Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
SRI LANKA
by
Sujatha Premaratne and G.G.C. Premalal
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FAO 2006
3
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 5
8. REFERENCES 19
9. CONTACTS 21
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 5
1. INTRODUCTION
Table 1. Sri Lanka statistics for livestock numbers and production for 19982004
ensure maximum use of available water. In fact the other agricultural crops category which includes,
vegetables, subsidiary food crops, minor export crops, animal husbandry, sugar cane, tobacco, and fruits,
expanded by 3.2% in value added terms compared to 1.9% recorded in 2003, while the value added in
the fishery sector recorded an improvement of 1.6%.
The livestock sector, mainly the dairy and poultry industries, recorded a mixed performance in 2004:
it is estimated that total milk production has grown by 3% to 190.8 million litres and total milk collection
increased by 13% due to an improved collection network. Table 1 summarises livestock types, their
numbers and products for 1998 2004.
In Sri Lanka, nearly 12 000 km2 of the total land area is under grass (Pemadasa, 1990). Using
grassland for livestock through traditional means goes back several centuries. The cohesiveness of
traditional societies and social groups in livestock rearing led to holistic approaches that resulted in
appropriate, environmentally sound sustainable technologies. Nevertheless, as in many other countries,
Sri Lankan grasslands have deteriorated due to mismanagement under the existing socio-economic
position. However grasslands remain very important for livestock production and environment stability.
There is a continuing need to maintain a broad spectrum of production and conservation interests in order
to ensure the effective and suitable management of the grassland resource (Premaratne et al., 2003).
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 7
Soils
In general, Sri Lankan soils do not pose a major Table 2. Extent of the major soil groups in Sri Lanka
problem for forage and other crop production. Major Soil Group Area (ha)
The major soil groups and their extents are Reddish Brown Earths and Immature Brown
1. 2 683 705
Loams; rolling, hilly and steep terrain
given in Table 2. The physical properties of Non-calcic Brown soils, soils on old alluvium
2. 132 788
major soil groups viz; Reddish Brown Earths, and Solonetz; undulating terrain
Red Yellow Podzolic, Red and Yellow Latosols, 3.
Red-Yellow Latosols; flat to slightly undulating
263 380
terrain
Reddish Brown Latasolic are favourable for 4. Calcic Red-Yellow Latosols, flat terrain 35 152
wide-ranging agricultural purposes. The Solodized Solonetz and Solonchaks; flat
5. 149 963
fertility of wet zone soils is poor because these terrain
6. Grumusols; flat terrain 14 094
soils have been extensively leached due to high
Soils on recent marine calcareous sediments;
rainfall. The CEC values of most of the soils are 7.
flat terrain
26 675
Climate
Sri Lanka is in the north-equatorial tropical zone. The climate is tropical with high humidity and
temperature which vary with altitude. At a given altitude, temperature is constant throughout the year
and is not a limiting factor to crop production except at higher altitudes, where frosts occasionally occur.
Seasons are not determined by change of temperature, but by the rainfall distribution influenced by
convectional precipitation and two monsoons. The northeast monsoon in November February is locally
called Maha season and the south-west monsoon from May September Yala season.
Topography plays a major role in the pattern of rainfall distribution. While the northeast monsoon
rains are island wide, the mountains intercept the southwest monsoon. Thus the country can be divided
into three climatic zones:
a) The highlands and the southwest receiving both monsoons are the Wet zone. This is the most
intensively exploited zone with 67% of its area under permanent agriculture.
b) The Northern and Eastern lowlands receiving only the Northeast monsoons are the Dry zone.
This zone covers two thirds of the island. It is the most favoured area with regard to radiation
levels. But lack of rainfall during February September is a major constraint to crop production.
With irrigation, yield potential for field crops is high in the zone.
c) A narrow strip of land fringing the highlands to the North and East lies between the two zones and
is the Intermediate zone. It is dominated by coconuts along the Western Coastal region, where
dairy production has a long tradition.
Agro-ecological zones
Sri Lanka has a heterogeneous agro-ecological environment and many workers have made efforts to
classify this situation. A particular agro-ecological region represents fairly even agro-climate, soils
and terrain conditions and would support a particular farming system with a certain range of crops and
farming practices, including forage cultivation and livestock farming.
On rainfall distribution, Sri Lanka has traditionally been classified into three climatic zones viz; the Wet
Zone, Dry Zone and Intermediate Zone. The Wet Zone covers the south-western region including the central
Figure 4. Average annual rainfall (19611990) Figure 5. Agro-ecological zones of Sri Lanka
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 9
hill country and receives relatively high mean annual rainfall over 2 500 mm without pronounced dry
periods. The Dry Zone covers predominantly the northern and eastern part of the country, being separated
from the Wet Zone by the Intermediate Zone. The Dry zone receives a mean annual rainfall of less than
1750mm with a distinct dry season from May to September. The Intermediate zone receives a mean annual
rainfall between 1750 to 2500mm with a short and less prominent dry season.
In differentiating these three major climatic zones; land use, forestry, rainfall and soils are widely used
and as a result, they were divided into 24 agro-ecological regions. Environmental change, availability
of more spatial and temporal data and advancement of GIS technology has led to the sub-division of the
24 agro-ecological regions of Sri Lanka into 46 sub-regions. Figure 5 shows the main agro-ecological
(agro-climatic) zones.
The largest number of cattle is found in the dry zones, where herd sizes are also the largest. The
relative distribution of cross bred dairy cattle is highest in the mid- and up-country as well in the wet
lowlands near Colombo. In the first case, this can be attributed to the temperate climatic conducive to the
health and performance of improved animals. While in the second case, it may be attributed to the high
milk prices available through the informal market close to the urban area, under which circumstances
the risks to improved animals of lowland conditions are acceptable
Table 3. Cattle and buffalo systems: topography, climate and animal husbandry
Zone Elevation Rainfall Temp. range Animal types Husbandry practices
(m) (mm) 0
C
Up country >450 >2 000 1032 Pure exotic and crosses; some Zero grazing, small herds; some
zebu crosses tethering
Coconut triangle <450 1 5002 500 2138 Crosses of exotic breeds. Zebu Limited grazing, tethered under
types, Indigenous animals and coconut palms medium size
crosses, Buffaloes herds
Wet lowlands <450 1 8752 500 2435 As above Limited grazing, medium size
herds
Dry lowlands <450 1001 750 2138 Indigenous cattle, zebu cattle Free grazing, large nomadic
and their crosses, Buffaloes herds, Sedentary small herds in
irrigated schemes.
Source: Ibrahim et al., 1999
There is some potential for increased production if market systems and price incentives are improved.
The most direct means for increase could be upgrading of local animals, with focus on buffaloes and in
that case a focus on the use of stud bulls to overcome the practical constraints to AI.
broad leaved, hairy, stemmy, robust grass Table 4. Common forages and their yields under different
up to 3 metres high, known locally as management conditions
Forage type Yield (dry or fresh as mentioned below)
Guinea-A and a finer, narrower leaved, (species, varieties
leafy grass with smaller culms of 1-2 etc.)
Hybrid Napier (Var. Fresh yield: 58kg / Plant at 45d cutting interval
metres known as Guinea-B. CO-3 and Bana) and 1 x 1 m spacing under good management
Naturally, it now overruns road (Pennisetum Dry Matter Yield: 40 000 75 000kg/ha/yr at
purpureum x P.
and railway sides, natural forests, crop americanum)
45d cutting interval and 1 x 1 m spacing under
good management
plantations, natural grasslands and Napier grass Dry Matter Yield: 20 000 40 000kg/ha/yr at
scrubland at low and mid elevations. (Common Napier) 45d cutting interval and 0.75 x 1 m spacing
(Pennisetum under good management
There are several Guinea grass dominant purpureum)
grasslands occurring in the low country dry Napier grass Fresh yield: 3-5kg / Plant at 45d cutting interval
zone areas. Forest Department statistics (Clone -13) and 1 x 1 m spacing under good management
(Pennisetum Dry Matter Yield: 40 000 60 000kg/ha/yr at
show that the vegetation under natural purpureum) 45d cutting interval and 1 x 1 m spacing under
Guinea grass in Sri Lanka now covers good management.
approximately 35000ha. Guinea Grass Dry Matter Yield: 12 000 15 000kg/ha/yr at
(EcotypeA) 45d cutting interval and 0.60 x 0.75 m spacing
(Panicum maximum) under good management
Natural grassland resources of Sri Dry Matter Yield: 10 000 12 000kg/ha/yr at
45d cutting interval and 0.60 x 0.75 m spacing
Lanka under normal management
Sri Lankas grasslands have been catego- Dry Matter Yield: 8 000 10 000kg/ha/yr at
rized in many ways, based on their origin 45d cutting interval under roadside and natural
grassland conditions
and evolution, geographical distribution Guinea Grass (Var. Dry Matter Yield: 15 000 20 000kg/ha/yr at
and floristic composition. However, natural 435, Hamil, TD-58) 45d cutting interval and 0.5 x 1 m spacing under
(Panicum maximum) good management
grasslands in Sri Lanka can be recognized
Dry Matter Yield: 10 000 12 000kg/ha/yr at
as plant communities in which dominant 45d cutting interval and 0.5 x 1 m spacing under
species are perennial grasses with very normal management
Setaria (var. Dry Matter Yield: 12 000 15 000kg/ha/yr at
few or no shrubs and trees (Moore, 1964). Kazungula) 45d cutting interval and 0.5 x 0.75 m spacing
Stability of grasslands often depends on (Setaria sphacelata) under good management
the direct or indirect influences of man Brachiaria spp. Dry Matter Yield: 10 000 12 000kg/ha/yr at
Signal Grass - 35d cutting interval, and under full sunlight and
(Moore, 1964). Pemadasa (1983) has car- Brachiaria brizantha good management
ried out a comprehensive survey of natural Ruzi Grass - B. Dry Matter Yield: 8 000 10 000kg/ha/yr at 35d
ruziziensis cutting interval, and under coconut and good
grassland resources in the country and management
Table 5 lists the major and sub grassland Kikuyu Dry Matter Yield: 12 000kg/ha/yr at 40 d cutting
types based on this survey. (Pennisetum interval, and good management
clandestinum)
Sri Lankan grasslands are likely to Perennial Rye Dry Matter Yield: 12 000 15 000kg/ha/yr at
play an economically vital role because (Lolium perenne) 40d cutting interval and good management
they have a potential as feed for livestock. Gliricidia Fresh Yield: 2-3kg/plant/cut at 75 d intervals as
(Gliricidia sepium) 2 yr old hedgerows and 30 cm spacing
However, their exploitation has been rather Ipil-Ipil Fresh Yield: 1.5-2kg/plant/cut at 75 d intervals
unsystematic due to increasing biotic (Leucaena as 2 yr old hedgerows and 30 cm spacing
leucocephala)
interference by haphazard clearing for
Sources: Various research publications in Sri Lanka
short-term cultivation, illegal burning, and
Figure 11. Kandyan forest garden system Figure 12. Wild Guinea grass along road sides
14 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
extensive removal of herbages for fodder Table 5. Grassland types of Sri Lanka
Main type Main-sub type Sub-type
and over-grazing. These activities have
Montane Dry Humid zone dry Patana
caused considerable floristic and habitat (Patana) Summer zone dry Patana
changes and severe erosion of many types Intermediate Intermediate Patana
of grassland with near complete destruction Lower wet Patana
Wet
of some areas (Pemadasa, 1981). In terms Upper wet Patana
of climatic and vegetation contrast, the Savanna Upland savanna
Lowland savanna
grasslands of Sri Lanka can be divided into
Lowland Inland grasslands
three general categories; Patana, Savanna Wet zone pastures
Maritime grasslands
and Lowland grasslands. Further, they are Damana grasslands
sub-divided into several forms. Important Thalawa grasslands
Dry zone pastures
characteristics of some grassland types, Villu grasslands
which have a potential for livestock farming, Tank bed grasslands
Intermediate zone pastures Coconut grazing grounds
are summarized in Tables 5 and 6.
Dry pastures
Arid zone pastures Humid pastures
Grassland productivity Mixed pastures
The economic viability of grasslands as Source: Extracted and arranged from Pemadasa (1983).
grazing grounds depends partly on their
productivity and quality of constituent forage species (Pemadasa, 1990). Further, grassland productivity
depends on many factors, including annual rainfall and its seasonal variations, soil fertility, species
composition, stocking rates and, anthropogenic and other biotic pressures (Murphy, 1975). Although
little is known of the productivity of the grasslands of Sri Lanka, the general view is that most are of
low productivity. This is probably due to a deficiency of nutrients, particularly nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium (Pemadasa, 1981). The low density of legumes, loss of nutrients by leaching and erosion
and, slow rate of microbial activity are some of the possible causes (Muller-Dombois and Perera,
Figure 13. Patana grasslands after burning Figure 14. Cattle grazing on a natural dry zone
pasture
Figure 17. Cattle grazing on tank bed grassland Figure 18. Cattle under scrub jungle in the dry
zone
1971). Amarasinghe and Pemadasa (1983) estimated the annual productivity of green forages of some
dry Patana grasslands to be around 68000 to 111000kg/ha, however, information on current studies
under Sri Lankan conditions is lacking. These yields are less than those for similar Indian grasslands
(according to Ambasht et al., 1972).
wide knowledge of the ecosystem in which they survive and ensured the use of natural resources in a
sustainable manner (Naheesan, 2002). However, in the past, due to availability of land and free from
various out side threats, farmers were able to have many more animals and therefore livestock farming
was a first-class business.
are available in other instances with a clear mandate of developing and demonstrating grassland
management for livestock production through a participatory and multi-disciplinary manner (Reynolds
et al. 1999 and Miller, 2001).
The authors have observed that the current livestock management systems are incompatible with the
area and, are not sustainable because of:
Rapidly growing population has failed to adjust the management system on which farmers and
their livestock depend,
The lack of a land tenure system that permits free access to communal resources,
The absence of long-term development policies, plans and strategies for particular regions and
communities,
Uncoordinated and poor governmental and institutional support,
Making livestock breeding policies particularly on the climatic zone, but not for a particular grass-
land community,
Inadequate information base and extension service, and inadequate marketing opportunities and
support.
To face the ever more complex challenge to sustainable grassland resource management, the
authors recognize the importance of fundamental social and socio-economic issues in the design and
implementation of related interventions through participatory and multi-disciplinary approaches.
The ministry has started to allocate funds for communal grassland development activities. The research
sector especially the state and universities have made efforts to identify the relevant institutional
structure, present grassland resources and socio-economic background of the farmers involved in
selected grassland ecosystems.
Milk marketing seems to be improving and consumption of liquid milk increasing gradually and
farmers are now becoming interested in investing more money in dairying. Natural grasslands have to
play a key role in providing feed for dairy stock.
The Council for Agricultural Research Policy (CARP) now provides funds for demand-driven
research and development to ensure sustainability in the agriculture and livestock sector without
irreversible degradation of environment resources. With this objective, the Government has also
increased fund allocation to the CARP for implementing such research for reducing poverty and meeting
the future food needs
The universities and state sector institutions have access to highly qualified, well-trained human
resources with laboratory and field equipment and this is a big boost for grassland research activities in
the country. A keen and enthusiastic group of researchers will be formed in the near future to implement
the development of grassland resources.
Suggestions
There is a considerable hidden harvest from the grassland resources of Sri Lanka. Further, the
grasslands are multifunctional with importance for livestock, wildlife use and other domestic uses, each
of which generates marketed and non-marketed outputs. Researchers and policy makers should pay much
more attention to extract these uses and outputs, integrating the fundamental, social and socio-economic
issues into the design and implementation of development interventions through a multidisciplinary
manner. The key policy question is how to increase total land productivity in a sustainable way while
minimizing degradation. The following suggestions are made for a sustainable development of the
grassland resources of the country:
Models together with agricultural and livestock must be developed as a base for communal grass-
land management
Research must continue and more case studies are required to deepen understanding of locally
appropriate solutions
Logical statistical databanks must be compiled and revised for regular planning development activities
A strong extension service with effective veterinary background needs to be strengthened
Planning must take account of the potential effects of climatic changes, e.g. effect of drought on
herbage productivity, and soil and water resources
A national level review and mapping of the status of present grassland cover of the country are
urgently needed
Monitoring of various aspects of land deterioration is essential
Participation of pastoralists must be encouraged during development and implementation of
strategies
Pastoralism in wildlife protected areas must be gradually proscribed and encouraged to develop
communal grasslands in adjoining public localities.
Issues such as development of water resources, extension and education must be considered in
addition to basic grassland principles.
Department of Animal Production and Health: A key department of the Ministry of Agriculture and
Livestock. It is responsible for various development actions on livestock production and health including
pasture/forage development.
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 19
Animal Science Departments of all major agricultural universities in the country: University of
Peradeniya, University of Ruhuna, University of Jaffna, University of Sabaragomuwa and Eastern
University. Responsible for academic and research activities on livestock management.
Veterinary Research Institute: This institute is under the Department of Animal Production and
Health, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock. The Pasture and Fodder Division of the institute has the
mandate to carry out research on forage production, utilization and management, grassland development
and conservation of forage germplasm.
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Peradeniya: Responsible for
academic and research activities on livestock diseases and management.
National Livestock Development Board (NLDB): This belongs to the Ministry of Agriculture and
Livestock and is responsible for management of the Ministrys livestock farms.
Milk Industries of Lanka Company Limited (MILCO): belongs to the Ministry of Agriculture and
Livestock, and is responsible for forage development activities in the country.
Mahaweli Livestock Enterprise: managed by the Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka and is for the
management of livestock farms of the Mahaweli Authority.
Fodder Resources Centre, Kotadeniyawa: One of the regional centres of the Ministry of Agriculture
and Livestock. It is answerable for production of forage planting materials and distribution among the
farmers throughout the country.
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and Herath), National Agric. Soc. of Sri Lanka, University of Peradeniya, 1-20.
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9. CONTACTS
This profile was prepared by Prof. Sujatha Premaratne and Mr. G.G.C. Premalal.
[The profile was prepared by the authors in October 2005, edited by J.M. Suttie and S.G. Reynolds in
November/December 2005 and some data slightly modified in November 2006.]