Chapter 7

The Skeletal
System
Appendicular Division

Lecture Presentation by
Steven Bassett
Southeast Community College

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Introduction

The appendicular skeleton includes:

Pectoral girdle
Shoulder bones
Upper limbs
Pelvic girdle
Hip bones
Lower limbs

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Figure 7.1 The Appendicular Skeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM 206

AXIAL SKELETON 80 APPENDICULAR SKELETON 126

(See Figure 6.1)

Clavicle 2
Pectoral Clavicle
4
girdles
Scapula 2 Scapula

Humerus
Humerus 2

Upper
60 Radius 2
limbs

Ulna 2
Radius
Carpal 16 Ulna
bones
Hip
Metacarpal
10 bone
bones

Phalanges 28

Pelvic Hip bones 2

2 Femur
girdle

Femur 2

Lower
60 Patella 2
limbs

Tibia 2
Tibia
Fibula 2

Fibula
Tarsal bones 14

Metatarsal
10
bones

Phalanges 28

a Anterior view of the skeleton highlighting the appendicular components. The numbers in b Posterior view of the skeleton.
the boxes indicate the total number of bones of that type or category in the adult skeleton.

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 The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

Pectoral girdle consists of:

Clavicle
Scapula

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 The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

Upper limb consists of:

Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Carpals
Metacarpals
Pollex and other digits

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Figure 7.2 The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

Clavicle
Scapula

Humerus

Radius
Ulna

Carpal bones

Metacarpal
bones (I to V)
Phalanges

a Right upper b X-ray of right pectoral

limb, anterior girdle and upper limb,
view posterior view
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 The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

The Clavicle
Connects the scapula to the manubrium of the
sternum
It extends from the manubrium of the sternum,
laterally to the acromion process of the scapula
It is an S-shaped bone
Structures
Sternal end
Acromial end
Conoid tubercle
Costal tuberosity

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Figure 7.4a Mobility of the Pectoral Girdle

Scapula

Acromioclavicular
joint

Sternoclavicular
joint

Manubrium
of sternum
Clavicle

a Bones of the right

pectoral girdle,
superior view.

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Figure 7.4b Mobility of the Pectoral Girdle

Retraction

Protraction

b Alterations in the position of

the right shoulder that occur
during protraction (movement
anteriorly) and retraction
(movement posteriorly).

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Figure 7.4c Mobility of the Pectoral Girdle

Elevation

Depression

c Alterations in the position of the right shoulder that occur during

elevation (superior movement) and depression (inferior movement).
In each instance, note that the clavicle is responsible for limiting
the range of motion (see Figure 8.5d,f ).
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Figure 7.3a The Clavicle

Acromial end
Sternal
end

LATERAL MEDIAL
Facet for
articulation
with acromion

a Right clavicle, superior view

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Figure 7.3b The Clavicle

Acromial Sternal
end Conoid facet
tubercle

Costal MEDIAL
LATERAL
tuberosity

Sternal end

b Right clavicle, inferior view

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 The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

The Scapula
Posterior structures Anterior structures
Spine Coracoid process
Supraspinous Subscapular fossa
fossa
Infraspinous fossa
Acromion
Lateral border
Axillary border
Medial border
Vertebral border

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Figure 7.5d The Scapula

Acromion Coracoid Superior Superior

process border angle

Lateral
angle

Subscapular Body
fossa

Lateral
border Medial
border

Inferior
angle

d Anterior view
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Figure 7.5f The Scapula

Supraspinous Superior Coracoid Acromion

fossa border process

Neck

Spine

Infraspinous
fossa
Body

Medial
border

Lateral
border

Inferior
angle

f Posterior view
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 The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

The Scapula
Medial / Lateral structures
Lateral border (Axillary border)
Medial border (Vertebral border)
Glenoid cavity (lateral)
Superior / Inferior structures
Superior angle
Inferior angle
Suprascapular notch (superior)

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Figure 7.5a The Scapula

Superior
angle
Coracoid Superior
process border
Acromion Suprascapular
notch

Rim of Subscapular
glenoid fossa
cavity

Lateral
angle
Body

Lateral border
(axillary border)
Medial border
(vertebral border)

Inferior angle

a Costal (anterior) view

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Figure 7.5b The Scapula

Acromion Supraglenoid
tubercle

Coracoid
process

Spine
Glenoid
cavity

Infraglenoid
tubercle

Lateral
border

Inferior angle

b Lateral view
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 The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

The Humerus
Proximal structures Distal structures
Head Capitulum
Greater tubercle Trochlea
Lesser tubercle Lateral epicondyle
Anatomical neck Medial epicondyle
Intertubercular sulcus Coronoid fossa
Deltoid tuberosity Olecranon fossa

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Figure 7.6a The Humerus

Greater Lesser Intertubercular

tubercle tubercle Head sulcus Lesser
tubercle
Greater
tubercle Head
Anatomical
neck
Anatomical
Intertubercular neck
sulcus
Surgical
neck

Intertubercular
sulcus
POSTERIOR
Radial Deltoid
groove tuberosity

Deltoid
tuberosity
Radial Shaft
groove (body)

ANTERIOR

Intertubercular
sulcus

Coronoid fossa
Radial fossa Radial fossa

Lateral Lateral
epicondyle epicondyle Medial
Medial epicondyle
epicondyle
Capitulum Trochlea Capitulum Trochlea

Condyle Condyle
a Anterior views
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Figure 7.6d The Humerus
Greater
Head
tubercle
Greater tubercle
Head
Anatomical
Anatomical neck
neck
Surgical neck

Deltoid tuberosity
Deltoid
tuberosity Radial groove
for radial nerve

ANTERIOR

POSTERIOR

Olecranon fossa
Olecranon
fossa

Medial Lateral Medial Lateral epicondyle

epicondyle epicondyle epicondyle
Trochlea Trochlea
d Posterior views
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 The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

The Radius and Ulna

Radius is lateral to the ulna
Proximal structures Distal structures
Head Radial styloid
Radial tuberosity process
Neck Ulnar notch
The head of the radius pivots on the capitulum
of the humerus

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 The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

The Radius and Ulna

Ulna is medial to the radius
Proximal structures Distal structures
Olecranon Ulnar styloid process
Trochlear notch Head
Radial notch
Coronoid process
Ulnar tuberosity

The trochlear notch pivots on the trochlea of the

humerus
The head of the radius pivots in the radial notch of
the ulna
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Figure 7.7a The Radius and Ulna
Olecranon

Proximal radioulnar
joint

Head of
radius

Neck of
radius

RADIUS

ULNA

Interosseous
membrane

Ulnar notch
Ulnar notch of radius
of radius Head of ulna
Head of ulna
Ulnar styloid
process
Ulnar styloid
process
Radial Radial
Articular styloid styloid
cartilage Distal extremity process Distal extremity process
of radius of radius

a Posterior view of the right radius and ulna

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Figure 7.7d The Radius and Ulna
Olecranon
Trochlear notch
Coronoid process
Radial notch
of ulna
Head of
Head of radius
radius
Neck of radius

Ulnar
tuberosity

Radial
tuberosity

ULNA

RADIUS

Interosseous
membrane
Attachment
surfaces for
interosseous
membrane

Ulnar notch
of radius

Distal radioulnar
joint
Ulnar
notch Head of ulna
of radius
Ulnar styloid
Radial process
styloid
Radial Carpal
process Carpal
styloid process articular surface
articular surface

d Anterior view of the radius and ulna

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Figure 7.7b The Radius and Ulna

Humerus

Olecranon
fossa

Medial
epicondyle
of humerus

Olecranon

Trochlea
of humerus

Head of
radius

Ulna

b Posterior view of the elbow

joint showing the interlocking
of the participating bones
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Figure 7.7c The Radius and Ulna

Humerus

Medial
epicondyle

Trochlea

Capitulum

Head of radius

Coronoid
process of ulna
Radial notch
of ulna

c Anterior view of the elbow joint

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Figure 7.7e The Radius and Ulna

Olecranon

Trochlear
notch
Coronoid
process

Radial notch

Ulnar
tuberosity

e Lateral view of the proximal

end of the ulna
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Figure 7.7f The Radius and Ulna

Head
of ulna

Distal
radioulnar
joint

Ulnar styloid
process

f Anterior view of the distal

ends of the radius and ulna,
and the distal radioulnar joint
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 The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

The Wrist and Hand

Carpal bones
Eight bones of the wrist
Metacarpal bones
Five metacarpals (make up the back of the hand)
Phalanges
Pollex has two phalanges
All other digits of the hand have three phalanges

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 The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

The Wrist and Hand

Carpal bones
Proximal bones Distal structures
Scaphoid Trapezium
Lunate Trapezoid
Triquetrum Capitate
Pisiform Hamate

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Figure 7.8a The Bones of the Wrist and Hand

Proximal
Carpal Bones Radius Ulna Radius Ulna
Lunate

Scaphoid Distal Lunate

Carpal
Triquetrum Bones Scaphoid Pisiform
Pisiform Trapezium Capitate Triquetrum
Hamate
Trapezium Hamate
Capitate
Trapezoid
Metacarpals
Trapezoid
I V I V
II III IV II III IV

a Anterior (palmar) view of

the bones of the right wrist

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Figure 7.8b The Bones of the Wrist and Hand

Radius Ulna
Radius Ulna Lunate
Lunate
Scaphoid Pisiform
Pisiform
Scaphoid
Triquetrum Capitate Triquetrum
Trapezium Hamate Hamate
Trapezium
Trapezoid Capitate Trapezoid I V
II IV
I III
V
Metacarpal IV Metacarpal
II III bones
bones Proximal
phalanx
Proximal
phalanx
Middle
Distal phalanx
phalanx
Phalanges Distal
phalanx
Proximal

Middle

Distal
b Anterior (palmar) view of the
bones of the right wrist and hand

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Figure 7.8c The Bones of the Wrist and Hand

Ulnar styloid Radial styloid

Radius process
Ulnar styloid process
process
Scaphoid Scaphoid
Lunate
Lunate
Trapezium Trapezium
Pisiform Pisiform
Trapezoid Trapezoid
Triquetrum
Triquetrum
I I Capitate
Hamate Metacarpal
Capitate bones Hamate
V II V IV III II
IV III
Metacarpal
bones

Proximal
phalanx
Phalanges
Proximal Middle
Middle phalanx

Distal Distal
phalanx

c Posterior (dorsal ) view of the

bones of the right wrist and hand

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 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

Pelvic Girdle consists of:

Hip bones (three coxal bones)
Ilium
Pubis
Ischium

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 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

The lower limb consists of:

Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Hallux and other digits

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Figure 7.9 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

Hip bone
(coxal or pelvic bone)

Femur

Patella

Tibia

Fibula

Tarsal bones
Metatarsal bones

Phalanges
Tarsal bone

a Right lower limb, b X-ray, pelvic girdle and lower limb,

lateral view anterior/posterior projection
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 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

Pelvic Girdle
Supports and protects the lower viscera and
developing fetus in females
The bones of the pelvic girdle and lower limb are
much more massive than their homologues of the
upper limb

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 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

The Hip Bones (Coxal Bones)

Anterior structures Posterior structures
Ant. sup. iliac spine Post. sup. Iliac spine
Ant. inf. Iliac spine Post. inf. Iliac spine
Pubic tubercle Ischial tuberosity
Greater sciatic notch
Ischial spine
Lesser sciatic notch

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Figure 7.10a The Pelvic Girdle (2 of 2)

Ilium Iliac crest

Anterior
gluteal line
POSTERIOR ANTERIOR
Anterior superior
iliac spine
Pubis Posterior
Ischium gluteal line Inferior
gluteal line
Lateral view
Posterior superior
Anterior inferior
iliac spine
iliac spine

Posterior inferior Inferior iliac notch

iliac spine
Lunate surface
of acetabulum
Greater sciatic
notch Acetabulum

Acetabular fossa
Ischial spine
Superior pubic
Lesser sciatic ramus
notch Obturator
foramen Pubic tubercle

Inferior pubic
Ischial tuberosity ramus

Ischial ramus
a Lateral view

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 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

The Hip Bones (Coxal Bones)

Lateral structures Medial structures
Acetabulum Iliac fossa
Gluteal lines Arcuate line

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Figure 7.10b The Pelvic Girdle (2 of 2)

Ilium

Iliac crest
ANTERIOR POSTERIOR
Iliac fossa
Ischium
Pubis
Iliac tuberosity
Anterior superior
iliac spine
Posterior superior
iliac spine

Anterior inferior Auricular surface for

iliac spine articulation with sacrum
Posterior inferior
Obturator groove iliac spine
Greater sciatic notch
Superior pubic ramus
Arcuate line
Pectineal line
Spine of ischium
Pubic tubercle Lesser sciatic notch

Obturator foramen
Pubic symphysis Ischial tuberosity
(symphyseal surface)
Ischial ramus
Inferior pubic ramus
b Medial view

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 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

The Pelvis
Consists of:
Two coxal bones / one sacrum / one coccyx
Can be subdivided
Greater pelvis
Spans the distance from left iliac crest to right iliac
crest
Lesser pelvis
Area inferior to the iliopectineal line

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Figure 7.11a The Pelvis (1 of 2)

Ilium
Sacrum

Sacro-iliac joint Sacrum Iliac crest

Iliac
fossa
Ischium Pubis
Coccyx

Arcuate line

Hip Bone
Pectineal line Ilium

Acetabulum Coccyx

Pubis
Pubic tubercle
Obturator
foramen
Ischium
Pubic crest

Pubic
symphysis

a Anterior view

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Figure 7.11b The Pelvis
Sacrum Iliac crest

Sacral foramina

Posterior superior
Median sacral crest
iliac spine

Posterior inferior Greater sciatic notch

iliac spine
Sacral cornu
Sacral hiatus
Ischial spine
Coccyx

Ischial tuberosity

Iliac crest
L5

Posterior superior
iliac spine
Median sacral crest
Sacral foramina
Greater sciatic
Posterior inferior
notch
iliac spine

Sacral hiatus Sacrum

Ischial spine Sacral cornu

Coccyx

Ischial tuberosity

b Posterior view
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 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

The Pelvis
Consists of two pelvic spaces
Pelvic inlet (superior space between the brim of
each coxal bone)
Pelvic outlet (inferior space between the ischial
spine of each coxal bone)

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Figure 7.12a Divisions of the Pelvis and Anatomical Differences in the Male and Female Pelvis

Greater pelvis

Pelvic outlet

Pelvic
brim

Pelvic
inlet

a Superior view showing

the pelvic brim and
pelvic inlet of a male.
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 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

Male and Female Pelvis

The main anatomical difference is in regard to
childbearing
Pelvic outlet
Larger in females than in males
Sacrum curve
Less curvature in females than in males
Pelvic inlet
Wider in females than in males
Pubic angle
Greater than 100 in females and less than 90) in
males

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Figure 7.12d Divisions of the Pelvis and Anatomical Differences in the Male and Female Pelvis

Female Adaptations for Male

Childbearing in
the Female Pelvis
Relatively broad,
low pelvis
Ilia that project
farther laterally
Less curvature on the
sacrum and coccyx
Ischial
spine Wider, more circular Ischial
pelvic inlet spine
Enlarged pelvic outlet

100 Broader pubic angle

or more
90
d Many of the anatomical differences in the male and female pelvis are adaptations for or less
childbearing. These adaptations support the weight of the developing fetus and uterus,
and ease the passage of the newborn through the pelvic outlet at the time of delivery.
Other differences are the result of variations in body size and muscle mass.

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 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

The Femur
Proximal structures Distal structures
Head Medial condyle
Fovea Lateral condyle
Neck Medial epicondyle
Greater trochanter Lateral epicondyle
Lesser trochanter Intercondylar fossa
Intertrochanteric line Popliteal surface
Intertrochanteric Patellar surface
crest

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Figure 7.13a The Femur
Articular surface
of head
Neck
Neck Fovea for ligament
of head
Greater
trochanter Greater
trochanter
Intertrochanteric
line
Lesser trochanter Lesser
trochanter

Shaft (body) Shaft

of femur of femur

Patellar surface
Lateral epicondyle

Lateral epicondyle Medial

Medial epicondyle
epicondyle
Patellar surface
Lateral condyle Medial condyle
Lateral condyle
Medial condyle

a Landmarks on the anterior surface of the right femur

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Figure 7.13d The Femur

Head Neck Articular surface Neck Greater

of head trochanter

Greater
trochanter
Intertrochanteric
Intertrochanteric crest
crest
Lesser
trochanter Lesser
trochanter
Gluteal Gluteal
tuberosity tuberosity

Pectineal
line

Linea
aspera

Lateral
supracondylar
ridge
Medial
supracondylar Lateral
ridge supracondylar
ridge
Popliteal
surface Medial
Lateral
epicondyle supracondylar
Lateral
ridge
condyle
Popliteal surface
Adductor
tubercle
Adductor tubercle
Lateral epicondyle
Medial
epicondyle Medial epicondyle
Lateral condyle
Medial
Medial condyle
condyle Intercondylar Intercondylar
fossa fossa
d Landmarks on the posterior surface of the right femur
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 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

The Femur
Posterior view
Linea aspera
Lateral supracondylar ridge
Medial supracondylar ridge

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Figure 7.13d The Femur

Head Neck Articular surface Neck Greater

of head trochanter

Greater
trochanter
Intertrochanteric
Intertrochanteric crest
crest
Lesser
trochanter Lesser
trochanter
Gluteal Gluteal
tuberosity tuberosity

Pectineal
line

Linea
aspera

Lateral
supracondylar
ridge
Medial
supracondylar Lateral
ridge supracondylar
ridge
Popliteal
surface Medial
Lateral
epicondyle supracondylar
Lateral
ridge
condyle
Popliteal surface
Adductor
tubercle
Adductor tubercle
Lateral epicondyle
Medial
epicondyle Medial epicondyle
Lateral condyle
Medial
Medial condyle
condyle Intercondylar Intercondylar
fossa fossa
d Landmarks on the posterior surface of the right femur
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 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

The Patella
This is a large sesamoid bone
Protects the knee joint
Anterior surface is rough for strong tendon
attachment
Posterior surface has concave facets for the
femoral condyles

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Figure 7.14a The Patella

Base of patella

Attachment
area for
quadriceps
tendon

Attachment
area for
patellar
ligament

Apex of patella

a Anterior surface of the right patella

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Figure 7.14b The Patella

Medial facet for

medial condyle
of femur

Lateral facet for

lateral condyle
of femur

Articular surface
of patella

b Posterior surface
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 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

The Tibia and Fibula

Tibia is medial to the
fibula
Proximal structures Distal structures
Tibial tuberosity Medial malleolus
Intercondylar eminence
Medial and lateral
tubercles of the
intercondylar eminence
Articular surfaces
Soleal line

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 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

The Tibia and Fibula

Fibula is lateral to the
tibia
Proximal structures Distal structures
Head Lateral malleolus

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Figure 7.15a The Tibia and Fibula
Lateral tibial condyle
Medial
condyle
Head of fibula
Superior
tibiofibular joint

Tibial tuberosity

Head of fibula

Interosseous
border of fibula

Anterior margin

Shaft of fibula

Interosseous
border of tibia

Shaft of tibia

Interosseous
membrane
of the leg

Inferior
tibiofibular joint

Medial
Lateral malleolus (tibia)
malleolus Lateral
(fibula) malleolus (fibula)
Inferior articular surface

a Anterior views of the right tibia and fibula

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Figure 7.15d The Tibia and Fibula

Medial tubercle Lateral tubercle

Articular surface Tubercles of of intercondylar eminence
of intercondylar eminence
of medial intercondylar
tibial condyle eminence Intercondylar eminence
Articular surface of
medial tibial condyle Lateral tibial condyle
Medial tibial Articular surface
condyle of lateral tibial Medial tibial Head of fibula
condyle condyle

Soleal line

Interosseous Soleal
membrane line
of the leg

TIBIA
FIBULA
TIBIA

FIBULA

Medial Medial malleolus

malleolus (tibia) (tibia)

Lateral malleolus Articular surfaces

Articular surfaces
(fibula) of tibia and fibula Lateral malleolus
of tibia and fibula
(fibula)
d Posterior views of the right tibia and fibula
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 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

The Ankle and Foot

Tarsal bones
Seven bones of the ankle
Metatarsal bones
Five metatarsals (make up the arch of the foot)
Phalanges
Hallux has two phalanges
All other digits of the foot have three phalanges

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 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

The Ankle and Foot

Tarsal bones
Calcaneus
Talus
Navicular
Cuboid
Medial cuneiform
Intermediate cuneiform
Lateral cuneiform

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Figure 7.16a Bones of the Ankle and Foot

Tarsal Bones
Calcaneus

Talus Trochlea
of talus
Navicular

Cuboid
Cuneiform bones
Lateral
Intermediate Base of 1st
Medial metatarsal
V
IV III bone
II I
Metatarsal Bones Shaft of 1st
metatarsal bone
Phalanges Head of 1st
metatarsal bone
Proximal
Middle
Distal

a Superior (dorsal) view of the

bones of the right foot.
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 Individual Variation in the Skeletal System

The skeleton can reveal important information

about an individual
Information such as:
Racial differences
Medical history
Body size
Muscle mass
Age
Sex

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Table 7.1 Sexual Differences in the Adult Human Skeleton (1 of 2)

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Table 7.1 Sexual Differences in the Adult Human Skeleton (2 of 2)

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Table 7.2 Age-Related Changes in the Skeleton (1 of 2)

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Table 7.2 Age-Related Changes in the Skeleton (2 of 2)

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