Arab J Geosci (2015) 8:71097123
DOI 10.1007/s12517-014-1646-x
ORIGINAL PAPER
Considering environmental costs of copper production in cut-off
grades optimization
Esmaeil Rahimi & Kazem Oraee &
Zia Aldin Shafahi Tonkaboni & Hasan Ghasemzadeh
Received: 24 March 2014 / Accepted: 22 September 2014 / Published online: 26 October 2014
# Saudi Society for Geosciences 2014
Abstract The average grades of copper mines are dropped by
extracting high-grade copper ores. This matter has drawn
considerations to processing methods which not only extracts
low-grade copper ores but also decreases adverse environ-
mental impacts. Hydrometallurgical methods are the most
applicable ones which affect the optimum policy of cut-off
grades determination. In this research, an optimum cut-off
grades modeling is developed with the objective function of
net present value (NPV) maximization. The costs of process-
ing methods and associated environmental costs are also
involved in the model. Next, limiting and balancing cut-off
grades of processing methods are calculated through Lagrange
multiplier optimization method. Finally, an iteration algorithm
is exercised to compute the maximum amount of NPV as well
as concentration and leaching optimum cut-off grades. The
results show that the concentration and leaching optimum cut-
off grades policy makes an improvement on overall NPV by
35 % in comparison with the traditional approaches of cut-off
grades determination. The adverse environmental impacts of
low-grade ores dumping are also reduced by using hydromet-
allurgical methods.
E. Rahimi (*)
Department of Mining Engineering, Science and Research Branch,
Islamic Azad University, Tehran 1514643711, Iran
e-mail: se_rahimi@azad.ac.ir
K. Oraee
Stirling University, Stirling, Scotland, UK
e-mail: s.k.oraee-mirzamani@stir.ac.uk
Z. Aldin Shafahi Tonkaboni
Mining Engineering Department, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
e-mail: zshafaie@ut.ac.ir
H. Ghasemzadeh
K.N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
e-mail: ghasemzadeh@kntu.ac.ir
Keywords Hydrometallurgical methods . Environmental
impacts . Leaching . Concentration . Cut-off grades .
NPV maximization
Introduction
Hydrometallurgical methods have greatly come into practice
for specific advantages. The most important advantages of
hydrometallurgical methods are their low operating and in-
vestment costs that make it possible to economically extract
low-grade and small copper deposits (Dreisinger 2006;
Watling 2006). Accordingly, small mine owners are tempted
to apply these methods (Bartlett 1992). The simple possibility
of capacity expansion is regarded as another significant tech-
nical advantage of hydrometallurgical methods (Rawlings
et al. 2003). The process mechanism of hydrometallurgical
method includes a solvent which is able to extract metal from
ores (Yannopoulos and Agarwal 1997). Unlike copper
pyrometalurgical methods requiring mineral smelting at high
temperatures, the process of hydrometallurgical methods is
usually completed at ambient temperatures (Gupta 2006). In
the copper smelting process, typical air pollutants are mainly
emitted from the mineral combustion process and spewing out
of smelter stacks (Nemerow and Agardy 2005). Since copper
concentrate often contains sulfur compounds, their combus-
tion generates sulfur dioxide and other released hazardous
gases (Chatwin and Kikumoto 1981; Khalifa and Arnous
2012; Al-Hobaib et al. 2012; Mokadem et al. 2014), causing
various environmental costs and adverse impacts on the health
of humans.
The heap leaching method is one of the most applicable
hydrometallurgical methods highly practiced in industrial
scale. The production costs of this method are roughly less
than other hydrometallurgical methods (Davenport et al.
2002). Moreover, it facilitates the economical extraction of
7110
low-grade sulfide from copper deposits (Brierley and Brierley
2001; Renman et al. 2006). This method is considered one of
the mineral processing methods which are considered friendly
in the aspect of environmental issues (Simpson et al. 1998;
Bell and Donnelly 2006; Wu et al. 2008). There is not a
variety of waste produced by the heap leaching method.
Most of the wastes produced by this method are unwanted
solid products and liquid wastes (Jackson 1986) after the acid
irrigation period on the heap and liquid industrial wastes
made by solvent extraction (SX) and electrowinning
(EW) processes (Rydberg et al. 2004).
As heap leaching method brings about both economical
and environmental benefits, this method is practiced in copper
mines along with the concentration method. In this condition,
more mined material destinations can be assigned (Hustrulid
and Kuchta 1996). A new criterion is required to determine the
different material destinations. Ore tonnage sent to heap,
concentration, stockpile, and waste rock dumps (WRD) are
calculated by using this criterion. This new criterion defines
cut-off grades of mineral processing methods. It is obvious
that the mentioned cut-off grades should consider the associ-
ated environmental costs of different processing methods.
This problem makes the waste management system more
complicated because processing methods need to consider
various environmental strategies. In contrast, there will be less
WRD when extracting low-grade copper deposits using the
heap leaching method. Since low-grade ore deposits are also
economically extracted using the heap leaching method
(Habashi 1999), sub-cut-off grades and sub-grades stockpile
are determined with fewer difficulties which rely on the cut-
off grades policy (Yi 1988, 1999; Dagdelen and Mohammed
1997). Hence, it will be possible to manage mine waste by cut-
off grades determination. The importance of mine waste man-
agement becomes more prominent when more mineral pro-
cessing methods are mainly applied in a mine. Finally, it is
essential to calculate the concentration and leaching cut-off
grades not only from economical aspects but also from the
environmental protection point of view. Thus, Lane (1964,
1988) first tried to determine optimum cut-off grades consid-
ering mined material destinations. He presented an optimiza-
tion algorithm of cut-off grades with maximum profit or NPV
as objective functions. Although this algorithm was able to
calculate optimum cut-off grades, the influence of processing
methods and associated environmental considerations was not
considered. After Lane, some studies have been conducted to
specify cut-off grades and material destinations to optimize
NPV (Dagdelen 1993; Ataei and Osanloo 2003a; Minnitt
2003; Bascetin and Nieto 2007; Rendu 2008; He et al. 2009;
Asad and Topal 2011; Li and Yang 2012; Sayadi et al. 2014)
or other output rates (Rendu 2009; Khodayari and Jafarnejad
2012). These studies mainly focused on determining the opti-
mum cut-off grades of multiple metal deposits (Osanloo and
Ataei 2003; Ataei and Osanloo 2003b; Dagdelen and
Arab J Geosci (2015) 8:71097123
Kawahata 2007), cut-off grades in underground mines
(Wang et al. 2008), and cut-off grades determination consid-
ering cost escalation (Asad 2007) and adding an optimization
factor to cut-off grades determination algorithm (Bascetin and
Nieto 2007). In a new study, the effects of various processing
methods on optimum cut-off grades are contemplated (Asad
and Dimitrakopoulos 2013), but the environmental impacts of
these processing methods on optimum cut-off grades are not
considered.
Some researchers have endeavored to consider environ-
mental issues in mine planning and cut-off grades determina-
tion (Osanloo et al. 2008; Gholamnejad 2008; Rashidinejad
et al. 2008a). Reclamation and closure costs have been taken
into account in mine design and mines discounted value
(King 1998). The characteristics of mine waste, processing
tailing, and their acid-generating potential are examined by
Rodriguez, and their effects on mine environmental pollution
is also investigated (Ramirez-Rodriguez and Rozgonyi 2004).
In concern with Rodriguezs research, he believes that mine
planning and design will be led to the maximum NPV if the
effects of waste materials and associated environmental costs
are regarded. Rashidinejad et al. (2008b) also examined the
environmental impacts of mine waste dumping. The mine
waste and tailing have been classified into different categories
including acid generating and non-acid generating. After that,
an algorithm for determining optimum cut-off grades of con-
centration method has been introduced which are incorporated
with environmental costs. Although environmental costs are
incorporated with cut-off grades determination of concentra-
tion method, the environmental effects of different mineral
processing methods (leaching, bioleaching, and concentra-
tion) on optimum cut-off grades policy are not considered.
Since the pyrometalurgical methods are not highly success-
ful to treat copper oxide and low-grade sulfides, hydrometal-
lurgical methods are also applied in most copper mines along
with concentration method. Therefore, mined material desti-
nation is critically investigated by mine specialists.
Copper is found as oxide, sulfide, and native one in nature.
Different processing methods are applied to extract copper
from these ores. Leaching method is applied to treat copper
oxide ores. Furthermore, bioleaching and concentration
methods are practiced to treat primary and secondary copper
sulfide ores. An optimum algorithm is necessary in order to
determine optimum cut-off grades in both ore types. This
algorithm calculates the ore tonnage sent to the leaching in a
way resulting in maximum benefit. It is obvious that grades
lower than oxide ore cut-off grades need sending to waste rock
dumps. It is more essential to figure out cut-off grades in
copper sulfide ores. This algorithm specifies the cut-off grades
of flotation, bioleaching methods. Holistically, the ore tonnage
sent to any plant is determined in a way to maximize the
annual cash flows. In fact, the advantage of the presented
algorithm is that the economical ranges of the ores sent to
Arab J Geosci (2015) 8:71097123
different plants are determined. Initially, treatment methods
are determined based on copper ore type in the presented
algorithm. Next, economical cut-off grades of oxide and sul-
fide ores are separately calculated to maximize the NPV. This
problem becomes more serious by considering environmental
pollutants of processing methods. As material destinations are
more complicated, there will be a close connection between
waste management system and optimum cut-off grades policy.
In this research, primarily, the environmental pollutants of
heap leaching and concentration methods are detected. In
addition, the highly effective parameters in the optimum cut-
off grades determination of these processing methods are also
identified. Afterwards, concentration and leaching optimum
cut-off grades are calculated with NPV maximization as the
objective function. Therefore, the Lagrange multiplier optimi-
zation method is applied in concern with production capacity
limitations. Finally, since the calculation is time consuming, a
computer program and iterative algorithm are developed to
solve the Lagrangian equation sets, extracting optimum cut-
off grades and the maximum amount of NPV.
Material destination
Different processing methods are applied with the aim of
making better profit in copper mines. The success of these
processing methods completely depends on ore mineralogy
and technical aspects. Mineral processing methods are also
much sensitive to ore grades as each of these methods is
efficient in specific grade ranges (Maleki Tehrani et al.
2013). The criterion, normally applied to discriminate among
ores, lean ores, and waste relies on technology and economical
parameters of mineral processing methods. Consequently, the
cut-off grades of different mineral processing methods are
defined. Material destinations are also determined by calcu-
lating these grades. Material destinations of a copper mine are
illustrated by the following flowchart (Fig. 1). As observed,
the first step of choosing a copper processing method
completely depends on ore mineralogy.
Three scenarios are explained in this flowchart. The first
scenario describes a mine containing only oxidation zones.
The results of test indicate that heap leaching method is
successful in processing copper oxide minerals. Hence, the
leaching cut-off grades can be calculated as scenario 1. The
second scenario explains the deposit which contains only
supergene and hypogene zones. Consequently, mineral desti-
nations become more intricate in this scenario. The third
scenario refers to a mine containing both oxide and sulfide
copper ores in transition zones. According to the fact that
oxide and sulfide deposits do not technically depend on each
other and their processing methods are different, the optimum
cut-off grades of these deposits can be individually
calculated.
7111
As observed in the flowchart, environmental costs play
key roles in cut-off grades determination. The environmental
consideration of heap leaching and concentration methods
and associated processes to yield final product are consid-
ered to decrease adverse environmental impacts.
Environmental costs and parameters of mining and associ-
ated processes are defined as follows: (1) Mining waste
disposal costs (t1), (2) leached waste disposal costs (t2), (3)
SX and EW tailing disposal costs (t3), (4) concentration
tailing disposal costs (t4), (5) smelting and refinery tailing
disposal costs (t5), (6) environmental protection costs of
hydrometallurgical process (t6), (7) environmental protection
costs of pyrometalurgical processes (t7), (8) the amount of
leached material remained on heap (a1%), (9) the amount of
SX and EW tailings (a2%), (10) the amount of concentration
tailings (a3%), and (11) the amount of smelting and
electrorefining tailings (a4%). The environmental problems
of heap leaching methods are also indicated in Table 1. It
can be noted that the three phases of pollution are presented
which are produced by heap, SX and EW processes, and the
pollution caused by leaching process.
The other main pollution in copper industries is produced
by pyrometalurgical process. As mentioned, this pollution is
totally categorized in three phases. The pollution related to
concentration plants, smelting plants, and the pollution caused
by the pyrometalurgical process. The samples of these pollut-
ants are indicated in Table 2. Illustrated figures in Tables 1 and
2 are as a general view of heap leaching, SX and EW, con-
centration, smelter plants at Sarcheshmeh, Miduk, and
Khatoonabad.
Besides environmental parameters, leaching process costs
are effective in calculating concentration and leaching opti-
mum cut-off grades. As these costs are changed in different
mines, their material destinations can be changed, too. Solvent
cost hS is one of the most important costs of the leaching
process to be accounted for, which can easily turn this process
into a non-economic plan. Solvent consumption completely
relies on ore content and mineralogical composition.
Therefore, specific tests are performed to determine solvent
consumption before establishing the plant. Bottle roll is one of
the most common tests done in laboratory scale. Other effec-
tive costs of leaching process include:
The costs of cultivation, bacteria's growth and develop-
ment, nutrition and the consumed chemical materials in chem-
ical leaching applied in copper sulfide ores and indicated as
hbc, costs of material hauling by different methods (hT), labor
costs (hL), and utility and energy costs (hU, F). The SX and EW
costs are shown by xsx and xew, respectively. In addition,
leaching costs (h), mining costs (e), and concentration costs
(c) are important parameters in the optimum cut-off grades
determination. Finally, optimum cut-off grades are determined
to be able to get maximum NPV and reduce mine environ-
mental costs.
7112 Arab J Geosci (2015) 8:71097123

Exploration information in order to determine economic deposit and to establish the size,
composition, shape and grade-tonnage distribution and then construction of the block model

Mine Environmental Hydrometallurgical environmental

Considerations considerations

Scenario 1

The mined materials

Yes Inter data: the associated costs,
No contain only
Price, Capacities, quantities and
oxidations zones as
process recoveries
based on CuO/Cut

The mined materials Implementation of

only supergene and new algorithm
hypogene zones Scenario 3
No
Determination of optimum cut-off
Scenario 2 Transition zones grades by proposed approach
Sulfide part Oxide part
between oxidation
and supergene zones
Hydrometallurgical Yes as based on CuO/Cut
and
Pyrometallurgical CuO/Cut ores
Pyrometallurgical Mined material
environmental environmental
considerations grades< leaching
considerations cut-off grades
No Yes
Ores treats only by
Scenario 2-1 pyrometallurgical
methods Scenario 2-2 Destination:
Stockpiling Heap
Yes
No policy leaching
Inter data: the associated
costs, Price, Capacities, Destination: Destination:
Inter data: the associated quantities and process WRD Stockpile
costs, Price, Capacities, recoveries
quantities and process
recoveries
Implementation of
new algorithm
Implementation
of new algorithm Determination of Mined material
optimum cut-off grades< Yes Stockpiling
grades by Concentration cut- policy
Determination of optimum proposed approach off grades
cut-off grades by proposed
approach Destination:
Stockpile
No
Destination:
WRD
Destination:
Concentration
Concentration cut- Mined material
off grades < Mined No grades < CL or BL Yes Stockpiling Destination:
Material grades cut-off grades policy Stockpile

Yes No

Destination: concentration process Destination: CL or BL processes Destination: WRD

Fig. 1 Flowchart to assign the material-mined destinations considering the environmental parameters (CL chemical leaching, BL bacteria leaching,
WRD waste rock dump)

Objective function to maximize NPV, it is necessary to calculate discounted

annual cash flows.
According to the flowchart (Fig. 1), the modeling of The net present value can be achieved in continues series of
optimum cut-off grades determination is developed. cash flows as below:
Different mineral processing methods and associated en- Z T life
vironmental costs are considered in the presented model. NPV Cash Flow et dt 1
In case the objective function of the mentioned model is to
Arab J Geosci (2015) 8:71097123 7113

Table 1 The environmental problems of heap leaching methods and associated costs

It is also expressed in the discounted series of cash flows by The cash flow function can be determined through calcu-
relation 2. lating the amount of materials sent to processing plants, waste
dumps, or stockpiles. The annual tonnage of materials sent to
X
T life
concentration (Ci) and heap leaching (Hi) plants are defined
NPV Cash Flowt  1 t 2 as:
tt o
Z G !
g c
g up gc g c
X G

In relations 1 and 2, to is the beginning time of project Ci g qi gdg g c g c

 q i qi
gc gup g down gc 1
operation phase, Tlife is the project life, and is the discount
rate. 3

0 1 !
Z gc g h gc 1
X g c
@ g up g h
A g h gc gdown g c
Hi g qi g dg g
h g
h  q i qi g c g c
 qi 4
gh g up g down gh 1 g up gdown
7114 Arab J Geosci (2015) 8:71097123

Table 2 The environmental problems of pyrometallurgical methods and associated costs

In these relations, i is the year indicator, is the grade and gdown are respectively the upper and lower limit of the
category indicator, g is the grade, q is the material tonnage, grade category in the grade distribution table.
and G is the maximum ore grade. gh introduces leaching cut- Finally, the total mined material can be defined by the
off grades, and gc is the concentration cut-off grade. Also, gup following formulas:

! 0 1
Z gc Z Z gh g c X G X g h
G
gup  gc g c g  g h
A  qi g
h
q gc 1
@ gh
up
Ei g qi gdg qi gdg qi gdg g c g c
 qi gc 1 i
q g h
1 i
gh gc 0 gup  gdown gh gup  gdown
5
! 0 1
g h
g c
g g down X G
@ guph g h A g h
c h
g c
g
c g c
 qi i w; s gh 1
qi g g
 qi i w; s
gup gdown gup gdown

gh
Normally, the average grades of mined materials sent
Where, qi g dg is the annual mined material sent to
0 to concentration aC and heap leaching plants aH are
waste dumps or stockpiles which can also be written as i(w,s) required to estimate the marketable products. The
Arab J Geosci (2015) 8:71097123 7115

average grades are indicated in continues series form by The total marketable product is achieved by applying
relation 6: both leaching and concentration methods from the rela-
Z G Z gc
tion below:
g  qi g dg g  qi g dg
gc gh
C g Z and H g Z 6
G gc Si g C S C g Ci g and 8
qi g dg qi g dg
gc gh
Xi g H X H gHi g
And in discounted series form are obtained by:
20   1 3
g c 2
1 6B g up gc 2 C X G   s is the pyrometalurgical refined materials (tons), X
g c 7
C g 4@ gc gc A  q i gc 1
g up g down q i 5 and is hydrometallurgical refined materials (tons), C is con-
2 g up gdown
20 1 3
centration recovery, and S is the smelter and
2
g h
@ g g h2
A g h X  
7 electrorefining processes recovery. H indicates heap
6 1
g up gdown qi 7

up
6 gh gh  qi c
7
g

6 gup gdown gh 1
7
7
leaching recovery, and X is the SX and EW processes
16 ! 7
H g 6 g c 2
7 recovery.
26
2
6 g c
g g c
7
6 g c
down
g c
q i 7
4 g up gdown 5 Finally, the NPV in discounted series of cash flows is
calculated as below:

2 3
Pi  si C S C gCi g Pi  xsxi  xewi H X H g Hi g  ci Ci g
6 7
6 7
X T life 6 hi Hi g ei Ei g t 1 i w; st 2 a1 Hi g Xi g 7
6 7
NPV max : 6  7: 9
6
tt o 6 t 3 a2 Hi g Xi g t 4 a3 Ci g Si g t 5 a4 Ci g Si g t 6 Xi g t 7 Si g f f 7
c h 7
4 
i i
5
NPVi 1 t

P indicates commodity price, and s is the smelting produc- NPV is also expressed in continues series of cash flows by
tion costs. f c indicates the fixed cost of concentration and relation 10:
smelting processes, and f h is the fixed cost of heap leaching,
SX, and EW processes.

2 3
Pi  si C S C gCi g Pi  xsxi xewi H X H gHi gci Ci g
6 7
Z 6 7
T life 6 h 7
6 i Hi gei Ei g t 1 i w; st 2 a1 Hi gXi gt 3 a2 Hi gXi g 7
NPV max : 6 7 10
it o 6 t 4 a3 Ci g Si g t 5 a4 Ci g Si g t 6 Xi g t 7 Si g f c f h 7
6 i i 7
4  5
i
N PV i e di

Optimum cut-off grades
In relations 9 and 10, the project life Tlife would be controlled by
the plant capacities or mining throughput. If two mineral pro-
cessing methods are applied to produce marketable products,
five controlling capacities are clearly defined as constraints.
Mining capacity (Cap) is governed by the restrictions on
hauling and loading equipments capacities, drilling, blasting
operations, etc. Concentration plant capacity (Cap c) is
restricted by the maximum rate of crushing, milling, flotation,
etc. Smelting, refining, and marketing capacities (Caps) are
covered by the dryer, anode furnace, converter furnace, flash
furnace, and electrorefining cell capacities. Heap loading ca-
pacity (CapH) depends on crushing and stacking capacities,
loading, haulage and unloading limitations, aeration and acid
irrigation rates, etc. SX and EW capacities (Capx) are partic-
ularly dependent upon settlers capacity, extracting materials,
mixer capacity, EW cells capacity, and cathode stripping
7116 Arab J Geosci (2015) 8:71097123

marketing limitation. As the annual production outputs are
limited by controlling capacities, the following relation can be
concluded.
Ei CapE ; Hi CapH ; Ci CapC ; Xi CapX ; Si CapS
11
Since the objective function is the constrained optimization
problem, the Lagrange multiplier method can be applied to
solve the cut-off grades optimization function. Hence, five
capacities are considered as limiting factors and the
Lagrangian function of net present value can be written as
follows:

Z Z Z Z Z
  G gc G gc G
L gh ; gc ; Pi  si C S gqi gdg Pi  xsxi  xewi H X g qi g dg ci qi gdg hi qi gdg ei qi g dg
gg c ggh gc gh 0

Z gh Z gc Z gc  Z gc Z gc 
t 1 qi gdgt 2 a1 qi gdg H X g qi gdg t 3 a2 qi g dg H X g qi gdg t 4 a3
0 gh gh gh gh
! ! 12
Z G Z G Z G Z G Z gc
qi g dg C S :g:qi gdg t 5 a4 qi gdg C S gqi gdg t 6 H X gqi gdgt 7
gc gc gc gc gh
Z Xm
G
 
C S gqi gdg f ci f hi NPVi T T g
k1 k k
gc

In relation 12, is the Lagrange multiplier, is the The Lagrangian equation set is solved. Since the plants and
Lagrangian indicator, k is the constraint number indica- mining capacities are individually considered as limiting factor,
tor, m is the number of constraints, and G is the concentration and heap leaching cut-off grades can be determined.
maximum ore grade. Project time (T) is also controlled Considering mine output rate as the limiting factor, the
by the mine and plant capacities. optimum cut-off grade is defined as follows:

8
>
> hsi hbci hT i hLi hU ; Fi t 1 a1 t 2 a2 t 3
< ghE
H X Pi xsxi xewi t 6 a1 t 2 a2 t 3
mining limitation : h h 13
>
> c i si bci hT i hLi hU ; Fi a1 t 2 a2 t 3 a3 t 4 a4 t 5
: gE
c
Pi si t 7 a3 t 4 a4 t 5 C S H X Pi xsxi xewi t 6 a1 t 2 a2 t 3

If the loading capacity of the heap is to be considered as a

limiter, the optimum cut-off grade will be:

8    
>
> NPVi CapH hsi hbci hT i hLi hU ; Fi t 1 a1 t 2 a2 t 3 f ci f hi
>
< ghH
Heap   CapH H X Pi xsxi xewi t 6 a1 t 2 a2 t 3  
: 14
limitation >> ci hsi hbci hT i hLi hU ; Fi a1 t 2 a2 t 3 a3 t 4 a4 t 5 CapH f ci f hi NPVi
>
: gH
c
Pi si t 7 a3 t 4 a4 t 5 C S H X Pi xsxi xewi t 6 a1 t 2 a2 t 3 CapH

If SX and EW plants or marketing throughput are the

governing constraints, the optimum cut-off grade is given by:

8  
>
> CapX hsi hbci hT i hLi hU ; Fi t 1 a1 t 2 a2 t 3
SX >
< g hX   c  
 H X Pi xsxi xewi t 6 a1 t 2 a2 t3 CapX f i f i NPV
h
EW :  i 15
marketing > ci hsi hbci hTi hLi hU ; Fi a1 t 2 a2 t 3 a3 t 4 a4 t5 CapX
> gc
limitation > : X    
H X t6 a1 t 2 a2 t 3 xsxi xewi Pi CapX f ci f hi NPVi C S CapX Pi si t 7 a3 t 4 a4 t 5
Arab J Geosci (2015) 8:71097123 7117

And, if the concentrator is to be specified as the limiter, the

optimum cut-off grade is:
8
> hsi hbci hTi hLi hU ; Fi t 1 a1 t 2 a2 t 3
>
< g hC
Concentration   H X Pi xsxi xewi t 6 a1 t 2 a2t 3   16
:
limitation >
> c i h si h bci h Ti h Li hU ; Fi a1 t 2 a2 t 3 a3 t 4 a4 t 5 CapC NPVi f ci f hi
: gC
c
Pi si t 7 a3 t 4 a4 t 5 C S H X Pi xsxi xewi t 6 a1 t 2 a2 t 3 CapC

Finally, the capacities of the smelter, refinery, or marketing

can be considered as a limiting factor. Then, the optimum cut-
off grade will be:
8
> hsi hbci hT i hLi hU ; Fi t 1 a1 t 2 a2 t 3
Smelting >
> g hS
>
< H X Pi xsxi xewi t 6 a1 t 2 a2 t 3
electrorefining
:   
marketing >
> ci hsi hbci hT i hLi hU ; Fi a1 t 2 a2 t 3 a3 t 4 a4 t 5 CapS
>
>
:gS    
c
limitation
Pi si t 7 a3 t 4 a4 t 5 CapS f ci f hi NPVi C S H X Pi xsxi xewi t 6 a1 t 2 a2 t 3 CapS
17

It sometimes happens that two operations from five be become invaluable. Similarly, triple cut-off grades can be
simultaneously in balance, both operating at capacity. In this determined based upon the grade distribution of material and
case, the cash flow functions containing both limiting capac- economical parameters.
ities can be considered equal. If all defined constraints be
considered, the following relation can be defined:
 Results and discussion
Ci CapC Hi CapH Si CapS
; ; ; 18
Ei CapE Ei CapE Xi CapX Consider a hypothetical mine to evaluate the presented algo-
rithm of concentration and heap leaching optimum cut-off
grades determination. This example also applies to compare
As seen, two combinations of applicable constraints from the effects of mineral processing methods and associated
five can give ten combinations as controlling factors. Thus, environmental impacts on optimum cut-off grades. The hypo-
ten limiting factors will result in ten cut-off grades. They can thetical mine contain the primary and secondary copper sul-
be named dual-balancing cut-off grades, which are affected by fide ores.1 The grade-tonnage distribution of deposit is shown
grade distribution and economical parameters. in Table 3. It is considered that 49.5 million tons of materials
In a similar condition, three limiting components can be in are mined in three pushbacks.
balance. In fact, the following relation can be formed. In this case study, two sub-scenarios are considered to treat
primary and secondary copper sulfide ores. These sub-

Ci Hi Ei Si Ci scenarios are also described in Fig. 1. In the sub-scenario 2
; 1, it is assumed that copper ores can be simultaneously treated
CapC CapH CapE CapS CapC
Ei Si Hi Xi by concentration and heap leaching methods. In the sub-
; ; 19 scenario 22, only the concentration method is applied.
CapE CapS CapH CapX

Clearly, ten combinations are achieved by three combina-
tions of operating constraints from five. Hence, ten other
balancing cut-off grades will be calculated, which are named
triple-balancing cut-off grades. To evaluate the constrained
problems and optimization processes, the computer has
1
Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and bornite (Cu5FeS4) are recognized as the
primary sulfide minerals which can be generally processed by pyromet-
allurgical methods. Chalcocite (Cu2S) and covellite (CuS) are considered
secondary sulfide minerals, which are easily leached with sulfuric acid if
an oxidant is present. Secondary copper sulfide minerals can also be
processed by pyrometallurgical methods (Davenport et al. 2002;
Dreisinger 2006).
7118 Arab J Geosci (2015) 8:71097123

Table 3 The grade distribution of

the hypothetical mine Grade (%) Push back 1 (ton) Push back 2 (ton) Push back 3 (ton)

Sulfide Oxide Sulfide Oxide Sulfide Oxide

00.1 1,705,956 148,344 2,589,206 136,274 4,083,719 126,301

0.10.2 4,552,827 395,898 6,094,288 320,752 6,505,048 201,187
0.20.3 3,540,804 307,896 4,711,814 247,990 5,171,551 159,945
0.30.4 3,818,497 332,043 1,904,788 100,252 203,428 6292
0.40.5 1,115,638 97,012 478,401 25,179 82,615 2,555
0.50.6 101,752 8848 194,631 10,244 15,564 481
0.60.7 15,088 1312 5548 292 17,546 543
G>0.7 2026 176 560 29 233 7
Sum 16,144,117 16,820,248 16,577,015

The assumed technical parameters and costs of mineral

Table 4 Economical
processing methods of the sub-scenario 21 are illustrated in parameters, operational Component Value Unit
Table 4. As the associated environmental costs are the main capacities, and plant re-
factors in cash flow modeling, they are also added in Table 4. coveries of hypothetical CapX 2 TT year
mine CapC 2100 TT year
The limiting and balancing cut-off grades of the hypothet-
ical mine can be calculated by relations from 13 to 17. Annual Cap 415 TT year
cash flow surfaces can be recognized as the function of Cap 4800 TT year
concentration and leaching cut-off grades. The illustration of CapS 10 TT year
cash flow surfaces is also so helpful to elucidate the cut-off xsx 128 $ Tp
grades concept. Thus, considering the mine and plant capac- xew 72 $ Tp
ities as the limiting factor, three cash flow surfaces are P 7.02 T$ Tp
depicted in Fig. 2. The two surfaces are also removed to 6 %
simplify the figure. The configuration of surfaces is de- e 2.2 $ Tm
pendent upon the capacities and economical parameters. s 1.2 T$ Tp
Furthermore, the limiting, dual- and triple-balancing cut- c 4.2 $ To
off grades are demonstrated. The initial assumption of fh 700 T$year
optimum cut-off grades used in optimization algorithm is fc 5350 T$year
also denoted in Fig. 2. H 61 %
The maximum points of the cash flow surfaces show the X 95 %
limiting cut-off grade (LG), which is illustrated in Fig. 2. In S 90 %
addition, from a geometrical point of view, dual-balancing C 80 %
cut-off grades (DBG) happen in the maximum points of two hbc 0.2 $ To
cash flow surfaces intersecting curves. Moreover, three cash hS 0.8 $ To
flow surfaces intersecting points indicate triple balancing cut- hT 0.4 $ To
off grades (TBG). In this figure, the initial optimum cut-off hL 0.4 $ To
grade is denoted in maximum of the surface, passing through hU, F 0.3 $ To
the minimum of all cash flow surfaces. Obviously, this opti- t1 0.2 $ Tw
mum amount is always located on points indicated as limiting t2 0.4 $ Tt
or balancing cut-off grades. After finding the initial optimum t3 0.7 $ Tt
cut-off grade, it can be applied in the optimization algorithm t4 0.9 $ Tt
as the first assumption. t5 1 $ Tt
The assumed optimum cut-off grade comes into iterative t6 0.4 $ Tp
algorithm, and final optimum cut-off grades are calculated. An t7 0.8 $ Tp
iterative process must be employed since an unknown NPV T$ thousand dollars, TT a1 97 %
appeared in the NPV maximization problem. The unknown thousand tons, Tp tons of
product, To tons of ore, a2 3 %
NPV depends upon opportunity cost, and the opportunity cost Tm tons of material, Tw a3 95 %
is inevitable when there are constraints in the cash flow model. tons of waste, Tt tons of a4 5 %
This cost occurs when the materials were not previously tailings
Arab J Geosci (2015) 8:71097123 7119

Fig. 2 Schematic view of cash

flow surfaces, limiting, balancing,
and optimum cut-off grades (LG
limiting cut-off grades, DBG
dual-balancing cut-off grades, x 108
TBG triple-balancing cut-off 1
grades)
0.5

Cash Flow ($)

0

-0.5
Optimum
-1 cut-off grade

-1.5 0.8
0.8 0.6
0.6 0.4
0.4 0.2 0.2
0 0

scheduled to be mined or processed. This cost is also demon-
strated by NPVi T as is shown in relations 9, 10, and 12.
Obviously, the opportunity cost reduces when the deposit is
exhausted during mine life. Since the cut-off grades optimi-
zation problem is more complicated, the MatLab language
programming is applied. Presented algorithm and computer
programming are able to determine limiting, dual- and triple-
balancing cut-off grades, and develops an optimum cut-off
grades policy in several iterations. The copper price in this
case study is considered at $7020/ton of copper. The leaching
and floatation process recovery of this sulfide deposit are 61
and 80 %, respectively. The final results of iteration algorithm
and cut-off grades optimization process are outlined in
Table 5. As shown in Table 5, the concentration and heap
leaching cut-off grades, annual cash flows, and maximum
NPV are presented.
On the other hand, the environmental costs of mineral
processing methods are evaluated. Furthermore, the total en-
vironmental cost of mine is presented in Table 6. The envi-
ronmental costs are also expressed as based on the amount of
final copper production.
As illustrated in Table 6, the leaching environmental cost of
mine is much less than the concentration environmental cost
during mine life. However, different limiting factor choice is

Table 5 The results of execution optimization model in the sub-scenario 21

Year Pushback Total material (TT) Ei (Tp) Si (Tp) Xi (Tp) gc (%) gh (%) Life (year) Cash flows ($) Overall NPV ($)

1 1 49,541,380 4,048,234 4775 459 0.21 0.18 12.2 3,897,828 19,873,803

2 1 45,493,146 4,034,201 4769 458 0.21 0.18 11.3 3,888,421 18,728,302
3 1 41,458,945 4,019,380 4763 457 0.21 0.17 10.3 3,878,086 17,519,383
4 1 37,439,565 4,003,824 4756 455 0.21 0.17 9.4 3,866,764 16,243,608
5 1 33,435,742 38,479 46 4 0.20 0.17 0.1 37,204 14,901,626
5 2 33,397,263 3,949,173 4704 449 0.20 0.17 8.3 3,818,331 14,901,626
6 2 29,448,090 3,970,421 4742 451 0.20 0.17 7.4 3,841,970 13,481,581
7 2 25,477,668 3,952,462 4735 450 0.20 0.17 6.4 3,828,143 11,986,869
8 2 21,525,206 3,933,665 4727 448 0.20 0.17 5.5 3,813,067 10,410,269
9 2 17,591,540 1,014,525 1223 115 0.20 0.17 1.2 947,988 8,749,600
9 3 16,577,015 2,899,526 3495 330 0.20 0.17 3.3 2,709,361 8,749,600
10 3 13,677,489 3,893,379 4709 443 0.20 0.17 3.5 3,778,872 6,994,986
11 3 9,784,109 3,872,047 4700 441 0.20 0.17 2.5 3,761,361 5,149,708
12 3 5,912,062 3,849,663 4690 438 0.20 0.17 1.5 3,740,444 3,201,767
13 3 2,062,399 2,062,399 2525 235 0.20 0.17 0.5 2,004,265 620,637

TT thousand tons, Tp tons of product, Tm tons of material

7120 Arab J Geosci (2015) 8:71097123

Table 6 The first sub-scenario environmental cost of mine and mineral processing methods

Year Pushback i (w,s) (Tm) LECi ($) LECi ($ Tpi) CECi ($) CECi ($ Tpi) TECi ($) TECi ($ Tpi)

1 1 1,533,234 169,730.9 369.4 1,899,998.7 397.9 2,376,376.4 454.0

2 1 1,519,216 169,730.9 370.6 1,899,965.4 398.4 2,373,539.5 454.1
3 1 1,504,349 169,729.9 371.8 1,899,999.9 398.9 2,370,599.5 454.2
4 1 1,488,832 169,728.9 373.1 1,900,000.6 399.5 2,367,496.0 454.3
5 1 14,210 1637.8 374.5 18,333.8 400.0 22,813.7 454.4
5 2 1,458,451 168,093.1 374.5 1,881,654.5 400.0 2,341,437.8 454.4
6 2 1,455,466 169,730.9 376.0 1,899,950.6 400.6 2,360,774.8 454.5
7 2 1,437,491 169,731.0 377.6 1,899,911.5 401.3 2,357,140.6 454.7
8 2 1,418,719 169,731.0 379.3 1,899,953.9 402.0 2,353,428.7 454.8
9 2 362,637 43,994.4 381.0 492,479.6 402.7 609,001.3 455.0
9 3 1,036,420 125,736.6 381.0 1,407,512.6 402.7 1,740,533.2 455.0
10 3 1,378,447 169,731.0 383.0 1,899,947.5 403.4 2,345,367.8 455.2
11 3 1,357,061 169,723.6 385.0 1,900,006.5 404.2 2,341,142.4 455.4
12 3 1,334,670 169,731.1 387.2 1,899,981.9 405.1 2,336,647.1 455.6
13 3 704,720 91,626.2 390.1 1,025,642.9 406.2 1,258,213.0 455.9

LEC leaching environmental cost, CEC concentration environmental cost, TEC total environmental cost

the main reason for not being able to distinguish observable
trends in environmental costs of mineral processing methods
in mine life.
The second sub-scenario is to determine the optimum cut-
off grades when the copper deposit is only treated by concen-
tration method. Clearly, the heap leaching parameters should
be set equal to zero in Table 4. On the contrary, the second
parts of relations 13, 16, and 17 are only applicable. In
this situation, the model leads to three limiting and
balancing cut-off grades. The results of algorithm exe-
cution are presented in Table 7.
As observed in Table 7, the concentration and leaching cut-
off grades begin at 0.2 and 0.17 and drop to 0.19 and 0.16 at
the end of mine life. However, when the ore is only processed
by concentration method, the concentration cut-off grade be-
gins at 0.18 and is dropped to 0.17. In the first sub-scenario,
the net present value is calculated as $19,873,803 in 10 years
of mine life, which can be obtained by using leaching and

Table 7 The results of execution optimum model in the sub-scenario 22

Year Push back Total material (TT) Ei (Tm) Si (Tp) gc (%) Life (year) Cash flows ($) Overall NPV ($)

1 1 49,541,380 3,593,032 4572 0.19 13.79 2,333,418 12,885,276

2 1 45,948,348 3,584,476 4567 0.19 12.82 2,329,642 12,258,157
3 1 42,363,872 3,575,444 4563 0.19 11.85 2,325,561 11,595,851
4 1 38,788,428 3,565,918 4558 0.19 10.88 2,321,151 10,896,417
5 1 35,222,510 1,825,247 2337 0.18 5.08 1,189,010 10,157,804
5 2 33,397,263 1,730,627 2216 0.18 4.82 1,127,372 10,157,804
6 2 31,666,636 3,545,293 4548 0.18 8.93 2,311,226 9,377,853
7 2 28,121,343 3,534,153 4543 0.18 7.96 2,305,647 8,554,286
8 2 24,587,190 3,522,432 4537 0.18 6.98 2,299,611 7,684,706
9 2 21,064,758 3,510,109 4530 0.18 6.00 2,293,079 6,766,590
10 2 17,554,649 977,634 1265 0.18 1.40 639,055 5,797,283
10 3 16,577,015 2,519,530 3259 0.18 3.62 1,646,955 5,797,283
11 3 14,057,485 3,483,577 4517 0.18 4.04 2,278,360 4,773,999
12 3 10,573,908 3,469,327 4510 0.18 3.05 2,270,078 3,693,810
13 3 7,104,581 3,454,395 4502 0.18 2.06 2,261,114 2,553,657
14 3 3,650,186 3,438,764 4494 0.18 1.06 2,251,412 1,350,339
15 3 211,422 211,422 277 0.18 0.06 138,434 4976
Arab J Geosci (2015) 8:71097123 7121

Table 8 The second sub-scenario

environmental cost of mine and Year Pushback i (w, s) (Tm) CECi ($) CECi ($ Tpi) TECi ($) TECi ($ Tpi)
mineral processing methods
1 1 1,493,032 1,900,020 415.61 2,198,626 480.93
2 1 1,484,476 1,900,020 415.99 2,196,916 481.00
3 1 1,475,444 1,900,021 416.40 2,195,110 481.07
4 1 1,465,918 1,900,021 416.83 2,193,205 481.14
5 1 747,307 975,290 417.28 1,124,752 481.23
5 2 708,567 924,732 417.28 1,066,445 481.23
6 2 1,445,293 1,900,022 417.76 2,189,081 481.32
7 2 1,434,153 1,900,023 418.27 2,186,854 481.42
8 2 1,422,432 1,900,024 418.81 2,184,510 481.52
9 2 1,410,109 1,900,024 419.39 2,182,046 481.64
10 2 390,578 531,153 420.00 609,268 481.76
10 3 1,006,586 1,368,872 420.00 1,570,189 481.76
11 3 1,383,577 1,900,026 420.64 2,176,741 481.90
12 3 1,369,327 1,900,026 421.32 2,173,892 482.05
13 3 1,354,395 1,900,027 422.04 2,170,906 482.21
14 3 1,338,764 1,900,028 422.80 2,167,781 482.38
15 3 81,656 117,409 423.66 133,740 482.59

concentration processing methods (Table 5). This amount is
slightly higher than mine NPV in the second sub-scenario,
which has only used the concentration method ($12,885,276).
The total copper produced by leaching and concentration
processing methods yield 64,993 t which should be compared
with that of 63,795 t obtained with the concentration method.
Environmental costs of the mine which has only been
applied to the concentration method are also calculated in
the second sub-scenario. The total environmental costs of this
sub-scenario per unit of final copper production are also
summarized in Table 8.
As seen in Tables 6 and 8, if both leaching and concentra-
tion methods could be used simultaneously in sub-scenario 2
1, the total environmental cost is $2,376,376 and drops to
$1,258,213 at the end of mine life. These values are greater
than the total environmental costs of concentration methods as
in sub-scenario 22. The overall NPV of the first sub-scenario
is higher than the second sub-scenario NPV in comparison.
Comparison of accumulated unit environmental costs of
processing methods per final copper production described in
Tables 6 and 8 can be distinguished in Fig. 3ac. These figures
also illustrate the unit environmental costs, which increase in
respect with mine life. These are also based on the data given
in Tables 5, 6, and 7.
Figure 3a shows the unit environmental cost variations
in concern with leaching and concentration processing
methods. This figure exhibits an upward trend in unit
environmental costs during mine life, but their increasing
rate is different. It is also illustrated that the unit concen-
tration environmental cost is more than the unit leaching

485
455 485

445 475
480
435
Leaching
465 Concentration
EC per TP ($)

475
EC per TP ($)
EC per TP ($)

425
Concentration Concentration & Leaching
455 Total
415
Total 470 Concentration
405 445 465
395 435 460
385
425 455
375
365 415 450
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Year Year Year
a Environmental costs curve of the first b Environmental costs curve of the c Comparison between the first and
scenario second scenario second scenarios
Fig. 3 Diagrammatic representation of the both sub-scenarios environmental cost variations versus mine life (EC environmental costs, Tp tons of
product)
7122
environmental cost. This figure is based on the informa-
tion given in sub-scenario 21.
Figure 3b shows the rate of increasing in unit environmen-
tal costs of concentration method, which is greater than total
rate. This figure is also based on the information given in sub-
scenario 22.
The compassion is established between unit environmental
cost variation trends for both sub-scenarios and is displayed in
Fig. 3c. It is indicated that associated unit environmental costs
of both processing methods are much less than the environ-
mental costs of mine which only uses concentration method.
This finding can be identified as the other special advantage of
new presented model in addition to more NPV.
Conclusions
Over the years, many attempts have been made to offer an
optimum cut-off grades policy with less-considered process-
ing methods and associated environmental costs. Hence, in
this paper an applicable iterative procedure based upon NPV
maximization is investigated to determine the optimum con-
centration and leaching cut-off grades. This procedure is an
approach of determining the optimum concentration and
leaching cut-off grades, which is adversely affected by all
environmental pollutants in the sequences of copper
production.
The results indicate that the optimum concentration and
leaching cut-off grades decrease during mine life. In addition,
it is demonstrated that low-grade ores treatment by leaching
method can led to improvement on NPV, although waste
management system would be greatly complicated. On the
other hand, it is realized that processing of low-grade ores by
heap leaching methods does not only results in more profit but
also the adverse effects of waste dumping decreases.
The calculation proved that the environmental costs of
leaching process are less than those of the concentration
method. Furthermore, it is also observed that the environmen-
tal costs of mine per unit of final product which has only used
concentration method is significantly more than the mine used
by both leaching and concentration methods.
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