his graduation, he won a statewide academic con-
test for a scholarship to Rutgers.[17] He took a summer
job as a waiter in Narragansett Pier, Rhode Island, where
he befriended Fritz Pollard, later to be the rst African-
American coach in the National Football League.[18]
1.2 Rutgers College (19151919)
glory of his boyhood years[33] soon died, and at Rut-
gers, Robeson expounded on the incongruity of African
Americans ghting to protect America in World War I
and, contemporaneously, being without the same oppor-
tunities in the United States as whites.[34]
He nished university with four annual oratorical
triumphs[35] and varsity letters in multiple sports.[36] His
play at end[37] won him rst-team All-American selec-
tion, in both his junior and senior years. Walter Camp
considered him the greatest end ever.[38] Academically,
he was accepted into Phi Beta Kappa[39] and Cap and
Skull.[40] His classmates recognized him[41] by electing
him class valedictorian.[42] The Daily Targum published
a poem featuring his achievements.[43] In his valedictory
speech, he exhorted his classmates to work for equality
for all Americans.[44]

1.3 Columbia Law School and marriage

(19191923)
Robeson entered New York University School of Law in
the fall of 1919.[46] To support himself, he became an
assistant football coach at Lincoln,[47] where he joined
the Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity.[48] However, Robeson
felt uncomfortable at NYU[49] and moved to Harlem
and transferred to Columbia Law School in February
1920.[50] Already known in the black community for his
singing,[51] he was selected to perform at the dedication
of the Harlem YWCA.[52]
Robeson began dating Eslanda Essie Goode[53] and af-
Robeson (far left) was Rutgers Class of 1919 and one of four
students selected into Cap and Skull ter her coaxing,[54] he gave his theatrical debut as Simon
in Ridgely Torrence's Simon of Cyrene.[55] After a year of
In late 1915, Robeson became the third African- courtship, they were married in August 1921.[56]
American student ever enrolled at Rutgers, and the only
He was recruited by Pollard to play for the NFLs Akron
one at the time.[19] He tried out for the Rutgers Scar-
Pros while Robeson continued his law studies.[57] In the
let Knights football team,[20] and his resolve to make
spring, Robeson postponed school[58] to portray Jim in
the squad was tested as his teammates engaged in un-
Mary Hoyt Wiborg's Taboo.[59] He then sang in a chorus
warranted and excessive play, arguably precipitated by
in an O-Broadway production of Shue Along[60] be-
racism during which his nose was broken and his shoul-
fore he joined Taboo in Britain.[61] The play was adapted
der dislocated.[21] The coach, Foster Sanford, decided he
by Mrs. Patrick Campbell to highlight his singing.[62] Af-
had overcome the provocation and announced that he had
ter the play ended, he befriended Lawrence Brown,[63]
made the team.[22]
a classically trained musician,[64] before returning to
[23]
Robeson joined the debate team and sang o-campus Columbia while playing for the NFLs Milwaukee Bad-
for spending money,[24] and on-campus with the Glee gers.[65] He ended his football career after 1922,[66] and
Club informally, as membership required attending all- months later, he graduated from law school.[67]
white mixers.[25] He also joined the other collegiate ath-
letic teams.[26] As a sophomore, amidst Rutgers sesqui-
centennial celebration, he was benched when a Southern
team refused to take the eld, because the Scarlet Knights
2 Theatrical success and ideologi-
had elded a Negro, Robeson.[27] cal transformation (19231939)
After a standout junior year of football,[28] he was recog-
nized in The Crisis for his athletic, academic, and singing 2.1 Harlem Renaissance (19231927)
talents.[29] At what should have been a high point of
his life,[30] his father fell grievously ill.[31] Robeson took Robeson worked briey as a lawyer, but he renounced
the sole responsibility in caring for him, shuttling be- a career in law due to extant racism.[68] Essie nan-
tween Rutgers and Somerville.[32] His father, who was the cially supported them and they frequented the social
2.3 Show Boat, Othello, and marriage diculties (19281932)
functions at the future Schomburg Center.[69] In De-
cember 1924 he landed the lead role of Jim in Eugene
O'Neill's All Gods Chillun Got Wings,[70] which culmi-
nated with Jim metaphorically consummating his mar-
riage with his white wife by symbolically emasculating
himself. Chilluns opening was postponed while a nation-
wide debate occurred over its plot.[71]
Chilluns delay led to a revival of The Emperor Jones with
Robeson as Brutus, a role pioneered by Charles Sidney
Gilpin.[72] The role terried and galvanized Robeson, as
it was practically a 90-minute soliloquy.[73] Reviews de-
clared him an unequivocal success.[74] Though arguably
clouded by its controversial subject, his Jim in Chillun was
less well received.[75] He deected criticism of its plot by
writing that fate had drawn him to the untrodden path
of drama and the true measure of a culture is in its artis-
tic contributions, and the only true American culture was
African-American.[76]
The success of his acting placed him in elite social
circles[77] and his ascension to fame, which was forcefully
aided by Essie,[78] had occurred at a startling pace.[79]
Essies ambition for Robeson was a startling dichotomy
to his insouciance.[80] She quit her job, became his agent,
and negotiated his rst movie role in a silent race lm
directed by Oscar Micheaux, Body and Soul.[81] To sup-
port a charity for single mothers, he headlined a concert
singing spirituals.[82] He performed his repertoire of spir-
ituals on the radio.[83]
Lawrence Brown, who had become renowned while tour-
ing as a pianist with gospel singer Roland Hayes, stum-
bled upon Robeson in Harlem.[84] The two ad-libbed a
set of spirituals, with Robeson as lead and Brown as ac-
companist. This so enthralled them that they booked
Provincetown Playhouse for a concert.[85] The pairs ren-
dition of African-American folk songs and spirituals was
captivating,[86] and Victor Records signed Robeson to a
contract.[87]
The Robesons went to London for a revival of Jones, be-
fore spending the rest of the fall on holiday on the French
Riviera, socializing with Gertrude Stein and Claude
McKay.[88] Robeson and Brown performed a series of
concert tours in America from January 1926 until May
1927.[89]
2.2 Birth of his son (1927)
During a hiatus in New York, Robeson learned that Essie
was several months pregnant.[90] Paul Robeson, Jr. was
born in November 1927 in New York, while Robeson
and Brown toured Europe.[91] Essie experienced com-
plications from the birth,[92] and by mid-December, her
health had deteriorated dramatically. Ignoring Essies ob-
jections, her mother wired Robeson and he immediately
returned to her bedside.[93] Essie completely recovered
after a few months.
3
2.3 Show Boat, Othello, and marriage dif-
culties (19281932)
Robeson played Joe in the London production of the
American musical Show Boat, at the Theatre Royal,
Drury Lane.[94] His rendition of "Ol' Man River" be-
came the benchmark for all future performers of the
song.[95] Some black critics were not pleased with the play
due to its usage of the word nigger.[96] It was, nonethe-
less, immensely popular with white audiences.[97] He
was summoned for a Royal Command Performance at
Buckingham Palace[98] as Robeson was befriended by
MPs from the House of Commons.[99] Show Boat contin-
ued for 350 performances and, by 2001, it remained the
Royals most protable venture.[95] The Robesons bought
a home in Hampstead.[100] He reected on his life in his
diary and wrote that it was all part of a higher plan and
God watches over me and guides me. Hes with me and
lets me ght my own battles and hopes I'll win.[101] How-
ever, an incident at the Savoy Grill, in which he was re-
fused seating, sparked him to issue a press release por-
traying the insult which subsequently became a matter of
public debate.[102]
Essie had learned early in their marriage that Robeson
had been involved in extramarital aairs, but she toler-
ated them.[103] However, when she discovered that he was
having another aair, she unfavorably altered the charac-
terization of him in his biography,[104] and defamed him
by describing him with negative racial stereotypes.[105]
Despite her uncovering of this tryst, there was no pub-
lic evidence that their relationship had soured.[106] In
early 1930, they both appeared in the experimental clas-
sic Borderline,[107] and then returned to the West End for
his starring role in Shakespeares Othello, opposite Peggy
Ashcroft as Desdemona.[108]
Robeson became the rst black actor cast as Othello in
Britain since Ira Aldridge.[109] The production received
mixed reviews which pointed out Robesons highly civ-
ilized quality [but lacking the] grand style.[110] Robeson
stated the best way to diminish the oppression African
Americans faced was for his artistic work to be an exam-
ple of what men of my colour could accomplish rather
than to be a propagandist and make speeches and write
articles about what they call the Colour Question.[111]
After Essies discovery of Robesons aair with Ashcroft,
she decided to seek a divorce and they split up.[112] Robe-
son returned to Broadway as Joe in the 1932 revival of
Show Boat, to critical and popular acclaim.[113] Subse-
quently, he received, with immense pride, an honorary
masters degree from Rutgers.[114] Thereabout, his for-
mer football coach, Foster Sanford, advised him that di-
vorcing Essie and marrying Ashcroft would do irrepara-
ble damage to his reputation.[115] Ashcroft and Robesons
relationship ended in 1932,[116] following which Robeson
and Essie reconciled, although their relationship was per-
manently scarred.[117]
43 WORLD WAR II, THE BROADWAY OTHELLO, POLITICAL ACTIVISM, AND MCCARTHYISM (19391957)

2.4 Ideological awakening (19331937) 2.5 The Spanish Civil War and political ac-
tivism (19371939)

Robeson believed that the struggle against fascism dur-

In 1933 Robeson played the role of Joe in the London
ing the Spanish Civil War was a turning point in his
production of Chillun, virtually gratis;[118] then returned
life and transformed him into a political activist.[145] In
to the United States to star as Brutus in the lm The
1937, he used his concert performances to advocate the
Emperor Jones,[119] a feat not repeated for more than
Republican cause and the wars refugees.[146] He perma-
two decades in the U.S.[120] His acting in Jones
nently modied his renditions of Ol' Man River from a
the rst lm to feature an African American in a star-
tragic song of resignation with a hint of protest im-
ring role was well received.[120] On the lm set he re-
plied into a battle hymn of unwavering deance.[147]
jected any slight to his dignity, despite the widespread Jim
His business agent expressed concern about his political
Crow atmosphere in the United States.[121] Upon return-
involvement,[148] but Robeson overruled him and decided
ing to England he publicly criticized African Americans
that contemporary events trumped commercialism.[149]
rejection of their own culture.[122] Despite negative re-
In Wales,[150] he commemorated the Welsh killed while
actions from the press, such as a New York Amsterdam
ghting for the Republicans,[151] where he recorded a
News retort that Robeson had made a jolly well [ass of
message which would become his epitaph: The artist
himself]",[123] he also announced that he would reject any
must take sides. He must elect to ght for freedom or
oers to perform European opera, because the music had
slavery. I have made my choice. I had no alternative.[152]
no connection to his heritage.[124]
After an invitation from J. B. S. Haldane,[153] he traveled
In early 1934 Robeson enrolled in the School of Oriental
to Spain in 1938 because he believed in the International
and African Studies in London, where he studied some
Brigades's cause.[154] He visited the battlefront[155] and
20 African dialects. His sudden interest in African his-
provided a morale boost to the Republicans at a time
tory and its impact on culture[125] coincided with his es-
when their victory was unlikely.[156] Back in England,
say I Want to be African, wherein he wrote of his de-
he hosted Jawaharlal Nehru to support Indian indepen-
sire to embrace his ancestry.[126] He undertook the role
dence, whereat Nehru expounded on imperialism's al-
of Bosambo in the movie Sanders of the River,[127] which
iation with Fascism.[157] Robeson reevaluated the direc-
he felt would render a realistic view of colonial African
tion of his career and decided to focus his attention on
culture. His friends in the anti-imperialism movement
utilizing his talents to bring attention to the ordeals of
and association with British socialists led him to visit the
common people.[158] and subsequently he appeared in
Soviet Union.[126] Robeson, Essie, and Marie Seton trav-
the pro-labor play Plant in the Sun[159] by Herbert Mar-
eled to the Soviet Union on an invitation from Sergei
shall.[160] With Max Yergan, and the CAA, Robeson be-
Eisenstein in December 1934.[128] A stopover in Berlin
came an advocate in the aspirations of African colonial-
enlightened Robeson to the racism in Nazi Germany[129]
ists for political independence.[161]
and, on his arrival in the Soviet Union, he expounded on
race and what he felt in Moscow, where he said, Here
I am not a Negro but a human being for the rst time in
my life .. I walk in full human dignity.[130] Waldemar 3 World War II, the Broadway Oth-
(Wally) Hille, who subsequently went on to do arrange-
ments on the Peoples Songs Bulletin with Pete Seeger and ello, political activism, and Mc-
others, got his start as an early touring pianist for Robe- Carthyism (19391957)
son.
Sanders of the River, released in 1935, made Robeson 3.1 World War II and the Broadway Oth-
an international movie star;[131] but the stereotypical por-
trayal of a colonial African[132] was seen as embarrass-
ello (19391945)
ing to his stature as an artist[133] and damaging to his
reputation.[134] The Commissioner of Nigeria to London After the outbreak of World War II, Robeson re-
protested the lm as slanderous to his country,[135] and turned to the United States and became Americas no.1
Robeson thereafter became more politically conscious of entertainer[162] with a radio broadcast of Ballad for
his roles.[136] In early 1936, he decided to send his son Americans,[163] and a role in The Proud Valley.[164] Nev-
to school in the Soviet Union to shield him from racist ertheless during an ensuing tour, the Beverly Wilshire Ho-
attitudes.[137] He then played the role of Toussaint Lou- tel was the only hotel willing to accommodate him due to
verture in the eponymous play by C. L. R. James[138] at his race, and he therefore dedicated two hours every af-
the Westminster Theatre, and appeared in the lms Song ternoon sitting in the lobby to ensure that the next time
of Freedom,[139] Show Boat,[140] Big Fella,[141] My Song Black[s] come through, they'll have a place to stay.
Goes Forth,[142] and King Solomons Mines.[143] He was Furthermore, Native Land was labeled by the FBI as com-
internationally recognized as the 10th most popular star munist propaganda.[165] After an appearance in Tales of
in British cinema.[144] Manhattan, a production that he felt was very oensive
3.2 Attorney Generals List of Subversive Organizations (19461949)
Robeson leading Moore Shipyard Oakland, California workers
in singing the Star Spangled Banner, September 1942. Robeson, not right to propose anti-lynching legislation.
too, was a shipyard worker in World War I.
Paul Robeson with Uta Hagen in the Theatre Guild production jail for the failure to answer that question, and I am going
of Othello (19434).
to my people, he announced that he would no longer
act in lms because of the demeaning roles available to
blacks.[166]
Robeson participated in benet concerts on behalf of the
war eort and at a concert at the Polo Grounds, he met
two emissaries from the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee,
Solomon Mikhoels and Itzik Feer[167] Subsequently,
Robeson reprised his role of Othello at the Shubert The-
atre in 1943,[168] and became the rst African American
to play the role with a white supporting cast on Broad-
way. Contemporaneously, he addressed a meeting with
Kenesaw Mountain Landis in a failed attempt to convince
him to admit black players to Major League Baseball.[169]
5
He toured North America with Othello until 1945,[170]
and subsequently, his political eorts with the CAA to
get colonial powers to discontinue their exploitation of
Africa were short-circuited by the United Nations.[171]
3.2 Attorney Generals List of Subversive
Organizations (19461949)
After the lynchings of four African Americans, Robeson
met with President Truman and admonished Truman that
if he did not enact legislation to end lynching,[172] the
Negroes will defend themselves.[172][173] Truman imme-
diately terminated the meeting and declared the time was
[172]
Sub-
sequently, Robeson publicly called upon all Americans
to demand that Congress pass civil rights legislation.[174]
Taking a stance against lynching, Robeson founded the
American Crusade Against Lynching organization in
1946. This organization was thought to be a threat to the
NAACP antiviolence movement. Robeson received sup-
port from W. E. B. Du Bois regarding this matter and of-
cially launched this organization on the anniversary day
of the Emancipation Proclamation, September 23.[175]
About this time, Robesons belief that trade unionism
was crucial to civil rights became a mainstay of his po-
litical beliefs as he became proponent of the union ac-
tivist Revels Cayton.[176] Robeson was later called be-
fore the Tenney Committee where he responded to ques-
tions about his aliation with the Communist Party
USA (CPUSA) by testifying that he was not a mem-
ber of the CPUSA.[177] Nevertheless, two organizations
with which Robeson was intimately involved, the Civil
Rights Congress (CRC) and the CAA,[178] were placed on
the Attorney Generals List of Subversive Organizations
(AGLOSO).[179] Subsequently, he was summoned before
the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary, and
when questioned about his aliation with the Communist
Party, he refused to answer, stating: Some of the most
brilliant and distinguished Americans are about to go to
to join them, if necessary.[180]
In 1948, Robeson was preeminent in Henry A. Wal-
lace's bid for the President of the United States,[181] dur-
ing which Robeson traveled to the Deep South, at risk
to his own life, to campaign for him.[182] In the ensu-
ing year, Robeson was forced to go overseas to work
because his concert performances were canceled at the
FBIs behest.[183] While on tour, he spoke at the World
Peace Council,[184] at which his speech was publicly re-
ported as equating America with a Fascist state[185]
a depiction that he atly denied.[186] Nevertheless, the
speech publicly attributed to him was a catalyst for his
becoming an enemy of mainstream America.[187] Robe-
son refused to subjugate himself to public criticism when
he advocated in favor of twelve defendants, including his
long-time friend, Benjamin J. Davis, Jr. charged during
63 WORLD WAR II, THE BROADWAY OTHELLO, POLITICAL ACTIVISM, AND MCCARTHYISM (19391957)

the Smith Act trials of Communist Party leaders. community to support subversives[195] and the Peekskill
Riots ensued.[196]

3.3 Blacklisted (19501955)

A book reviewed in early 1950 as the most complete
record on college football[197] failed to list Robeson as
ever having played on the Rutgers team[198] and as ever
having been an All-American.[199] Months later, NBC
canceled Robesons appearance on Eleanor Roosevelt's
television program.[200] Subsequently, the State Depart-
ment (State) denied Robeson a passport to travel abroad
and issued a stop notice at all ports because it believed
that an isolated existence inside United States borders
would not only aord him less freedom of expression[201]
but also avenge his extreme advocacy on behalf of the in-
dependence of the colonial peoples of Africa.[202] How-
ever when Robeson met with State and asked why he was
denied a passport, he was told that his frequent criticism
Label of a record by Paul Robeson published by Soviet Ministry of the treatment of blacks in the United States should not
of Culture be aired in foreign countries.[203]
In 1951, an article titled Paul Robeson the Lost Shep-
Robeson traveled to Moscow in June, and was unable herd was published in The Crisis[204] although Paul Jr.
to nd Itzik Feer. He let Soviet authorities know that suspected it was authored by Amsterdam News colum-
he wanted to see him.[188] Reluctant to lose Robeson nist Earl Brown.[205] J. Edgar Hoover and the United
as a propagandist for the Soviet Union,[189] the Sovi- States State Department arranged for the article to be
ets brought Feer from prison to him. Feer told him printed and distributed in Africa[206] in order to defame
that Mikhoels had been murdered, and he would be Robesons reputation and reduce his and Communists
summarily executed.[190] To protect the Soviet Unions popularity in colonial countries.[207] Another article by
reputation,[191] and to keep the right wing of the United Wilkins denounced Robeson as well as the Communist
States from gaining the moral high ground, Robeson de- Party USA (CPUSA) in terms consistent with the anti-
nied that any persecution existed in the Soviet Union,[192] Communist FBI propaganda.[208]
and kept the meeting secret for the rest of his life, ex-
cept from his son.[191] On June 20, 1949, Robeson spoke On December 17, 1951, Robeson presented to the United
at the Paris Peace Congress saying that We in America Nations an anti-lynching petition, "We Charge Geno-
do not forget that it was on the backs of the white work- cide".[209] The document asserted that the United States
federal government, by its failure to act against lynching
ers from Europe and on the backs of millions of Blacks
that the wealth of America was built. And we are re- in the United States, was guilty of genocide" under Ar-
ticle II of the UN Genocide Convention.
solved to share it equally. We reject any hysterical raving
that urges us to make war on anyone. Our will to ght In 1952, Robeson was awarded the International Stalin
for peace is strong. We shall not make war on anyone. Prize by the Soviet Union.[210] Unable to travel to
We shall not make war on the Soviet Union. We oppose Moscow, he accepted the award in New York.[211] In
those who wish to build up imperialist Germany and to es- April 1953, shortly after Stalins death, Robeson penned
tablish fascism in Greece. We wish peace with Francos To You My Beloved Comrade, praising Stalin as dedicated
Spain despite her fascism. We shall support peace and to peace and a guide to the world: Through his deep hu-
friendship among all nations, with Soviet Russia and the manity, by his wise understanding, he leaves us a rich and
peoples Republics. He was blacklisted for saying this in monumental heritage.[212] Robesons opinion on the So-
the US mainstream press including many periodicals of viet Union kept his passport out of reach and stopped his
the Negro press such as The Crisis. Robeson Jr. 2010, return to the entertainment industry and the civil rights
pp. 142143 movement.[213] In his opinion, the Soviet Union was the
[214]
In order to isolate Robeson politically,[193] the House guarantor of political balance in the world.
Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) subpoenad In a symbolic act of deance against the travel ban, la-
Jackie Robinson[194] to comment on Robesons Paris bor unions in the United States and Canada organized
speech.[194] Robinson testied that Robesons statements, a concert at the International Peace Arch on the bor-
"'if accurately reported', were silly'".[193] Days later, the der between Washington state and the Canadian province
announcement of a concert headlined by Robeson in New of British Columbia.[215] Robeson returned to perform
York provoked the local press to decry the use of their a second concert at the Peace Arch in 1953,[216] and
 7

over the next two years, two further concerts were sched- his lms.[224]
uled. In this period, with the encouragement of his friend
the Welsh politician Aneurin Bevan, Robeson recorded a
number of radio concerts for supporters in Wales.
4 Later years (19581976)
3.4 End of McCarthyism (19561957)
4.1 Comeback tours (19581960)
Main article: Paul Robeson Congressional Hearings
1958 saw the publication of Robesons manifesto-
In 1956, Robeson was called before HUAC after he re- autobiography, Here I Stand.[225] His passport was re-
fused to sign an adavit arming that he was not a Com- stored in June 1958 via Kent v. Dulles,[226] and he em-
munist. In his testimony, he invoked the Fifth Amend- barked on a world tour using London as his base.[227] In
ment and refused to reveal his political aliations. When Moscow in August 1959, he received a tumultuous re-
asked why he had not remained in the Soviet Union be- ception at the Lenin Stadium (Khabarovsk) where he sang
cause of his anity with its political ideology, he replied classic Russian songs along with American standards.[228]
that because my father was a slave and my people died to Robeson and Essie then ew to Yalta to rest and spend
build [the United States and], I am going to stay here, and time with Nikita Khrushchev.
have a part of it just like you and no fascist-minded people
will drive me from it!"[217] Robesons passport was subse- On October 11, 1959, Robeson took part in a service at
quently revoked. Campaigns were launched to protest the St. Pauls Cathedral, the rst black performer to sing
passport ban and the restriction of his right to travel over there.[229] On a trip to Moscow, Robeson experienced
the next four years, but it was to no avail. In 1957, un- bouts of dizziness and heart problems and was hospital-
ized for two months while Essie was diagnosed with op-
able to accept invitations to perform abroad, Paul Robe-
son sang for audiences in London, where 1,000 concert erable cancer.[230] He recovered and returned to the UK
to visit the National Eisteddfod.
tickets for his telephone concert at St Pancras Town Hall
sold out within an hour,[218] and Wales via the transat- Meanwhile the State Department had circulated negative
lantic telephone cable TAT-1:[219] We have to learn the literature about him throughout the media in India.[231]
hard way that there is another way to sing.[220] During his run at the Royal Shakespeare Company
In 1956 in the United Kingdom, Topic Records, at that playing Othello in Tony Richardson's 1959 production
time part of the Workers Music Association, released a at Stratford-upon-Avon, he befriended actor Andrew
single of Joe Hill backed with "John Browns Body". Faulds, whose family hosted him in the nearby village of
Versions of Joe Hill are the third most popular selec- Shottery. In 1960, in what would prove to be his nal
tion on the BBC radio programme Desert Island Discs for concert performance in Great Britain, Robeson sang to
British Labour Party politicians, and the fourth most pop- raise money for the Movement for Colonial Freedom at
ular selection for all British politicians. This version was the Royal Festival Hall.
selected by Ed Miliband.[221]
In October 1960, Robeson embarked on a two-month
Nikita Khrushchev's denunciation of Stalinism at the concert tour of Australia and New Zealand with Essie,
1956 Party Congress silenced Robeson on Stalin, though primarily to generate money,[232] at the behest of Aus-
Robeson continued to praise the Soviet Union.[222] In tralian politician Bill Morrow.[233] While in Sydney, he
1956, after public pressure brought a one-time exemption became the rst major artist to perform at the construc-
to the travel ban, Robeson performed concerts in Canada tion site of the future Sydney Opera House.[234] Af-
in March. That year Robeson, along with close friend ter appearing at the Brisbane Festival Hall, they went
W. E. B. Du Bois, compared the anti-Soviet uprising in to Auckland where Robeson rearmed his support of
Hungary to the same sort of people who overthrew the Marxism,[235] denounced the inequality faced by the
Spanish Republican Government and supported the So- Mori and eorts to denigrate their culture.[236] There-
viet invasion and suppression of the revolt.[223] abouts, Robeson publicly stated "..the people of the lands
[237]
An appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States to of Socialism want peace dearly.
reinstate his conscated passport had been rejected, but He was introduced to Faith Bandler who enlightened the
over the telephone Robeson was able to sing to the 5,000 Robesons to the deprivation of the Australian Aborig-
gathered there as he had earlier in the year to London. ines.[238] Robeson, consequently, became enraged and
Due to the reaction to the promulgation of Robesons po- demanded the Australian government provide the Abo-
litical views, his recordings and lms were removed from rigines citizenship and equal rights.[239] He attacked the
public distribution, and he was universally condemned in view of the Aborigines as unsophisticated and uncultured,
the U.S press. During the height of the Cold War, it be- and declared, theres no such thing as a backward human
came increasingly dicult in the United States to hear being, there is only a society which says they are back-
Robeson sing on commercial radio, buy his music or see ward.
8 4 LATER YEARS (19581976)

4.2 Health breakdown (19611963) found him still completely without initiative and they
expressed doubt and anger about the high level of
barbiturates and ECT that had been administered in
Back in London, he planned his return to the United
London. He rapidly improved, though his doctor stressed
States to participate in the Civil Rights Movement, stop-
that what little is left of Pauls health must be quietly
ping o in Africa, China and Cuba along the way. Essie
conserved.[253]
argued to stay in London, fearing that he'd be killed if
he returned and would be unable to make any money
due to harassment by the United States government. 4.3 Retirement (19631976)
Robeson disagreed and made his own travel arrange-
ments, stopping o in Moscow in March 1961.[240]
During an uncharacteristically wild party in his Moscow
hotel room, he locked himself in his bedroom and at-
tempted suicide by cutting his wrists.[241] Three days
later, under Soviet medical care, he told his son that
he felt extreme paranoia, thought that the walls of the
room were moving and, overcome by a powerful sense of
emptiness and depression, tried to take his own life.[242]
Paul Jr. believed that his fathers health problems
stemmed from attempts by CIA and MI5 to neutral-
ize his father.[243][244] He remembered that his father
had had such fears prior to his prostate operation.[245]
He said that three doctors treating Robeson in London
and New York had been CIA contractors,[243] and that
his fathers symptoms resulted from being subjected
to mind depatterning under MKULTRA", a secret CIA
programme.[246] Martin Duberman claimed that Robe-
sons health breakdown was probably brought on by a
combination of factors including extreme emotional and
physical stress, bipolar depression, exhaustion and the be-
ginning of circulatory and heart problems. "[E]ven with-
out an organic predisposition and accumulated pressures
of government harassment he might have been suscepti-
ble to a breakdown.[247]
Robeson stayed at the Barvikha Sanatorium until Septem-
ber 1961, when he left for London. There his depres-
sion reemerged, and after another period of recupera-
tion in Moscow, he returned to London. Three days
after arriving back, he became suicidal and suered a
panic attack while passing the Soviet Embassy.[248] He The Robeson House, Philadelphia
was admitted to The Priory hospital, where he underwent
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and was given heavy In 1963, Robeson returned to the United States and for
doses of drugs for nearly two years, with no accompa- the remainder of his life lived in seclusion.[254] He mo-
nying psychotherapy.[249] mentarily assumed a role in the civil rights movement,[243]
During his treatment at the Priory, Robeson was being making a few major public appearances before falling se-
monitored by the British MI5.[250] Both intelligence ser- riously ill during a tour. Double pneumonia
[254]
and a kidney
vices were well aware of Robesons suicidal state of mind. blockage in 1965 nearly killed him.
An FBI memo described Robesons debilitated condition, Robeson was contacted by both Bayard Rustin and James
remarking that his death would be much publicized L. Farmer, Jr. about the possibility of becoming involved
and would be used for Communist propaganda, necessi- with the mainstream of the Civil Rights movement.[255]
tating continued surveillance.[251] Numerous memos ad- Because of Rustins past anti-Communist stances, Robe-
vised that Robeson should be denied a passport renewal son declined to meet with him. Robeson eventually met
which would ostensibly jeopardize his fragile health and with Farmer, but because he was asked to denounce Com-
his recovery process.[241] munism and the Soviet Union in order to assume a place
[256]
In August 1963, disturbed about his treatment, friends in the mainstream, Robeson adamantly declined.
had him transferred to the Buch Clinic in East Berlin.[252] After Essie died in December 1965,[257] Robeson moved
Given psychotherapy and less medication, his physicians in with his sons family in New York City[258] and in 1968
 9

he settled at his sisters home in Philadelphia.[259] Nu-

merous celebrations were held in honor of Robeson over
the next several years, including at public arenas that had
previously shunned him, but he saw few visitors aside
from close friends and gave few statements apart from
messages to support current civil rights and international
movements, feeling that his record spoke for itself.[260]
At a Carnegie Hall tribute to mark his 75th birthday in
1973, he was unable to attend, but a taped message from
him was played that said: Though I have not been able to
be active for several years, I want you to know that I am
the same Paul, dedicated as ever to the worldwide cause
of humanity for freedom, peace and brotherhood.

4.4 Death, funeral, and public response

On January 23, 1976, following complications of a
stroke, Robeson died in Philadelphia at the age of 77.[261]
He lay in state in Harlem[262] and his funeral was held at
his brother Bens former parsonage, Mother AME Zion
Church,[263] where Bishop J. Clinton Hoggard performed
the eulogy.[264] His pall bearers included Harry Belafonte,
Pollard,[265] and others. He was interred in the Ferncli
Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York. According to biog-
rapher, Martin Duberman, contemporary post-mortem
reections on Robesons life in "[t]he white [American] The Robeson holdings in the archive of the Academy of the Arts
press..ignored the continuing inability of white America of the German Democratic Republic, 1981
to tolerate a black maverick who refused to bend, ..down-
played the racist component central to his persecution
Several public and private establishments he was asso-
[during his life]", as they paid him gingerly respect and
ciated with have been landmarked,[271] or named after
tipped their hat to him as a 'great American,'" while the
him.[272] In 1978, his lms were shown on American tele-
black American press, which had never, overall, been
vision for the rst time, and his eorts to end Apartheid in
as hostile to Robeson [as the white American press had],
South Africa were posthumously rewarded by the United
opined that his life '..would always be a challenge to white
Nations General Assembly.[273] Paul Robeson: Tribute to
and Black America.'"[263]
an Artist won an Academy Award for best short documen-
tary in 1980.[274] In 1995, he was named to the College
Football Hall of Fame.[275] In the centenary of his birth,
5 Legacy and honors which was commemorated around the world,[276] he was
awarded a Lifetime Achievement Grammy Award,[277] as
Early in his life, Robeson was one of the most inu- well as a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.[278] Robe-
ential participants in the Harlem Renaissance.[266] Few son is also a member of the American Theater Hall of
people have ever achieved his level of excellence in ath- Fame.[279]
letics and academics. His achievements were all the
Beginning in 1978, Robesons lms were nally shown on
more incredible given the barriers of racism he had to
[267] American television, with Show Boat debuting on cable
surmount. Robeson brought Negro spirituals into the
[268] television in 1983.
center of the American songbook. His theatrical per-
formances have been recognized as the rst to display dig- As of 2011 the run of Othello starring Robeson was the
nity for black actors and pride in African heritage,[269] longest-running production of a Shakespeare play ever
[280]
and he was the rst artist to refuse to play to live, segre- staged on Broadway. He received a Donaldson Award
[281]
gated audiences. for his performance. His Othello was characterised by
Michael A. Morrison in 2011 as a high point in Shake-
After McCarthyism, [Robesons stand] on spearean theatre in the 20th century.[282]
anti-colonialism in the 1940s would never Subsequently, he received the Spingarn medal from the
again have a voice in American politics, but NAACP.[283] His starring role as an African American
the [African independence movements] of the in the lm was a feat not repeated for more than two
late 1950s and 1960s would vindicate his anti- decades in the U.S.[120] Paul Robeson: Tribute to an Artist
colonial [agenda].[270] won an Academy Award for best short documentary in
10 8 REFERENCES

1980. In November 2014 it was reported that lm director

Robeson left Australia as a respected, albeit controversial, Steve McQueen's
[299]
next lm would be a biopic about Paul
gure and his support for Aboriginal rights had a profound Robeson.
eect in Australia over the next decade.[284]
Robeson archives exist at the Academy of Arts;[285] 6 Filmography
Howard University,[286] and the Schomburg Center.[287]
In 2010, Susan Robeson launched a project by Swansea
University and the Welsh Assembly to create an online Main article: Paul Robeson lmography
learning resource in her grandfathers memory.
Robeson connected his own life and history not only to his
fellow Americans and to his people in the South, but to
all the people of Africa and its diaspora whose lives had
7 See also
been fundamentally shaped by the same processes that
had brought his ancestors to America.[288] While a con- 8 References
sensus denition of his legacy remains controversial,[289]
to deny his courage in the face of public and governmen- [1] Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 3; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 18,
tal pressure would be to defame his courage.[290] Duberman 1989, pp. 45
In 1978, TASS announced that the Latvian Shipping
[2] Brown 1997, pp. 56, 145149; cf. Robeson, Jr. 2001,
Company had named one of its new 40,000-ton tankers pp. 45; Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 1012
Paul Robeson in honor of the singer. TASS said the
ships crew would establish a Robeson museum aboard [3] Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 4, 337338; cf. Boyle & Bunie
the tanker.[291] 2005, p. 4, Duberman 1989, p. 4, Brown 1997, pp. 910

In 2001, the Welsh rock band Manic Street Preachers re- [4] Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 56, 14; cf. Robeson, Jr. 2001,
leased the single Let Robeson Sing from their album Know pp. 45, Duberman 1989, pp. 46, Brown 1997, pp. 17,
Your Enemy. The song is about the life of Paul Robeson. 26

In 2002, a blue plaque was unveiled by English Heritage [5] Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 3; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 18,
on the house in Hampstead where Robeson lived in 1929 Brown 1997, p. 21
1930.[292]
[6] Duberman 1989, pp. 67; cf. Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp.
In 2004, the U.S. Postal Service issued a 37-cent stamp 56, Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 1820
honoring Robeson.[293]
[7] Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 1617; cf. Duberman 1989, p.
In 2007, the Criterion Collection, a company that spe- 12
cializes in releasing special edition versions of classic and
[8] Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 56; cf. Duberman 1989, pp.
contemporary lms, released a DVD boxed set of Robe-
69, Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 1820, Brown 1997, p. 26
son lms.[294]
The main campus library at Rutgers University Camden [9] Duberman 1989, p. 9; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 21,
Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 67, Brown 1997, p. 28
is named after Robeson,[295] as is the campus center at
[296]
Rutgers University Newark. [10] Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 2223; cf. Duberman 1989, p.
8, Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 78, Brown 1997, pp. 2529;
cf. Robeson 1958, p. 7
5.1 In popular culture [11] Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 11; cf. Duberman 1989, p. 9,
Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 2729
Tom Rob Smith's novel Agent 6 (2012) features the
character Jesse Austin, a black singer, political activist [12] Duberman 1989, pp. 910; cf. Brown 1997, p. 39,
Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 1314
and communist sympathizer modeled after real-life ac-
tor/activist Paul Robeson. In his portrayal of Austin, [13] Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 17; cf. Duberman 1989, p. 30,
Smith dramatizes little-known facts of the FBIs harass- Brown 1997, pp. 4647
ment of Robeson and his family that give a chilling
verisimilitude to the actions of an FBI agent hellbent on [14] Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 3738; cf. Duberman 1989, p.
12, Brown 1997, pp. 4951
destroying a perceived threat to his country.[297]
Black 47's album Home of The Brave includes the song [15] Duberman 1989, pp. 1316; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp.
3436, Brown 1997, pp. 43, 46, 4849
Paul Robeson (Born To Be Free)", which features spo-
[298]
ken quotes of Robeson as part of the song. These [16] Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 3738; cf. Robeson, Jr. 2001,
quotes are drawn from Robesons testimony before the p. 16, Duberman 1989, pp. 1316, Brown 1997, pp. 46
House Un-American Activities Committee in June 1956. 47

[17] Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 4142; cf. Brown 1997, pp.
5455, Duberman 1989, p. 17, Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp.
1718; contra. The dispute is over whether it was a one-
year or four-year scholarship. Robeson Found Emphasis
to Win Too Great in College Football 1926-03-13
[18] Duberman 1989, p. 11; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 40
41, Robeson 1958, pp. 1819, Brown 1997, pp. 5354,
65, Carroll 1998, p. 58
[19] Duberman 1989, p. 19; cf. Brown 1997, pp. 60, 64,
Gilliam 1978, Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 20
[20] Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 4549; cf. Duberman 1989, pp.
19, 24, Brown 1997, pp. 60, 65
[21] Duberman 1989, pp. 2021; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp.
4950, Brown 1997, pp. 6163
[22] Van Gelder, Robert (1944-01-16). Robeson Remem-
bers: An interview with the Star of Othello, Partly about
his Past. New York Times. pp. X1.; cf. Boyle & Bunie
2005, pp. 4950, Duberman 1989, pp. 2021, Robeson,
Jr. 2001, pp. 2223
[23] Yeakey, Lamont H. (Autumn 1973). A Student Without
Peer: The Undergraduate College Years of Paul Robeson
(PDF). Journal of Negro Education 42 (4): 499. JSTOR
2966562.
[24] Duberman 1989, p. 24; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 54,
Brown 1997, p. 71, Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 28, 3132
[25] Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 54; cf. Duberman 1989, p. 24,
Levy 2000, pp. 12, Brown 1997, p. 71, Robeson, Jr.
2001, p. 28
[26] Duberman 1989, p. 24; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 54,
Brown 1997, p. 70, Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 35
[27] Brown & 1997, pp. 6870; Duberman 1989, pp. 2223,
Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 5960, Robeson, Jr. 2001, p.
27, Pitt 1972, p. 42
[28] Duberman 1989, pp. 22, 573; cf. Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp.
2930, Brown 1997, pp. 7482, Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp.
6566
[29] Du Bois, W. E. B. (March 1918). Men of the Month
15 (5). The Crisis Publishing Company, Inc.: 229. ISSN
0011-1422.; cf. CITEREFMarable2005
[30] Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 68.
[31] Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 33; cf. Duberman 1989, p. 25,
Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 6869, Brown 1997, pp. 8587
[32] Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 6869.
[33] Robeson 1958, p. 6.
[34] Duberman 1989, p. 25; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 68
69, Brown 1997, pp. 8687, Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 33
[35] Duberman 1989, p. 24; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 69,
74, 437, Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 35
11
[36] Hall of Fame: Robeson. Record-Journal. 1995-01-19.
p. 20.; The number of letters varies between 12 and 15
based on author; Duberman 1989, p. 22, Boyle & Bunie
2005, p. 73, Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 3435
[37] Jenkins, Burris (1922-09-28). Four CoachesO'Neill
of Columbia, Sanderson of Rutgers, Gargan of Fordham,
and Thorp of N.Y.U.Worrying About Outcome of Im-
pending Battles. The Evening World. p. 24.
[38] Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 66; cf. Duberman 1989, pp. 22
23, Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 30, 35
[39] Who Belongs to Phi Beta Kappa?". The Phi Beta
Kappa Society. Archived from the original on 2012-01-
21., Brown 1997, p. 94, Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 74,
Duberman 1989, p. 24
[40] Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 74; cf. Duberman 1989, p. 26,
Brown 1997, p. 94
[41] Brown 1997, pp. 9495; cf. Duberman 1989, p. 30,
Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 7576, Harris 1998, p. 47
[42] Duberman 1989, p. 26; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 75,
Brown 1997, p. 94, Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 36
[43] Kirshenbaum, Jerry (1972-03-27). Paul Robeson: Re-
making A Fallen Hero. Sports Illustrated 36 (13): 7577.
[44] Robeson, Paul Leroy (1919-06-10). The New Idealism.
The Targum 50 (191819): 570571.; cf. Boyle & Bunie
2005, p. 76, Duberman 1989, pp. 2627, Brown 1997,
p. 95, Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 3639
[45] Thorpe-M'Millan Fight Great Duel: Robeson Scores
Both Touchdowns for Locals Against Indians. The Mil-
waukee Sentinel. 1922-11-20. p. 7.; cf. Badgers Trim
Thorpes Team
[46] Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 43; cf. Boyle and Bunie; 7882,
Brown 1997, p. 107
[47] Duberman 1989, p. 34; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 82,
Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 44, Carroll 1998, pp. 140141
[48] Brown 1997, p. 111; cf. Gilliam 1978, p. 25, Boyle &
Bunie 2005, p. 53, Duberman 1989, p. 41
[49] Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 82.
[50] Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 4344; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005,
p. 82, Brown 1997, pp. 107108
[51] Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 143; cf. Robeson, Jr. 2001, p.
45
[52] Weisenfeld 1997, pp. 161162.; cf. Robeson 1958, p. 2
[53] Duberman 1989, pp. 3435, 3738; cf. Boyle & Bunie
2005, pp. 8789, Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 4648
[54] Duberman 1989, p. 43.
[55] Peterson 1997, p. 93; cf. Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 4849;
cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 89, 104, Whos Who New
York Times 1924-05-11
12
[56] Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 5052; cf. Duberman 1989, pp.
3941; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 8889, 94, Brown
1997, p. 119
[57] Levy 2000, p. 30; cf. Akron Pros 1920 by Bob Carrol,
Carroll 1998, pp. 147148, Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 53
[58] Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 104105.
[59] Darnton, Charles (1922-04-05). "'Taboo' Casts Voodoo
Spell. The Evening World. p. 24.; cf. Boyle & Bunie
2005, pp. 100105, Review of TabooDuberman 1989, p.
43
[60] Wintz 2007, pp. 68; cf. Duberman 1989, pp. 4445,
Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 5759, Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp.
98100
[61] Duberman 1989, pp. 4445; cf. Brown 1997, p. 120,
Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 5759, Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp.
100101
[62] Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 105107; cf. Brown 1997, p.
120, Duberman 1989, pp. 4748, 50, Robeson, Jr. 2001,
pp. 59, 6364
[63] Brown 1997, pp. 120121; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp.
105106
[64] Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 139.
[65] Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 108109; cf. Robeson, Jr.
2001, pp. 6869, Duberman 1989, pp. 34, 51, Carroll
1998, pp. 151152
[66] Levy 2000, pp. 3132; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 111
[67] Duberman 1989, pp. 5455; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp.
111113, Robeson, Jr. 2001, Brown 1997, p. 122
[68] Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 111114; cf. Duberman 1989,
pp. 5455, Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 7172, Gilliam 1978,
p. 29
[69] Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 115; cf. History, Schomburg
Unit Listed as Landmark: Spawning Ground of Talent 40
Seats Are Not Enough Plans for a Museum
[70] Duberman 1989, pp. 5255; Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp.
111, 116117; Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 73
[71] All Gods Chillun. Time. March 17, 1924. The dra-
matic miscegenation will shortly be enacted .. [produced
by the Provincetown Players, headed by O'Neill], drama-
tist; Robert Edmund Jones, artist, and Kenneth Mac-
gowan, author. Many white people do not like the [plot].
Neither do many black.; Duberman 1989, pp. 5759,
Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 118121, Gilliam 1978, pp.
3233
[72] Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 7376; cf. Gilliam 1978, pp.
3637, Duberman 1989, pp. 53, 5759, 6162, Boyle &
Bunie 2005, pp. 9091, 122123
[73] Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 123.
8 REFERENCES
[74] Madden, Will Anthony (1924-05-17). Paul Robeson
Rises To Supreme Heights In The Emperor Jones. Pitts-
burgh Courier. p. 8.; cf. Corbin, John (1924-05-
07). The Play; Jazzed Methodism New York Times p.
18.Duberman 1989, pp. 6263, Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp.
124125
[75] Young, Stark (1924-08-24). The Prompt Book. New
York Times. pp. X1.; Chicago Tribune entitled: All
Gods Chillun Plays Without a Single ProtestBoyle &
Bunie 2005, pp. 126127, Duberman 1989, pp. 6465
[76] And there is an 'Othello' when I am ready..One of the
great measures of a people is its culture. Above all things,
we boast that the only true artistic contributions of Amer-
ica are Negro in origin. We boast of the culture of ancient
Africa..[I]n any discussion of art or culture,[one must in-
clude] music and the drama and its interpretation.. So to-
day Roland Hayes is innitely more of a racial asset than
many who 'talk' at great length. Thousands of people hear
him, see him, are moved by him, and are brought to a
clearer understanding of human values. If I can so some-
thing of a like nature, I shall be happy.. My early experi-
ences give me much hope. cf. Wilson 2000, p. 292
[77] Gilliam 1978, pp. 3840; cf. Duberman 1989, pp. 68
71, 76, Sampson 2005, p. 9
[78] Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 142143; cf. I Owe My Suc-
cess To My Wife, Says Paul Robeson, Star In O'Neills
Drama
[79] Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 84.
[80] Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 84; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp.
149, 152
[81] Nollen 2010, pp. 14, 1819; cf. Duberman 1989, p. 67,
Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 160, Gilliam 1978, p. 43
[82] Robeson to Sing for Nursery Fund: Benet to Be Given
in Greenwich Village Theatre March 15. New York Am-
sterdam News. 1925-03-11. p. 9.
[83] Coates, Ulysses (1925-04-18). Radio. Chicago De-
fender. pp. A8.; cf. Robeson to Sing [Spirituals] Over
Radio 1925-04-08
[84] Duberman 1989, p. 78; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 139,
Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 85
[85] Duberman 1989, p. 79; cf. Gilliam 1978, pp. 4142,
Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 140, Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 85
86
[86] Clara Young Loses $75,000 in Jewels. New York Times.
1925-04-20. p. 21.; cf. Paul Robeson, Lawrence
Brown Score Big New York Success With Negro Songs,
MusicDuberman 1989, pp. 8081
[87] Duberman 1989, pp. 82, 86; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005,
p. 149, Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 93, Robeson on Victor
1925-09-16
[88] Gilliam 1978, pp. 4547; Duberman 1989, pp. 83, 88
98, Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 161167, Robeson, Jr.
2001, pp. 9597
 13

[89] Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 169184; cf. Duberman 1989, [109] Morrison 2011, p. 114; cf. Swindall 2010, p. 23,
pp. 98106, Gilliam 1978, pp. 4749 Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 166

[90] Duberman 1989, p. 106; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 184 [110] Nollen 2010, p. 29; cf. Gilliam 1978, p. 60, Boyle &
Bunie 2005, pp. 226229
[91] Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 143; cf. Duberman 1989, p. 106,
Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 184 [111] Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 176177; cf. Nollen 2010, p. 29

[92] Duberman 1989, p. 110; cf. Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 147, [112] Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 178182; cf. Boyle & Bunie
Gilliam 1978, p. 49 2005, pp. 238240, 257; cf. Gilliam 1978, pp. 6264,
Duberman 1989, pp. 140144
[93] Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 186; cf. Duberman 1989, p. 112,
Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 148 [113] Oakley, Annie (1932-05-24). The Theatre and Its Peo-
ple. Border Cities Star. p. 4.; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005,
[94] Drury Lane Theatre: 'Showboat'" (PDF). The Times. pp. 253254, Duberman 1989, p. 161, Robeson, Jr.
1928-05-04. p. 14. Mr. Robesons melancholy song 2001, pp. 192193
about the 'old river' is one of the two chief hits of the
evening.; Duberman 1989, pp. 113115, Boyle & Bunie [114] Duberman 1989, p. 161; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp.
2005, pp. 188192, Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 149156 258259, Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 132, 194

[95] Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 192. [115] Sources are unclear on this point. Duberman 1989, p.
145; cf. Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 182
[96] Rogers, J A (1928-10-06). "'Show Boat' Pleasure-
Disappointment": Rogers Gives New View Says Race [116] Duberman 1989, pp. 162163; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005,
Talent Is Submerged. Pittsburgh Courier. pp. A2. pp. 262263, Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 194196
[Show Boat] is, so far as the Negro is concerned, a regret-
table bit of American niggerism introduced into Europe.; [117] Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 195200; cf. Boyle & Bunie
Duberman 1989, p. 114, Gilliam 1978, p. 52 2005, pp. 267268, Duberman 1989, p. 166

[97] Mrs. Paul Robeson Majestic Passenger: Coming to Set- [118] Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 271274; Duberman 1989, p.
tle Business Aairs of Her Distinguished Husband. New 167, Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 204
York Amsterdam News. 1928-08-22. p. 8.; cf. Boyle & [119] Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 269271.
Bunie 2005, pp. 193197; cf. Duberman 1989, p. 114,
Gilliam 1978, p. 52 [120] Nollen 2010, pp. 4142; cf. Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 207;
Duberman 1989, pp. 168169
[98] Sings For Prince Of Wales. Pittsburgh Courier. 1928-
07-28. p. 12.; Duberman 1989, p. 115, Boyle & Bunie [121] Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 275279; cf. Duberman 1989,
2005, p. 196, Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 153 pp. 167168

[99] English Parliament Honors Paul Robeson. Chicago De- [122] Black Greatness. The Border Cities Star. 1933-09-
fender. 1928-12-01. pp. A1.; cf. Seton 1958, p. 30; cf. 08. p. 4.; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=284285;
Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 155, Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. ? Duberman 1989, p. 169170

[100] Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 205207; cf. Robeson, Jr. [123] Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 285286.
2001, pp. 153156, Gilliam 1978, p. 52, Duberman
1989, p. 118 [124] Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 284285.

[101] Duberman 1989, p. 126127. [125] The rationale for Robesons sudden interest in African his-
tory is viewed as inexplicable by one of his biographers
[102] Duberman 1989, p. 123-124. and no biographers have stated an explanation for what
Duberman terms a sudden interest"}}; cf. Template:
[103] Duberman, Martin (1988-12-28). Writing Robeson. Cameron
The Nation 267 (22): 3338.; cf. Gilliam 1978, p. 57,
Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 159160, Robeson, Jr. 2001, [126] Nollen 2010, p. 52.
pp. 100101
[127] Nollen 2010, p. 45.
[104] Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 163165.
[128] Duberman 1989, p. 182185.
[105] Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 172173; cf. Boyle & Bunie
2005, pp. 230234, Duberman 1989, pp. 139140 [129] Smith, Ronald A. (Summer 1979). The Paul Robeson
Jackie Robinson Saga and a Political Collision. Journal
[106] Duberman 1989, pp. 143144; cf. Robeson, Jr. 2001, of Sport History 6 (2).; Duberman 1989, pp. 184185,
pp. 165166 628629

[107] Nollen 2010, p. 24; cf. Duberman 1989, pp. 129130, [130] Robeson 1978, pp. 9496; cf. (Smith, Vern (1935-01-
Boyle & Bunie 2005, pp. 221223 15). "'I am at Home,' Says Robeson at Reception in Soviet
Union, Daily Worker).
[108] Duberman 1989, pp. 133138; cf. Nollen 2010, pp. 59
60 [131] Nollen 2010, p. 5355.
 14 8 REFERENCES

[132] Nollen 2010, p. 53; cf. Duberman 1989, pp. 78182 [149] Paul Robeson at the Unity Theater, Daily Express June
20, 1938}}; cf. Duberman 1989, pp. 222223
[133] Rotha, Paul (Spring 1935). Sanders on the River. Cin-
ema Quarterly 3 (3): 175176. You may, like me, feel [150] Paul Robeson. Coaleld Web Materials. University of
embarrassed for Robeson. To portray on the public screen Swansea. 2002.
your own race as a smiling but cunning rogue, as clay in
a womans hands (especially when she is of the sophisti- [151] Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 396.
cated American Brand), as toady to the white man is no
[152] Spanish Relief Eorts: Albert Hall Meeting 1,000 Col-
small feat..It is important to remember that the multitudes
lected for Children. The Manchester Guardian. 1937-
of this country [Britain] who see Africa in this lm, are
06-25. p. 6.; cf. Brown 1997, p. 77, Robeson, Jr. 2001,
being encouraged to believe this fudge is real. It is a dis-
p. 372
turbing thought. To exploit the past is the historians loss.
To exploit the present means in this case, the disgrace of a [153] Beevor 2006, p. 356.
Continent.; {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=180182; con-
tra: Leicester Square Theatre: Sanders of the River, The [154] Weyden, p. 433434.
Times: p. 12. 1935-04-03.
[155] Beevor 2006, p. 356; cf. Eby 2007, pp. 279280, Landis
[134] Low 1985, p. 257; cf. Duberman 1989, p. 181182 1967, pp. 245246

[135] Low 1985, p. 170171. [156] Wyden 1983, p. 433434.

[136] Sources are unclear if Robeson unilaterally took the - [157] Indias Struggle for Freedom[sic]: Mr. Nehru on Im-
nal product of the lm as insulting or if his distaste was perialism and Fascism. The Guardian. 1938-06-28.;
abetted by criticism of the lm. Nollen 2010, p. 53; Duberman 1989, p. 225
Duberman 1989, p. 182
[158] Duberman 1989, p. 223 He explained to the press that
[137] Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 280-281. 'something inside has turned..',; Nollen 2010, p. 122

[138] James, Hgsbjerg & Dubois 2012. [159] Duberman 1989, p. 223.

[139] Paul Robeson at the Internet Movie Database
[140] Paul Robeson at the Internet Movie Database
[141] Paul Robeson at the Internet Movie Database
[142] Africa Sings. Villon Films. Retrieved 2012-07-10.
[143] Paul Robeson at the Internet Movie Database
[144] Most Popular Stars of 1937: Choice of British Public.
The Mercury (Hobart, Tas.: 18601954) (Hobart, Tas.:
National Library of Australia). 12 February 1938. p. 5.
Retrieved 25 April 2012.; cf. Richards 2001, p. 18
[145] Robeson 1958, p. 53; cf. Robeson 1981, p.
Duberman 1989, p. 220
[160] Robeson Joins London Workers Theatre. Chicago De-
fender. 1938-07-02. p. 24.; cf. Nollen 2010, p. 122
[161] Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 320; cf. Von Eschen 2014
[162] Price 89; cf. Colliers ??
[163] Duberman 1989, p. 236238.
[164] Bourne, Stephen; Dr. Hywel Francis. The Proud Val-
ley. Edinburgh Film Guide. Archived from the original
(PDF) on 2012-07-04.
[165] FBI record, Paul Robeson. FBI 100-25857, New York,
December 8, 1942.
38,
[166] Duberman 1989, p. 259261.

[146] Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 292; cf. Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. [167] Lustiger 2003, p. 125127.
375378
[168] Paul Robeson at the Internet Broadway Database
[147] Glazer denes it as a change from a ".lyric of defeat into
a rallying cry. Glazer 2007, p. 167; cf. Robeson, Jr. [169] Dorinson & Pencak 2004, p. 1.
2001, p. 293, Boyle & Bunie 2005, p. 381, Lennox 2011,
[170] Duberman 1989, p. 295.
p. 124, Robeson 1981, p. 37, Hopkins 1998, p. 313 At
Manchester Free Trade Hall on September 28, 1938, Paul [171] Duberman 1989, p. 296-297.
Robeson led in singing the famous verses of .. [the hymn]
Jerusalem .. This suggests a very dierent spirit from that [172] Duberman 1989, p. 307.
which the historian Gareth Stedman Jones found a gener-
ation earlier. He had written of workers who buried their [173] Group Confers with Truman on Lynching. Pittsburgh
millennial dreams and adopted a defensive strategy to fend Post-Gazette. 1946-09-24. p. 2.
o the aggressions of employers of the 1890s. .. For those
[174] Nollen 2010, p. 157156.
who sang Jerusalem then, it was not as a battle-cry but as
a hymn. For those caught up in the passion play of Spain, [175] Lewis 2000, p. 522.
and still eager to recapture lost ideological positions it had
become a battle cry. [176] Duberman 1989, p. 249-250.

[148] Duberman 1989, p. 222. [177] Duberman 1989, p. 241.

 15

[178] Duberman 1989, p. 296. [202] Von Eschen 2014, p. 181-185.

[179] Cornell, Douglas B. (1947-12-05). Attorney Generals [203] Duberman 1989, p. 388389.
List of 'Subversive Groups is Derided by Solon. The
Modesto Bee. p. 1.; cf. Goldstein 2008, pp. 62, 66, 88 [204] Robert Alan, Paul Robeson - the Lost Shepherd. The
Crisis, November 1951 pp. 569573
[180] Bay Area Paul Robeson Centennial Committee, Paul
Robeson Chronology (Part 5). [205] Duberman 1989, p. 396.

[181] Duberman 1989, p. 324. [206] Foner 2001, p. 112115.

[182] Duberman 1989, p. 326-327. [207] Von Eschen 2014, p. 127.

[183] Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 137. [208] Duberman 1989, p. 396; cf. Foner 2001, pp. 112115

[184] Robeson 1978, p. 197198. [209] Duberman 1989, p. 397398.

[185] Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 142143; Duberman 1989, pp. [210] Paul Robeson is Awarded Stalin Prize. The News and
342345, 687 Courier. 1952-12-22. p. 6.

[186] Robeson, Jr. 2001, pp. 142143; cf. Robeson 1978, pp. [211] Post Robeson Gets Stalin Peace Prize. The Victoria Ad-
197198, Seton 1958, p. 179, Interview with Paul Robe- vocate. 1953-09-25. p. 5.
son, Jnr.
[212] Robeson 1978, p. 347349.
[187] Studs Terkel, Paul Robeson Speak of Me As I Am,
[213] Duberman 1989, p. 354.
BBC, 1998
[214] Robeson 1978, p. 236241.
[188] Duberman 1989, p. 352353.
[215] Duberman 1989, p. 400.
[189] Lustiger 2003, p. 210211.
[216] Duberman 1989, p. 411.
[190] McConnell 2010, p. 348.
[217] Testimony of Paul Robeson before the House Commit-
[191] Seton 1958, p. 210-211.
tee on Un-American Activities, June 12, 1956. History
[192] Duberman 1989, p. 353354. Matters. Retrieved 30 January 2015.

[193] Duberman 1989, pp. 361362; cf. Robinson 1978, pp. [218] Presenters: Aleks Krotoski (5 January 2016). Hidden
9498 Histories of the Information Age: TAT-1. Hidden Histo-
ries of the Information Age. 9:50 minutes in. BBC Radio
[194] Duberman 1989, pp. 358360; cf. Robinson 1978, pp. 4.
9498
[219] Presenters: Aleks Krotoski (5 January 2016). Hidden
[195] Duberman 1989, p. 364; cf. Robeson 1981, p. 181 Histories of the Information Age: TAT-1. Hidden Histo-
ries of the Information Age. 0:55 minutes in. BBC Radio
[196] Duberman 1989, pp. 364370; cf. Robeson 1981, p. 181 4.
[197] LA Times: Jan 1, 1950, p. ? [220] Howard, Tony (2009-01-29). Showcase: Let Robeson
[198] Walsh 1949, p. 689. Sing. University of Warwick.

[199] Brown 1997, p. 162; cf. Robeson 1971, p. 5 Walsh only
listed a ten man All-American team for the 1917 team
and he lists no team due to World War I. Walsh 1949, pp.
1618, 32. The information in the book was compiled
by information from the colleges, ".. but many deserving
names are missing entirely from the pages of [the] book
because .. their alma mater was unable to provide them.
Glenn S. Warner" Walsh 1949, p. 6. The Rutgers Uni-
versity list was presented to Walsh by Gordon A. McCoy,
Director of Publicity for Rutgers, and although this list
says that Rutgers had two All-Americans at the time of
the publishing of the book, the book only lists the other
All-American and does not list Robeson as being an All-
American. Walsh 1949, p. 684
[200] Mrs. Roosevelt sees a 'Misunderstanding'". New York
Times. 1950-03-15. [228] Duberman 1989, p. 469.
[221] Matthew Weaver and George Arnett (21 November
2014). Will Theresa May toe party line on Desert Island
Disks?". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 January 2015.
[222] Duberman 1989, p. 437.
[223] Barry Finger, "Paul Robeson: A Flawed Martyr", in: New
Politics Vol. 7 No. 1 (Summer 1998)
[224] Robeson 1978, p. 38.
[225] Duberman 1989, p. 458.
[226] Duberman 1989, p. 463.
[227] British Give Singer Paul Robeson Heros Welcome. The
Modesto Bee. 1958-07-11.

[201] Wright 1975, p. 97. [229] Duberman 1989, p. 471.

 16 8 REFERENCES

[230] Robeson 1981, p. 218. [262] Robeson 1981, p. 236237.

[231] Duberman 1989, p. 472. [263] Duberman 1989, p. 549.

[232] Duberman 1989, p. 487491.
[233] Curthoys 2010, p. 171.
[234] Steinke, Nicole. Paul Robeson: the singer who fought for
justice and paid with his life.
[235] Duberman 1989, p. 489.
[236] Curthoys 2010, p. 168; Duberman 1989, p. 489
[237] Robeson 1978, pp. 470471.
[238] Curthoys 2010, pp. 164, 173175; cf. Duberman 1989,
p. 490
[264] Hoggard, Bishop J. Clinton. Eulogy. The Paul Robeson
Foundation.
[265] Carroll 1998, p. ?.
[266] Finkelman 2007, p. 363; cf. Dorinson 2002, p. 74
[267] Miller, Patrick B. (1 January 2005). Muscular assimi-
lationism: sport and the paradoxes of racial reform. In
Ross, Charles K. Race and Sport: The Struggle for Equal-
ity on and O the Field. Univ. Press of Mississippi. pp.
149150. ISBN 978-1-57806-897-5.
[268] Duberman 1989, p. 81.

[239] Curthoys 2010, pp. 175177; cf. Duberman 1989 [269] Duberman 1989, p. 90; cf. Bogle 2016, p. 100, Nollen
2010, p. ?
[240] Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 309.
[270] Von Eschen 2014, p. 185.
[241] Duberman 1989, p. 498-499.
[271] List of National Historic Landmarks by State (PDF).
[242] Nollen 2010, p. 180. National Historic Landmarks Program. 2012-01-03. p.
[243] Radio broadcast presented by Amy Goodman, Did 71.
the U.S. Government Drug Paul Robeson? (Part 1). [272] Paul Robeson Galleries.; cf. Paul Robeson Library, The
Democracy Now (July 1, 1999) Did the U.S. Government Paul Robeson Cultural Center,
Drug Paul Robeson? (Part 2). Democracy Now (July 6,
1999) [273] O'Malley, Padraig. 1978. Nelson Mandela Centre of
Memory.
[244] Duberman 1989, p. 563564.
[274] 1980. Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.
[245] Duberman 1989, p. 438442.
[275] Armour, Nancy (1995-08-26). Brown, Robeson in-
[246] Robeson, Paul Jr. (1999-12-20). Time Out: The Paul
ducted into college football hall. The Day (Reid Mac-
Robeson Files. The Nation 269 (21): 9.
Cluggage). pp. C6.
[247] Duberman 1989, p. 498499.
[276] Paul Robeson Centennial Celebration; Robeson Peace
[248] Duberman 1989, p. 735736. Arch Concert Anniversary.

[249] Nollen 2010, p. 180181. [277] From the Valley of Obscurity, Robesons Baritone Rings
Out; 22 Years After His Death, Actor-Activist Gets a
[250] Travis, Alan (2003-03-06). Paul Robeson was tracked Grammy. The New York Times. February 25, 1998.
by MI5. The Guardian (Guardian News and Media Lim-
ited).; cf. Western Mail, [278] The Paul Robeson centennial. Ebony 53 (7): 110114.
1998-05-01.; cf. Wade-Lewis 2007, p. 108
[251] Duberman 1989, p. 509.
[279] Theater Hall of Fame members.
[252] Nollen 2010, p. 182.
[280] The Broadway League. Home - IBDB: The ocial
[253] Duberman 1989, p. 516518. source for Broadway Information. ibdb.com.
[254] Duberman 1989, p. 537.
[281] Paul Robeson as Othello. 2010-07-29.
[255] Robeson, Jr. 2001, p. 346.
[282] Morrison 2011, pp. 114-140.
[256] Farmer 1985, p. 297298.
[283] Spingarn Medal Winners: 1915 to Today. naacp.org.
[257] Duberman 1989, p. 162163.
[284] Curthoys 2010, pp. 178180; cf. Duberman 1989, p. 491
[258] Robeson 1981, p. 235237.
[285] Paul Robeson zu Gast Unter den Linden Humboldt-
[259] Bell 1986, p. ?. Universitt zu Berlin (in German). Hu-berlin.de.

[260] Duberman 1989, p. 516. [286] Duberman 1989, p. 557.

[261] Died. Time. February 2, 1976.; cf. Duberman 1989, p. [287] Paul Robeson Archive. 515 Malcolm X Boulevard New
548 York, NY: New York Public Libraries.
 8.2 Biographies
[288] Von Eschen 2014, p. 12.
[289] Balaji 2009, p. 430432.
[290] Hiebert, Hagen (2010). Reections on a Life: Paul Robe-
son Remembered. Eastside Inc, Charbo.
[291] Tanker Named 'Paul Robeson'". The Hour. UPI. June 1,
1978. Retrieved June 27, 2015.
[292] English Heritage Unveil A Blue Plaque To Honour Paul
Robeson. untoldlondon.org.uk. Retrieved 7 May 2013.
[293] Stamp Series. United States Postal Service. Retrieved
Sep 2, 2013.
[294] Paul Robeson: Portraits of the Artist. The Criterion
Collection. Retrieved Dec 8, 2013.
[295] Paul Robeson Library. Rutgers University Camden.
Retrieved Jan 22, 2015.
[296] Paul Robeson Campus Center. Rutgers University
Newark. Retrieved Jan 22, 2015.
[297] Woods, Paula (January 27, 2012). Book review: 'Agent
6' by Tom Rob Smith. Los Angeles Times.
[298] Paul Robeson Lyrics. Metro Lyrics. Retrieved 17 April
2015.
[299] Alex Needham. Steve McQueen to make lm about Paul
Robeson. the Guardian.
[300] Richards 2005, p. 231.
8.1 Primary materials
Robeson, Jr., Paul (1976). Paul Robeson: Trib-
utes and Selected Writings. Paul Robeson Archives.
OCLC 2507933.
Robeson, Paul (1978). Sheldon, Philip; Foner,
Henry, eds. Paul Robeson Speaks: Writings,
Speeches, and Interviews, a Centennial Celebration.
Citadel Press. ISBN 978-0-8065-0815-3.
Robeson, Paul Leroy (1919-06-10). The New Ide-
alism. The Targum 50, 19181919: 5701.
Robeson, Paul; Brown, Lloyd L. (1988). Here I
Stand. Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-6445-0.
Paul Robeson at Google Books 8.3
Wilson, Sondra K., ed. (2000). The Messenger
Reader: Stories, Poetry, and Essays from The Mes-
senger Magazine. New York: Modern Library.
ISBN 0-375-75539-X.
17
8.2 Biographies
Boyle, Sheila Tully; Bunie, Andrew (1 October
2005). Paul Robeson: The Years of Promise and
Achievement. Univ of Massachusetts Press. ISBN
1-55849-505-3.
Brown, Lloyd Louis (1997). The Young Paul Robe-
son: on My Journey Now. Westview Press. ISBN
978-0-8133-3177-5.
Duberman, Martin B. (1989). Paul Robeson. Bod-
ley Head. ISBN 978-0-370-30575-2.
Ehrlich, Scott (1989). Paul Robeson. Holloway
House Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87067-552-2.
Gilliam, Dorothy Butler (1978). Paul Robeson: All-
American. New Republic Book Company.
Hoyt, Edwin Palmer (1967). Paul Robeson: The
American Othello. World Publishing Company.
Ramdin, Ron (October 1987). Paul Robeson: the
man and his mission. Peter Owen.
Robeson, Eslanda Goode (16 April 2013). Paul
Robeson, Negro. Read Books Limited. ISBN 978-
1-4474-9401-0.
Robeson, Jr., Paul (9 July 2001). The Undiscovered
Paul Robeson , An Artists Journey, 1898-1939. John
Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-15105-0.
Robeson, Jr., Paul (21 December 2009). The Undis-
covered Paul Robeson: Quest for Freedom, 1939
- 1976. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-
56968-9.
Seton, Marie (1958). Paul Robeson. D. Dobson.
Seton, Mary (1978). Paul Robeson on the English
Stage. In Freedomways. Paul Robeson: The Great
Forerunner. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company.
Reprint. Dodd, Mead. 1978. ISBN 978-0-396-
07545-5.
Swindall, Lindsey R. (27 October 2010). The Poli-
tics of Paul Robesons Othello. Univ. Press of Mis-
sissippi. ISBN 978-1-60473-825-4. Paul Robeson
at Google Books
Swindall, Lindsey R. (15 August 2015). Paul Robe-
son: A Life of Activism and Art. Rowman & Little-
eld. ISBN 978-1-4422-0794-3. Paul Robeson at
Google Books
Secondary materials
Balaji, Murali (29 April 2009). The Professor and
the Pupil: The Politics and Friendship of W. E. B
Du Bois and Paul Robeson. Nation Books. ISBN
0-7867-3260-1.
18
Beevor, Antony (2006). The Battle for Spain: The
Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939. Penguin Books.
ISBN 978-0-14-303765-1.
Bell, Charlotte Turner (1 January 1986). Paul Robe-
sons Last Days in Philadelphia. Dorrance Publish-
ing Company, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-8059-
3026-9.
Bogle, Donald (25 February 2016). Toms, Coons,
Mulattoes, Mammies, and Bucks: An Interpretive
History of Blacks in American Films, Updated and
Expanded 5th Edition. Bloomsbury Academic.
ISBN 978-0-8264-2953-7.
Cameron, Kenneth M. (1990-10-01). Paul Robe-
son, Eddie Murphy, and the Film Text of 'Africa'".
Text & Performance Quarterly 10 (4): 282293.
doi:10.1080/10462939009365979.
Carroll, John M. (1 September 1998). Fritz Pollard:
Pioneer in Racial Advancement. University of Illi-
nois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-06799-0.
Curthoys, Ann (2010). Paul Robesons visit to
Australia and Aboriginal activism, 1960 (PDF).
In Peters-Little, Frances; Curthoys, Ann; Docker,
John. Passionate Histories: Myth, Memory and In-
digenous Australia. Canberra, Australia: ANU E
Press and Aboriginal History Incorporated. pp.
163. ISBN 978-1-921666-65-0. Paul Robeson, p.
163, at Google Books
Dorinson, Joseph; Pencak, William, eds. (1 Jan-
uary 2004). Paul Robeson: Essays on His Life and
Legacy. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-2163-3.
Dorinson, Joseph (2002). Something to
Cheer About: Paul Robeson, Athlete. pp.
65.
Foner, Henry (2002). Foreword.
Eby, Cecil D. (2007). Comrades and Commissars:
The Lincoln Battalion in the Spanish Civil War. Penn
State Press. ISBN 0-271-02910-2.
Farmer, James (1985). Lay Bare the Heart: An
Autobiography of the Civil Rights Movement. TCU
Press. ISBN 978-0-87565-188-0.
Finkelman, Paul (January 2007). Wintz, Cary D.,
ed. Paul Robeson. Harlem Speaks: A Living History
of the Harlem Renaissance (Sourcebooks). ISBN
978-1-4022-0436-4.
Foner, Henry (2001). Paul Robeson: A Century of
Greatness. Paul Robeson Foundation.
Glazer, Peter (2007). Carroll, Peter N.; Fernndez,
James D., eds. The lifted st: performing the Spanish
8 REFERENCES
Civil War, New York City, 19361939. Facing fas-
cism: New York and the Spanish Civil War (Museum
of the City of New York). ISBN 978-0-8147-1681-
6.
Goldstein, Robert Justin (2008). American black-
list: the attorney generals list of subversive organi-
zations. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-
7006-1604-6.
Stewart, Jerey C., ed. (April 1998). Paul Robeson:
artist and citizen. Rutgers University Press. ISBN
978-0-8135-2510-5.
Harris, Francis C. (1998). Paul Robeson:
An Athletes Legacy.
Naison, Mark (1998). Paul Robeson and
the American Labor Movement.
Hopkins, James K. (1998). Into the Heart of the
Fire: The British in the Spanish Civil War. Stanford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-3127-0.
James, C. L. R.; Hgsbjerg, Christian; Dubois, Lau-
rent (31 December 2012). Toussaint Louverture:
The Story of the Only Successful Slave Revolt in His-
tory; A Play in Three Acts. Duke University Press.
ISBN 978-0-8223-5314-0. Paul Robeson at Google
Books
Landis, Arthur H. (1967). The Abraham Lincoln
Brigade. Citadel Press.
Lewis, David L. (17 October 2000). W. E. B.
Du Bois, 1919-1963: The Fight for Equality and
the American Century. Henry Holt and Company.
ISBN 978-0-8050-2534-7.
Low, Rachael (1985). Film Making in 1930s Britain.
Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-0-04-791042-5.
Lustiger, Arno (1 January 2003). Stalin and the
Jews: The Red Book : the Tragedy of the Jewish
Anti-Fascist Committee and the Soviet Jews. Enigma.
ISBN 978-1-929631-10-0.
Marable, Manning (2005). W.E.B. Du Bois: Black
Radical Democrat. Paradigm Publishers. ISBN
978-1-59451-019-9.
McConnell, Lauren (2010). Understanding Paul
Robesons Soviet Experience. Theatre History
Studies (30): 138153.
Morrison, Michael A. (May 2011). Paul Robe-
sons Othello at the Savoy Theatre, 1930.
New Theatre Quarterly 27 (2): 114140.
doi:10.1017/S0266464X11000261.
Nollen, Scott Allen (14 October 2010). Paul Robe-
son: Film Pioneer. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-
5747-2.
8.4 Film biographies and documentaries about Robeson
Pellowski, Michael (2008). Rutgers Football: A
Gridiron Tradition in Scarlet. Rutgers University
Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-4283-6.
Peterson, Bernard L. (1 January 1997). The African
American Theatre Directory, 1816-1960: A Com-
prehensive Guide to Early Black Theatre Organiza-
tions, Companies, Theatres, and Performing Groups.
Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-
29537-9.
Pitt, Larry (1972). Football at Rutgers: A History,
1869-1969. ISBN 978-0-8135-0747-7.
Robeson, Jr., Paul (1978). Paul Robeson: Black
Warrior. In Freedomways. Paul Robeson: The
Great Forerunner. New York: Dodd, Mead & Com-
pany. pp. 316. ISBN 0-396-07545-2.
Richards, Jerey (21 March 2001). The Unknown
1930s: An Alternative History of the British Cinema,
1929- 1939. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-628-7.
Richards, Larry (1 January 2005). African Amer-
ican Films Through 1959: A Comprehensive, Illus-
trated Filmography. McFarland. pp. 4. ISBN 978-
0-7864-2274-6.
Robeson, Susan (1981). The whole world in his
hands: a pictorial biography of Paul Robeson.
Citadel Press. ISBN 978-0-8065-0754-5.
Robinson, Eugene (1978). A Distant Image: Paul
Robeson and Rutgers Students. In Freedomways.
Paul Robeson: The Great Forerunner. New York:
Dodd, Mead & Company. ISBN 0-396-07545-2.
Robinson, Jackie; Duckett, Alfred (19 March
2013). I Never Had It Made: An Autobiography of
Jackie Robinson. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-
228729-8.
Rogovin, Vadim Zakharovich (1998). 1937: Stalins
Year of Terror. Mehring Books. ISBN 978-0-
929087-77-1.
Sampson, Henry T. (2005). Swingin' on the Ether
Waves: A Chronological History of African Amer-
icans in Radio and Television Programming, 1925-
1955. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-4087-4.
Snyder, Timothy (25 November 2013). Bloodlands:
Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. Basic Books.
ISBN 978-0-465-03297-6.
Stuckey, Sterling (1994). Going Through the Storm:
The Inuence of African American Art in History.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508604-
1.
Wade-Lewis, Margaret (2007). Lorenzo Dow 10.1 Biographical information
Turner: Father of Gullah Studies. Univ of South
Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-57003-628-6. Paul Robeson at the FBI
19
Von Eschen, Penny M. (13 June 2014). Race
against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonial-
ism, 19371957. Cornell University Press. ISBN
978-0-8014-7170-4.
Walsh, Christy (1949). College Football and All
America Review. Murray & Gee.
Weisenfeld, Judith (1997). African American
Women and Christian Activism: New Yorks Black
YWCA, 1905-1945. Harvard University Press.
ISBN 978-0-674-00778-9.
Wintz, Cary D., ed. (January 2007). Harlem
Speaks: A Living History of the Harlem Renaissance.
Sourcebooks. ISBN 978-1-4022-0436-4.
Wright, Charles H. (1 January 1975). Robeson:
Labors Forgotten Champion. Balamp Publishing
Company. ISBN 978-0-913642-06-1.
Wyden, Peter (1983). The Passionate War: The
Narrative History of the Spanish Civil War, 1936-
1939. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-
25330-1.
8.4 Film biographies and documentaries
about Robeson
The Tallest Tree in Our Forest (1977)
Paul Robeson: Tribute to an Artist (1979) Paul Robe-
son at the Internet Movie Database
Paul Robeson - James Earl Jones One Man Show
(1979 TV movie) Paul Robeson at the Internet
Movie Database
Paul Robeson: Speak of Me As I Am (1998)
Paul Robeson: Here I Stand (1999) PBS American
Masters, directed by St. Clair Bourne Paul Robeson
at the Internet Movie Database
Paul Robeson: Portraits of an Artist (2007) Irving-
ton: Criterion Collection. ISBN 1-934121-19-3.
9 Further reading
Fordin, Hugh (1986). Getting to Know Him: A Bi-
ography of Oscar Hammerstein II. Da Capo Press.
ISBN 978-0-306-80668-1.
10 External links
20 10 EXTERNAL LINKS

Paul Robeson at the Internet Movie Database

Paul Robeson at the Internet Broadway Database

Paul Robeson at the British Film Institute's
Screenonline
Works by or about Paul Robeson in libraries
(WorldCat catalog)
Historic 1944 footage of Paul Robeson speaking in
New York at celebration honoring his 46th birthday
and the anniversary of the Council on African Af-
fairs

10.2 Institutions associated

Paul Robeson Foundation

Paul Robeson House

Paul Robeson Cultural Center at Rutgers University

Paul Robeson Cultural Center at Penn State Univer-

sity
Paul Robeson Charter School

Paul Robeson Performing Arts Company

10.3 Paul Robeson archives

National Archives

Library of Congress
Rutgers University

New York Public Library

University of Chicago

Marxists.org
 21

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text

Paul Robeson Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Robeson?oldid=706572619 Contributors: Derek Ross, Vicki Rosenzweig, Mal-
colm Farmer, Gareth Owen, Ffaker, Rmhermen, Deb, William Avery, Heron, Hephaestos, Michael Hardy, Bcrowell, Evanherk, Lquil-
ter, 172, Paul Benjamin Austin, Skysmith, Paul A, Ahoerstemeier, Jimfbleak, Stevenj, Vivin, Smith03, Viajero, Rednblu, Zoicon5, Tp-
bradbury, Dinopup, Jerey Smith, VeryVerily, Jose Ramos, Raul654, AnonMoos, Dimadick, Vanvlitp, Bearcat, Moriori, Biggins, Red-
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Rossrs, Ferkelparade, MSGJ, TDC, Everyking, Perl, Henry Flower, Gamaliel, Ravn, Xinoph, Jason Quinn, AlistairMcMillan, DontMess-
WithThis, ---eek! A Mouse!, Telsa, Gyrofrog, Hanpuk, Big Choi, Etaonish, Gadum, Andycjp, R. end, Formeruser-81, Antandrus,
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Hektor, Guy Harris, Philip Cross, Spangineer, Snowolf, Velella, Bbsrock, SidP, Colin Kimbrell, Shmooth, Bnguyen, Cmapm, Tainter,
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NawlinWiki, JohnFlaherty, Anomie, Metromoxie, BrainyBroad, ExRat, Pixley, SimonCrowley, Howcheng, Irishguy, Cholmes75, Jpbowen,
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Pawyilee, Bakkster Man, Deville, Homagetocatalonia, Mike Selinker, Rande M Sefowt, JoanneB, Therainmaker, Curpsbot-unicodify,
Nixer, Rathfelder, Jonathan.s.kt, Bill Reidy, Meegs, Jbull, Eirelover@earthlink.net, SmackBot, Roger Davies, Davepape, Hydrogen Io-
dide, D C McJonathan, Piccadilly, Pandion auk, Gilliam, Hmains, Betacommand, Chris the speller, Blackfyr, Autarch, Ian13, Klein-
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Silas Maxeld, Versus22, Fan291, Savolya, Sirky~enwiki, BobJones77, Ewebbonline, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Njdude2000, Roxy the dog,
Tocca, Swift as an Eagle, Bradv, SixFourThree, Wilmartin, WikHead, Good Olfactory, Kbdankbot, Radh, Proofreader77, Altetendekrabbe,
Ronhjones, Je hartt, MartinezMD, Hotteawithlemonandhoney, This is Paul, Englishwordsspeak, Looie496, Alandeus, Robesonradio,
Michaelwuzthere, Favonian, JGKlein, Squandermania, Fred927, Tassedethe, Nick Finnsbury, Ondewelle, Tide rolls, Lightbot, , Jojo-
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Human, SporkBot, LordofGifts, David J Johnson, Demiurge1000, Brandmeister, Donner60, Carmichael, George Bailey1, Manytexts,
ClueBot NG, Politicalfolkmusic, Jack Greenmaven, Proscribe, Wdchk, Lafabnyc, Historyvideofan, Frietjes, Alexhangartner, Djpurchase,
Eventuelt, Lakina01, Helpful Pixie Bot, Sumatious, HMSSolent, Everlastinglight, BG19bot, TCN7JM, DuneBuggyAttack, AwamerT,
Dutchy85, OttawaAC, MisterCake, MisterMorton, Glacialfox, Wmconsidine, Achowat, BattyBot, Modest Mouse is great, Jl482828,
ChrisGualtieri, Trinezer, Khazar2, AJCohn, Ijustreadbooks, Rhonefraser, Lugia2453, VIAFbot, Pincrete, Magnolia677, BigFilmNerd,
AlvinPerry, Metadox, Jackson Gumprecht, Kind Tennis Fan, OccultZone, Hxx.c, Tanianag, Publicsworks, Monkbot, Showmanleee, Ches-
naught555, WikiOriginal-9, JezGrove, UglowT, Je.est.un.autre, Iampotato1234, KasparBot, Abc123eeehf, Squirt7897612, Rataman1134
and Anonymous: 721
22 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

11.2 Images
File:"Paul_Robeson,_world_famous_Negro_baritone,_leading_Moore_Shipyard_(Oakland,_CA)_workers_in_singing_the_Star_Spangled_Ba_-
_NARA_-_535874.tif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/%22Paul_Robeson%2C_world_famous_
Negro_baritone%2C_leading_Moore_Shipyard_%28Oakland%2C_CA%29_workers_in_singing_the_Star_Spangled_Ba_-_
NARA_-_535874.tif License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. National Archives and Records Administration Origi-
nal artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a> or not provided
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Edward Deutsch (Jndrline)

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wikipedia/commons/a/af/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-Z0414-148%2C_Berlin%2C_David_Silberstein%2C_Franz_Loeser.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv)
as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative
and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Rehfeld, Katja
File:CapandSkull-Robeson.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/04/CapandSkull-Robeson.jpg License: PD-US
Contributors:
Rutgers University Archives
Original artist:
Unknown photographer
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tors: ? Original artist: ?
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righted free use Contributors: http://humanrightslogo.net/ Original artist: Predrag Staki, released by http://humanrightslogo.net/
File:PAUL_ROBESON_HOUSE,_PRINCETON,_MERCER_COUNTY.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/c/cd/PAUL_ROBESON_HOUSE%2C_PRINCETON%2C_MERCER_COUNTY.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Jerrye & Roy Klotz, MD
File:PRobeson.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ac/PRobeson.jpg License: PD-US Contributors:
College Football Hall of Fame Original artist:
Unknown
File:Paul_Robeson_-_Negro_Songs_-_Soviet_Ministry_of_Culture.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/7/73/Paul_Robeson_-_Negro_Songs_-_Soviet_Ministry_of_Culture.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Self-
photographed Original artist: Jarekt
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cense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Robesonhouse.Philadelphia.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Robesonhouse.Philadelphia.
JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ekem
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utors: ? Original artist: ?
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11.3 Content license

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