3DayPIPonMetallurgyforNonMetallurgist

from10th to12th April2017

TestingofMechanicalProperties

Mr.Nilesh Sakle

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 Agenda
Uponcompletion,youwillableto:
OutlineProcedureofTensile&HardnessTest
THREEpropertyCategoriesmeasuredby
TensileTest
FatigueTest
Define:Yieldstrength,Impactenergy,Fracture
toughness,Creeprate&Fatiguestrength

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 Introduction:MechanicalProperties

ClassificationofMaterialproperties

1. Chemical:Composition,structure,corrosion
2. Physical:Color,density,electrical,magnetic,Thermal
3. Mechanical:Hardness,strength,ductility,wear

Dimensional:Size,shape,tolerances

Service life of component is decided by Combination

of all properties to suit the working environment.

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 Introduction:MechanicalProperties
Mechanical Metallurgy: Study of effect of various forces on
the material.
Types of Forces:
Sudden or Impact: Hammering by blacksmith or hitting a bullet
to object
Static: More or less constant for long time. Pressure vessel or tank
walls
Cyclic: Continuously change in magnitude and/or direction.
Rotating shaft
Continuously increasing: Lifting weight
Forces can be localized, concentrated on small area or can
be distributed over a large area

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 Introduction:MechanicalProperties

For design of any part two things are important

1. Type and amount of forces coming on the component

during service
2. How component will behave under these forces

Mechanical testing will help to understand the material

behavior under different conditions and to confirm if
material is behaving as expected under known
conditions.

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 TensileTesting

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 TensileTest
Force is applied along the axis of the sample pulling the sample
apart.
Sample: Circular or rectangular cross section. Central section must
be smaller in cross section than the end section where sample will
be clamped during testing.
Stress = Force or Applied Load / CrossSectional Area UnitsMPa,
Kg/mm2, psi, N/mm2 etc (Denoted by ).
Material parameter is ability to support the stress and not ability to
support the force
Strain = Change in length/Original length Denoted by . Unit
mm/mm or inch/inch

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 UniversalTestingMachine(UTM)
Movablecrosshead
Loadcell LoadFrame:Doublecolumn

Fixtures:Grips,
Jaws

Manual
controller

Extensometer/
Straingauges
Controllerand
DataAcquisition
system

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 TestMethods
Standards
Metals:
ASTME8
ISO6892
IS1608
Plasticsandcomposites:
ASTMD638
ISO527
IS13360:Part5
Elastomers:
ASTMD412
ISO37
IS3400:Part1
Foam:
ASTMD3574
ISO1798
IS7888

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 TensileTesting
Specimen: With reduced cross section at center
Three types: Shouldered, DiameterThreaded or
knurled, Pin (Tensile specimen). Sizes shall be as per
specific standards.
Machine: UTM (Universal Testing machine),
Hounsfield tensometer, Instron, MTS (material
testing system. (Tensile test)
Stress strain curve: Refer fig 3 and fig 4 (Pg 132). Can
be divided in 3 partsElastic, uniform plastic.
Engineering stress strain and true stress strain

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Pune Chapter
 TensileTesting
Properties tested by Tensile testing:

1. Proportional limit: Highest value of stress up to

which stress is proportional to strain

2. Elastic limit: Highest value of stress up to which

deformation is elastic and beyond which
deformation is plastic. Theoretically slightly more
than proportional stress but practically treated as
same.

3. Ultimate tensile strength (UTS): Highest value of

stress that material can sustain without fracture or
breakage.

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 TensileTesting
4. Yield Point: Stress at which material starts yielding i.e
shows appreciable amount of deformation at almost
constant value of stress.

5. Proof stress: Stress at which material shows specific

amount (0.2%) of deformation (0.002 strain). Used for
materials where yield point can not be seen accurately.

6. Resilience: Area under loadelongation curve under

elastic region i.e. the energy absorbed by material
under elastic deformation

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 TensileTesting
7. Toughness: Total area under the load elongation
curve i.e. the energy absorbed by material during
elongation upto fracture. (Highlow toughness curves)

8. Stiffness: Resistance of material for elastic

deformation given by youngs modulus E i.e. the slope
of stressstrain curve in elastic region. This is structure
sensitive, constant for particular material and can not
be changed by HT, alloying or cold working. High M.P.
materials has high stiffness. (Fig 6)

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 TensileTesting
9. Ductility: Ability of material to deform without
fracture under tensile loads. Given by
%Elongation= {l(f)l(i)}/l(i). %Elongation depends
on specimen geometry. For getting uniform results
l/d ratio of specimen shall remain constant. Certain
guidelines on this are: l/d shall be 5 (Indian), 4
(ASTM), 3.54 (British), 10 (German). So %
elongation shall always be reported with dia (d)
and GL(l) of specimen. Materials with more than
10% elongation is generally called ductile and
below 5% elongation are termed as brittle.

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 TensileTesting
11. Malleability:Abilityofmaterialtodeformwithoutfractureunder
compressiveload.Abilityofmaterialtoberolledinthinsheet.
Approximatelygivenby%ReductioninArea={A(i)A(f)}/A(i)

TypesofStressStrainCurves
A. 1)Ductilematerialswithoutyieldpointe.g Cu,Ni,AusteniticSSetc
(Fig3)
B. 2)DuctilematerialswithYieldPoint:Lowcarbonannealedsteel,Mo,
Cd,Zn(Fig7)
C. 3)Brittlematerial:GreyandwhiteCastirons,Ceramics,HighZn
brass(50%)(Stressstraincurveforbrittlematerial)
D. 4)Polymericmaterial:Rubber(polymericmaterial)

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 TensileTesting
VariablesaffectingTensileproperties:

1. Alloying:Increasesstrengthandlowersductility.Interstitial
elementshavemoreeffect.(EffectofConTS)

2. Temperature:Lowersstrengthandincreasesductilityas
temperatureincreases(Fig15)

3. Coldworking:Increasesstrengthandlowersductility.Eliminates
yieldpointinlowcarbonsteel.

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 HardnessTesting

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 HardnessTesting
Hardnessindicatesresistanceofmaterialfordifferent
actions.Sodifferentdefinitionsandtestingmethods.
Definitions:
1) Resistancetodeformation
2) Resistancetoindentation
3) Resistancetowear
4) Resistancetocutting

Mostcommonandwidelyusedmethodbecause

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 HardnessTesting
1. Very easy, simple and fast method
2. Low cost of equipment
3. Relatively less sample preparation
4. No skilled operator
5. Direct correlation to strength and ductility. So it gives lot of
information. (Fig 10)
6. Many times nondestructive in nature

Hardness testing can not replace Tensile test.

Hardness of material depends on: Tensile strength, yield
strength, ductility, work hardening coefficient, resistance to
abrasion, grain size etc so many properties.

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 HardnessTesting
Methodsofhardnesstesting:
1. Indentationmethod:
a) AreameasurementBrinel,Vickers,Knoop
b) Depthmeasurement Rockwel
2. ScratchHardness
3. Reboundhardness
Comparativehardnessscale(Comparisons
Scale)
Hardnessconversiontable(RefTable3)

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 HardnessTesting(Brinell)
Brinell hardness testing: First impression is created on surface of a
component by pressing hard (steel or carbide) ball on to the
sample under test using known load (usually 3000 kg and 10mm
Dia. ball / 750 kg and 5 mm Dia. ball).
Diameter of this impression is measured using low power
microscope upto 0.01 mm accuracy. The impression diameter is
converted to BHN using the formula (eq 8). For this conversion
standard tables are available. So no need for actual calculations.
To get uniform repetitive hardness P/D sq need to keep constant
like 30, 20, 15, 10, 5, 2.5,1.0.
30 for higher hardness material and decreasing progressively as
hardness decreases.
Different ball dia and loads are used to get dia of impression
about 0.375 times of ball dia.

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 HardnessTesting(Brinell)

Steel/CarbideBallof
P Dia10mmisusedwith
3000kgLoad.

However,other
combinationscanalso
beusedviz.5mmand
750kgLoad.
Standardtestmethods:
2P
BHN IS1500
D( D ( D 2 D12 )) ASTME10
ENISO6506

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 HardnessTesting(Brinell)
SalientfeaturesofBHN
Checks gross hardness. Averages hardness of different phases in
microstructure. Hence more suitable for heterogeneous materials
like castings, sintered parts
Can be used for large specimen only.
Thickness of specimen must be sufficiently large.
Relationship between BHN and Tensile strength
Tensile strength= 0.36 X BHN (For soft steel)
Tensile strength= 0.32 X BHN (For hard steel)
Upto 300 value, BHN and VPN are same
BHN can be used upto 400BHN max for reliable results

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 HardnessTesting(Vickers)
HV, VPN, VPH
Principle is same as BHN.
1. Creation of impression using SQUARE base diamond indenter with
included angle 136 with specified load generally 5 to 120 Kg.
2. Impression will be square
3. Measure diagonal length of impression.
4. Convert in VPN value by formula HV= 1.854 P / d sq.
Microhardness testing: Testing loads are very low Few gms to 1 Kg.
Impression will be very small. Very high accuracy in indenter
dimensions, loading, diagonal measurement and fine surface
finish is necessary.
Knoop hardness: Same as microhardness tester. But indenter is
rhomb based pyramid diamond with diagonal ratio 1:7 KHN= kP/D
sq K=Knoop constant= 1/0.0728 for 1 Kg l

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 Vickers&KnoopHardness
Diamond Square based pyramid
indenters is used with with
included angle 136 and specified
load generally 5 to 120 Kg.

Hardness is calculated from the

Diagonals of indentation in the
metal.

1.8544 P
VPN
d2
Standardtest
methods:
IS1501
ASTME92
P
ENISO6507 KHN
0.0703 l 2

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 HardnessTesting(Vickers)
Salient features of Vickers test
Most accurate test. Referral test.
Independent of load. Hardness value is same for all test load.
Can be used for all materials extremely soft to extreme hard.
By proper selection of load method can be used for variety of
applications. Very superficial hardness (plating, nitriding
microhardness), case hardness (HV with lower load (1 to 5 Kg),
Average hardness of base metal (1030 kg), Heterogenus material
(more than 30 kg).
Commonly used method to test hardness traverse to measure
case depth in case hardening to check ECD, across welding from
weld centerline across HAZ up to base metal
Depth of impression is about 1/7 of diagonal
Microhardness test can be done to check hardness of different
phases in microstructure.

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 HardnessTesting(Rockwel)
Measures depth of impression generated by pressing the load
(Minor + Major) using selected indenter (ball of specified dia or Sq
base diamond with 120 included angle) and then removing the
major load.
Sequence of operations (Rockwel hardness set up)
Hardness is inversely proportional to depth of indentation. High
depthlow hardness and vice versa.
Hardness value can be read directly on dial
Machines are available manual, semi auto and fully automatic
with printer and memory.
Many hardness scales with permutation combination of load and
indenters are available (15+ 15 combinations) to suit various
applications.

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 RockwellHardnessTest
Dial Diamond indenter is conical shape, with 120
included angle. Also called as BRALE or Steel
Load Ball.

Minor load is 10 kg and major load can be

either of 60, 100 or 150 kg etc.
Indenter
For thin components or Superficial Rockwell
hardness test is conducted in which,
Minor load = 3 kg
Major load = either 15, 30 or 45 kg

Standardtest
methods:
ASTME18
ISO6508

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 HardnessTesting(Rockwel)
Most common scales are A, B, C (General) and 15kg (Superficial)
(Hardness scales).

C for hard material, B for soft material, and A for intermediate

hardness and for surface hardness of case hardened components.

Very fast and easy test method for various applications.

Test the hardness of localized area and hence give nonconsistent

and varying results in heterogeneous material.

Application of minor load (10 or 3 kg as per method) takes care of

minor imperfection on surface and inertia effect. So nil to very
minor surface preparation is necessary

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 HardnessTesting(Indentation)
Precautions during hardness testing:

Sample shall be firmly held/clamped during testing.

Top and bottom surfaces of sample shall be parallel to each other
and right angle to indenter.
Surface on which indention is taken should be clean, free from
foreign materials like grease, oil, rust, scale.
Surface finish of test surface shall be reasonably smooth to match
the scale used. Lower the load better shall be finish. Better the
finishhigher the accuracy.
Thickness of component shall be sufficiently large @ 10 times
depth of indentation.

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 HardnessTesting(Indentation)
Distance between two indentations or between
indentation and edge shall be sufficiently large min 3 to 5
times the dia of indentation

Loading of the indenter shall be smooth, uninterrupted,

continuous and sufficiently slow.

If indentation is not symmetrical (perfectly round or

square), discard the test assuming something wrong in
test. Slight asymmetry can be taken care of by measuring
min and max dia/diagonals and averaging the two.

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 HardnessTesting(Scratch)
Rub the sample with known hardness material to
decide upon the to which material it matches.

Mohs scale of hardness: Talcsoftest1. Diamond

Hardest10. Copper3(Calcite) Hardened steel7
(Quartz)

Practical application of similar methodFile test

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 HardnessTesting(Rebound)
Shore Scleroscope: A diamond tipped hammer of fixed
weight (~2.36 gm) is dropped on sample surface from
known fixed height (10). Its height of rebound is
measured which is directly converted to shore hardness.
Higher the hardness higher will be height of rebound.
Lower hardnesshigher the energy absorptionlower the
height of rebound

Modern method using same principle Much more

accurate and fast

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 HardnessTestingComparison
Material BHN HRB HRC VPN Shore
Annealed 60 NA NA 62 NA
Brass
Mild steel 131 74 NA 138 20
(.15% C)
0.5% C Steel 200 96 NA 210 32
(Normalised)
0.5% C Steel NA NA 60 700 85
(Hard)
White Iron 415 NA 44 437 57
Nitrided NA NA 68 940 100
layer

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 ImpactTesting

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 Impacttesting
Measures the ability of material to absorb energy under impact
loading. (Dynamic toughness)

Most investigation in world war II after breakages of liberty

ships

Refer fig 16 for method of test and fig 17 for two samples and
two types of test

Purpose of notch is to create triaxial stress conditions at the

root of notch and stress concentration

Sample is kept on table and impact load is applied in such a way

that tensile stresses are developed at root of notch

In Charpy, impact is opposite to notch, in Izod, impact is

cantilever type. Types of notchesV, Key hole and U

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 Impacttesting
Normally ductile material will behave in brittle manner under
the effect of three conditions:

1. Presence of notches, defects, inclusions etc which generates

local triaxial stresses

2. High rate of loadingHigh strain rate

3. Low temperature
If we carry out impact test at different temp and plot a curve
impact energy vs temp we get ductile to brittle transition temp
of material (Ref fig 19)

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 Impacttesting
No correlation between charpyizod, vu notch. Hence while giving
impact test results method and notch must be reported

Since for most engineering application we want tough material,

the material behavior at operating temp is important. Transition
temp must be lower than the operating temperature. However
there is no direct relationship.

Accuracy of notch is very important. Slight variation in notch

generates large variation in results

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 Impacttesting
To take care of normal variation in results, generally min 3 samples
are tested and reported as average of three.

FCC metals like Ni, Cu has lower transition temp and BCC metals
like Fe has higher

Steel alloyed with Ni (Substitutional solid solution with austenite

stabilizing element) lowers the transition temperature while
alloying with C and P (interstitial solid solution) increases transition
temp. Hence all materials for low temperature applications
contents high Nickel (E.g. Austenitic Stainless steel) (Ref fig 20)

For critical welding structures to ensure toughness, normally min.

impact strength at zero or subzero temp is specified.

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 Impacttesting
Tough material absorbs more energy before fracture than brittle
material. Fracture appearance is different. Ref. fig 21a dimpled
rupture fracture for ductile failure and fig 21b rock candy
fracture for brittle failure.

Notch impact test does not stimulate shock loading in service and
also can not be correlated to other mechanical tests like tensile or
hardness.

The transition temp is characteristics of 1)testing conditions

Velocity at the time of impact, notch geometry, specimen size etc
and 2) Inherent properties of material like grain size, Crystal
structure, Composition, impurities, strain hardening rate,
microstructure, any embrittlement etc

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 Impacttesting
Refer fig no 22 for importance of grain size. As grain size decreases
transition temperature decreases and yield strength increases

Tendency of brittle failures is enhanced in large thick welded

structures especially exposed to low temp like oil rigs, pressure
vessels, ships and nuclear vessels.

In nuclear applications additional problem is encountered that

due to radiation exposure transition temp increases.

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 CreepTesting

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 CreepTesting
Creep: Time dependent plastic deformation. Any component if
under stress for long time (even below yield strength), its
dimensions will change. This change is negligible at low temp
but significant for high temp (above 0.3Tm). So creep tests are
carried out at high temp.

Creep curve: Graph of creep strain vs time at specific temp and

specific stress (Fig 23)

Three stages of creep curve

1. Primary or exhaustive Creep: Creep rate or slope of the curve is
decreasing

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 Creeptesting
2. Secondary or steady state creep: Creep rate is constant and
minimum

3. Tertiary creep: Creep rate is increasing finally leading to

fracture.

Another graph plotted can be Stress vs min creep rate at various

temp (Stress vs creep rate at dif temp)
Effect of temp and applied stress on creep curve is as shown
(Temp effect on creep)
Important information gathered from creep curve is the
expected change in dimension of product. Since slope of curve
in stage II is constant simple multiplication of strain by time will
give expected change in dimensions. However it will not indicate
start of stage 3.

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 Creeptesting
Stress Rupture test: Creep test carried out till specimen ruptures.
Parameters measured are: Applied stress, Time to failure,
Elongation. Test is carried out at constant temp and series of tests
at various temp and different stress levels are done. Time to
failure depends on both temp and stress.

Creep data is important for components working at high temp

under constant stress like jet engine components, steam and gas
turbines, nuclear reactors etc

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 Creeptesting
Creep Strength or creep limit: Highest stress the material can
withstand at a given temp for specified time and without
exceeding specific deformation.

Creep behavior is very complex and has no relation to other

mechanical properties.

Creep testing machine: (Creep testing) Continuous record of

deformation with time is collected at constant stress and temp.
Strain value lies between 0.1 to 1.0% and time upto 10,000 Hrs.
Specimen can be circular, rectangular or square

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 Creeptesting
Two simultaneous effects during creep:

1. Due to application of stress, strain hardening takes place which

tries to decrease the deformation

2. Due to high temp stress relieving or annealing take place which

tries to increase the deformation

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 Creeptesting
Considerations for creep resistant material:
1. Shall have high melting pointNi, W, Mo,
2. Shall have coarse grained structure. Dendtritic structure are
better than equiaxed so castings perform better than forgings or
bar.
3. Presence of fine precipitates improves creep resistance. E.g
Precipitate of Ni3(AlTi) in Nickel and IronNickel base
superalloys
4. Fine hard particles of second phase like in dispersion hardening
e.g. Thoria (ThO2) in Tungsten
5. Material shall have high oxygen resistance like Cr.

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 FatigueTesting

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Nearly
All
Structures
Are

Load F
Cyclic
Loaded
Time t

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 FatigueTesting
Repeated or cyclic stresses can cause failure to occur at much
lower stress levels than normal constant level is called fatigue
failure
Common example You can not break wire by pulling but can
break by repeated bending and much more easily notching and
then repeated bending.
Examples of fatigue loadingRail tracks, bridge beams, rotating
shafts, gears etc
Fatigue failures are incidental without any prior warning,
without any deformation unless proper NDT is carried out
regularly. Fracture surface is normal to direction of principal
tensile stress.

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 Fatiguetesting
Fatigue fracture: Generally two regions. One smooth
growing inward from fatigue initiation, consisting of series of
rings called beach marks. This region indicates growth of
fatigue crack. With high magnification in between beach
marks we see striations which indicates each cycle of reversal
load. Other region is coarse region showing final fracture.
This is the reduced cross sectional area (due to fatigue crack)
which can not withstand the applied load.

1. Schematic fatigue fracture

3. Bolt 2. Con Rod

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StagesofFatigueFailureBarunderPulsatingBending

FINAL FRACTURE Fatigue failure of a bolt

due to unidirectional
cycling bending loads.
The failure started at
the thread root (arrow)
CRACK
PROPAGATION and progressed across
most of the cross
section before final fast
fracture. Actual size.
CRACK
INITIATION

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 Fatiguetesting
Three things necessary to fatigue failures:
1. Applied stress of sufficient magnitude
2. Large fluctuations in applied stress
3. Sufficiently large no of cycles of applied stress
The stress reversal cycles can be
Tension Compression,
Tension High : Low,
Torsion High : Low,
Bending etc
Fatigue testing: Series of samples are tested by applying various
stresses and nos of cycles are counted till sample fails. The SN curve
is plotted.

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 Fatiguetesting
Nos of samples to failure will depend on applied stress. High stress
low cycle and vice versa.

Fatigue limit or endurance limit: For ferrous materials, at some

stress levels blow which component will not fail for infinite no of
cycles but above this stress level component fails at some nos of
cycles. This stress is called endurance limit. For nonferrous
materials such stress level can not be established and component
always fails whatever may be the stress level. In such case stress to
fail at some specific nos of cycles (6 or 8 power 10) is called fatigue
limit.

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 Fatiguetesting
Fatigue properties can be correlated to tensile properties.
Fatigue ratio=Fatigue strength: Tensile strength. For ferrous it is
about 0.5 and for nonferrous about 0.35
Fatigue illustrations and photos (1. Illustrations of fatigue 2.bolt
fatigue)
Improving the fatigue properties: Since fatigue crack always
starts from surface or subsurface most of fatigue improvement
actions are related to surface improvement:
1. Increasing surface hardness by case hardening
2. Generating compressive stresses on surface by shot peening,
cold rolling. Many of case hardening processes also generate
compressive stresses on surface.
3. Remove all surface irregularities which are stress raisers.
Smoother the surface better is the fatigue strength

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Type of Appearance of
Loading Scheme
Loading Fracture Surface
Final
Fracture
pulsating
Fatigue
Crack

alternating

rotating

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 Fatiguetesting
4. Fine grained material is better than coarse grained material

5. Design improvement: Sharp corners, radi, undecuts, grooves to

be eliminated or replaced with radia

6. Ensure that there is no decarburization on surface.

7. Ensure there is no corrosion sites on surface and surface should

be protected from corrosion

8. Fatigue in corrosive environment drastically reduces fatigue life

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 GrainSize

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 GrainSize
Grain SizeNot a mechanical property but many mechanical
properties depend on it.

Measurement: Can be measured directly under microscope

having linear measurement capability from which average grain
size, min/max grain size in microns can be calculated. Or grain
size is compared with standard chart either by overlapping or
visually. Or with available software direct reading can be
obtained. Ref equation to understand relationship between
grain size no and grain size

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 GrainSize
Grain size in casting: Depends on lot many factors like pouring
temp, composition, sand properties, type of molding, grain
nucleating agenttype and amount and method of addition,
cooling rate etc.

Once formed not possible to refine afterwards. Normally as cast

grain size is coarser than wrought products

Grain size of wrought products: Depends on original as cast

grain size. Final grain size depends on amount of working, cold
or hot work. In case of hot work amount and rate of hot working
and finishing temp. In case of cold work degree of cold work
followed by recovery, recrystallization and annealing cycle

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 GrainSize
Grain size in steel: After hot working/cold working operation is
over, one more chance to refine the grain size by heat treatment
normalizing/ annealing.

In steel grain size of Austenite or ferrite need to be defined.

Different methods are available to check austenitic grain size.

When grain size is specified in steel specification it means
austenitic grain size. Normally grain size no 5 to 8 is acceptable for
most application of steel.

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 GrainSize
ASTM Grain size Av nos of grains per Range of nos of Av grain size in
No sq at 100x grains/ sq
1 1 (1/1.5) 1.0/1.5 287
2 2 (1.5/3.0) 1.5/3.0 203
3 4 (3/6) 3/6 144
4 8(6/12) 6/12 101
5 16 12/24 71.8
6 32 24/48 50.7
7 64 48/96 35.9
8 128 96/192 25.4
9 256 192/384 18

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 GrainSize
Grainsizeno5.12/24gr/sqin GrainSizeno8.96/192gr/sqin

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 AnyQuestions?

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