V.

CASTELLI
Review of Numerical Methods in
Gas Bearing Film Analysis
J. PI RVICS
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
C o l u m b i a University, N e w York, N. Y.

Introduction (c) Small amplitude harmonic variations in geometry which

TI.HE application of numerical methods to gas bearing
problems is of great importance in view of the difficulties en-
countered by purely analytical methods in dealing with the non-
linear character of the governing equations and complicated de-
tails of practical geometries encountered. The past ten years
have witnessed marked progress in computer technology with
accompanying development of numerical analysis. This paper
presents the best techniques which are applicable to gas bearing
systems.
The material contained herein is logically organized along the
lines in Fig. 1. Numbers appearing in the various boxes designate
sections which follow. Therefore this report is not written se-
quentially. For logical continuity the reader should always refer
to Fig. 1.
1 General Problem
The general gas bearing problem can be stated as the deter-
mination of bearing film pressure distributions and the related
load and moment integrals corresponding to:
(a) Steady running conditions.
(b) Transient running conditions due to geometry variations
in time, either externally imposed or resulting from coupling with
the dynamic system.
are externally imposed.
Case (a) is met when equilibrium design charts for particular
bearing configurations are desired.
Case (6) is met when the dynamics of the entire system con-
nected with the gas bearings are simulated directly to study re-
sponses to shock and vibration and large amplitude excursions
due to instabilities.
Case (c) is met when linearized small amplitude studies are
made of the problem and self-excited instability in the small or the
steady response to synchronous excitations are investigated. So-
called frequency-dependent spring and damping coefficients are
obtained from the bearing analysis to represent the gas film in the
dynamic equations of the system. As an input to case (c) the
equilibrium pressure distributions produced by case (a) are
necessary.
Since these are normally known only in numerical form case (c)
is treated by numerical methods despite the linearity of its
equations.
2 Equations and Boundary Conditions Involved
According to the theory of hydrodynamic lubrication, in re-
gions where the clearance varies continuously the fluid-film pres-
sure satisfies Reynolds' equation which can be written in vector
form as [1]1

f)
s
piI
div - grad p + + - (ph) = 0 (1)
Contributed by the Lubrication Division and presented at the 12/i OT
Lubrication Symposium, Las Vegas, Nev., June 18-20, 1968, of THE
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS. Manuscript re- where V is the vector sum of the absolute sliding velocities of the
ceived at A S M E Headquarters, March 21, 1968. Paper N o . 6 8
LubS-11. 1 Numbers in brackets designate References at end of paper.

-Nomenclature-
M, Ar = maximum grid dimension in 5 = increment or delta function
error distribution i and ./-directions, respec- = dimensionless eccentricity or
An = Fourier coefficient of error tively error distribution
distribution p = dimensional pressure 9 = angular coordinate
c = reference clearance pa = dimensional ambient pres- X = eigenvalue
sure A, A x , A = compressibility parameter
( _ matrices of coefficients of P = dimensionless pressure based on resultant veloc-
g (j) ' j jth column of unknowns Pr = dimensionless recess pressure ity, x component of veloc-
d = recess depth Q* = perturbation dependent, vari- ity, y component of veloc-
[G\m = iteration matrix to the with able ity, respectively
power R = gas constant p. = viscosity
t = dimensional temperature
h = dimensional film thickness v = perturbation parameter
T, AT = dimensionless time, and di-
H dimensionless film thickness p = density
mensionless time increment
Hxz) a = squeeze number
U = dimensionless velocity
Hxy, r = dimensional time
= force responses ffi(m+1) = (m + 1) approximation to x
1TT
UV1 = dependent variable
X, AX = coordinate and increment in
Hvx co = reference frequency or re-
coordinate direction
H* = perturbation film clearance laxation factor
Y, A F = coordinate and increment in
shape coordinate direction V = grad = gradient operator
i, j = grid point indexes z = coordinate in axial direction V = div = divergence operator
[7] = identity matrix of journal bearing or com- 21 = "there exists"
L = characteristic length plex number 9 = "such that"

Journal of Lubrication Technology OCTOBER 1 9 6 8 / 7 7 7

Copyright 1968 by ASME

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 Appendix - Solution Techniques
Iteration Methods
Column
Bickley - McNamee
Booy's Method with Coleman's
Direct Inversion
I References 1
Fig. 1 Logical organization of paper
bearing surfaces, and div and grad are two-dimensional operators
in x and y and p, p, and h are functions of two space variables and
time.
Recently, equation (1) has been adapted to treat cases for
which the film flow is turbulent by means of an ingenious rein-
terpretation of the definition and role of the parameter p. [2, 3].
Since turbulent films are seldom encountered in gas bearings this
situation will not be treated beyond the point of saying that only
slight modification of the methods presented herein are needed to
solve the problem.
With gaseous lubricant and metallic bearing materials, the fluid
film is essentially isothermal; thus, for most gases, viscosity can be
regarded as a constant and density can be replaced by pressure in
Reynolds' equation. Equation (1) can be made dimensionless by
normalizing all the variables with appropriate reference quanti-
ties, yielding:
a
div { -PH3 grad P + AUPtf} + a (PH) = 0
On lines where the clearance varies discontinuously the normal
flow and the pressure are required to be continuous. This can be
stated as
[ PH3 grad P + A U P f f ] -n|; = 0
where n is a unit normal to the step and
P\~ = 0
All other commonly met boundary conditions either specify
the value of pressure or the value of flow on the boundary
involved.
The two salient features of Reynolds' equationthe non-
dP
linearity in P and the time-diffusion term and their effect on
J dT
the solution, especially as contrasted with the case of incompres-
sible bearings, have been amply discussed in the literature.
Some special equations, with the help of additional assumptions,
have been developed to treat some particular bearing geometries
(such as grooved-bearing approximation [4] for a large number of
grooves), often yielding equations of the same general type as equa-
tion (2) and can be treated by means of the same methods. How-
ever, in the interest of brevity, the details are herein omitted.
778 / O C T O B E R 1 9 6 8
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for Linear systems
- point Jacobi
Gauss Seidel
Improvement
Case (a) defined in Section 1 requires the solution of equation
d
(2) with t~z = 0. Case (6) requires the solution of equation (2)
dT
with the term either externally imposed or resulting from
parallel computations. Case (c) requires a small parameter per-
turbation of equation (2) along the lines of Section 10(B). The
perturbation in clearance distribution is of the type ve laT .
3 Solution Methods
All solution methods will be treated in two classes: Analytical-
Numerical and Direct-Numerical.
In the first class either some features of the particular bearing
under study are taken advantage of or some approximations are
made in order to partially solve the problem by analytical means.
This type of treatment usually terminates with a numerical com-
(2) putation less demanding in computer time than the second class.
Among the advantages of these methods are increased ease of
parametric studies and overall cost of execution. Among the dis-
advantages are the fact that approximations lead to limited or
uncertain ranges of applicability and that the amount of algebra
to be dealt with is greatly increased with consequent increase of
(3) the probability of incorporating a systematic error.
Methods of the second class approach the problem immediately
with numerical approximations the accuracy of which is often
(4) easier to control. Advantages of these methods are: small alge-
braic involvement and no limiting assumptions besides those im-
posed by truncation errors. The disadvantages are: increased
amount of computer time, difficulty in discerning parametric
trends, and the need for an efficient computer system.
The overall cost of solving a problem by numerical methods
has steadily decreased due to the fact that the cost of computer
time per operation has declined with the ( 1/2) power of the
computer speed. At the present state of the art and in countries
where large-scale computers are readily available it is uneconomi-
cal to use anything but direct numerical methods for an)r "nor-
mal" gas bearing problem. The analytical skill of investigators
should be employed in either improving numerical techniques or
treating "abnormal" problems (such as: (a) boundary-layer
effects which arise at high values of compressibility number A or
high values of the squeeze number a, (b) any bearing configura-
Transactions of the A S M E
 -AY-- dF
= SHADED AREA PH3 AJ'H I*

AXc-,
c-/
r 1
r co/vroc^i OF
SHADED A/SEA
dA

+
/
) + }.
ddiP
- axph\
h
dA /.+%. y- 2
Y,j
+ f/ dF \ AX.
AXc - /A I ( Pi/3 - APH
dY Ji+.i+i 2
L _
+
AAV,
+ . i+J 2
3 dF A1
-PH + AXPH
dA /,_}, 2
( dF AYj-i
+ -PH3 - - + A XPH
Fig. 2 \ dA /;-}, i
5F , \ AXi
~~ 3 dF " yi+ ~2~
tion where the complexity of the bearing geometry prevents ac-
dF
curate representation of clearance and pressure fields by means PH3 + AUPH
of numerical grids, (c) effective means for dealing with inertia dY /i-.i-i
effects which, although seldom met in gas bearing situations, are
becoming important in general lubrication theory, and (d) multi- = a Pjj {(H,AAV, + H2AXi)AYj-i
phase flow existing in the bearing clearance).
+ (H 3 AAV, + H t A X ^ A Y j - (3)
4 Direct Numerical Solution Methods
These methods are characterized by the fact that numerical Note that if no discontinuity in clearance occurs between
approximations are applied directly to Reynolds' equation thus
cells 1 and 2, then (i-,j - 1/2) 1
reducing the problem to an algebraic one. Therefore that which
= (i+,j - 1/2) = (i,j - 1/2)
follows is divided in two sections, one treating the discretization
of Reynolds' equation, and the other the solution techniques cells 2 and 4, then (f + 1/2, j-)
applicable to the ensuing set of nonlinear algebraic equations. = (i + 1/2, j+) = (i + 1 2, j)
(4)
cells 3 and 4, then ( i - , j + 1/2)
5 Discretization of Reynolds' Equation = (i+,j + 1/2) = (i,j + 1/2)
For the purpose of numerical approximation of Reynolds'
equation, the dependent variable distribution is represented at a cells 1 and 4, then (i - 1/2, j - )
finite number of points located at intersections of a grid mesh. = (i - 1/2, j+) = (i - 1/2, j)
The type of grid used is governed by the type of geometry con-
A typical term on the left-hand side of equation (3) is then ap-
sidered.
proximated by central difference formulas as
In particular, grid lines should fall on all boundaries and all
discontinuities of clearance and their spacing should be con- ( dF
PH3 - AXPH
trolled by the accuracy desired in the solution. Particular atten- V dA
tion should be devoted to regions of the bearing film in which
1
boundary-layer phenomena may occur at high values of the
F,-+1, j (H>i+h (P,+u - Pij)
compressibility number (axial ends of journal and trailing edges AA,
of pad-type bearings). For the purpose of this presentation, we
will treat a problem which is conveniently stated in a rectangular Aj,-+J, j Hi*.4, ,-+ (5)

coordinate system. The solution of the problem requires the

writing of one algebraic equation at each of the grid points. where H3i+ j, ,+ and Hi+i, are represented by averages of H*
Three eases are distinguished in the following treatment: (a) and H at points i + 1, j and i,j on the +j side of the grid line
Regular point with or without clearance discontinuity, (b) point connecting them.
with pressure fixed, and (c) point at which mass flow is stipulated. Note that- if a step is present, the clearances on the + and
(a) Regular Point. As an illustration, consider the grid point (, side of it usually differ by a constant factor
j), (Fig. 2) and the following form of Reynolds' equation.
Hi+i. J+ = Hi+i. j- + d, (0)
bPH
div [.PH3 grad F - A P # ] = <r (1) To express Hh H2, H3, and Ht, it is sufficient to take the
clearance at point i,j on the side of cells 1, 2, 3, and 4, respec-
where tively.
6MLV 12/JL-co (b) Point at W h i c h Pressure is Fixed. T h e p r e s s u r e a t all p o i n t s i n
A = 2 T rco recesses, boundaries of recesses, and external boundaries of bear-
PaC ings are known. However, in order to generalize the statement
of the problem, it is convenient to consider the pressure unknown
Integrating equation (1) over and applying Gauss' theorem
and to add the equation

< ( P H 3 grad P - APH)-ndl = a ~ f f PHdxdy (2) p..

1 lj = 1Pr (7)
11' y c/ t/ 2,-j
to the set of equations defining the problem.
where n is the unit normal to I*,-,- and
(c) Point at W h i c h M a s s F l o w Is Stipulated. This situation occurs
dl is an element of length along F y
when the recess pressure is not specified a priori but must be ob-
Equation (2) is approximated by tained as a result of the balance of the flow entering the recess

Journal of Lubrication Technology O C T O B E R 1 9 6 8 / 7 7 9

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 through a restrictor and exiting through the bearing film. The where all the variables are dimensionless, and X is the direction
balance equation is: of motion.
Let the quantity H\p be arbitrarily split in the following man-

where
(PH* grad P - APH)ndl - a (PrVr)
al
+ fin = 0 (8) ner:

H\p = (Hf) ox + (M)tx = (Hf\y + (2)

and
Ar = recess area
T r = recess boundary
= w + at) - t m
SS.
(3)
Vr = recess volume ecess depth + H)dxdy bT AT

fi = fin(PT) Ps) dimensionless flow from the supply Substitution of expressions (2) and (3) into equation (1) and
flow RtL2\2ii appropriate evaluation of the terms of the right-hand side yields
through the restrictor = equation (4) which contains all forms of Reynolds' equation
c3P2
treated in the literature as particular cases. It should be
A suitable numerical approximation must be written for equa- noticed that, evaluation of the right-hand side of equation (1) at
tion (8) along the lines followed for equation (2). any value of time between T and T + AT gives a truncation
It is to be noted that the treatment presented in the foregoing error of 0(A7'). The particular selection used in equation (4) is
yields algebraic equations in which the values of the dependent made for convenience in the computation of all terms which are
variable at the grid point (;i, j ) and its four adjacent neighbors inconsequential with regard to numerical stability.
appear. This is usually the case. However, some choices of
coordinate systems for special bearing types may produce equa- b2\p(T + AT)
tions containing other sets of unknowns. For instance, the solu- <P(T + AT) = (Hrj/)0
AT bX2
tion of grooved bearings followed the approximation introduced
by Vohr and Chow [4] generates equations involving the values + AT) bhp b2H
of the unknowns at the grid point (;', j) and the eight adjacent (H\p) + mOi r-
bY2 bX2 bX2
points.
It should be noticed that the methods just presented are par- b f y b bH b\p
H
ticularly suited to cases presenting discontinuities. Many smooth bXj ~~ * bX bX ~ ' bX + AT *
clearance variation problems are treated by approximating deriva-
tives in Reynolds' equation directly by standard central differ- , b2\p , b2H (bxp\2 , b\p bH'
ence formulas [5, 6]. + (H^)ly ~ - "A2 2 H I " <A (4)
dF 2 bY bY 51'

6 Solution Techniques for Direct Numerical Methods All derivatives appearing in equation (4) are in practice ap-
proximated by the methods of Section 5.
The solutions of the equations resulting from Section 5 are dis-
The problem can now be stated succinctly as
tinguished in two classes, one in which the time derivative is not
equal to zero, thus giving rise to a diffusion process, the other in [L]{xP(T + AT)} (5)
which the time derivative is equal to zero representing an equi-
librium situation. Due to the compressibility of the gas, time The solution of equation (5) is
transient processes can arise even in cases in which the film
{xP(T + AT)} = [L]~l{R} (6)
geometry is not variable in time.
The vector {ft} contains all values of the dependent variables
evaluated at time T. The afore-mentioned methods can now be
7 Time-Dependent Solution Techniques
distinguished by the following selections in the splitting described
The integration of the time-dependent Reynolds' equation by equation (2).
produces the variation in time of the pressure distribution as a I Explicit M e t h o d [7]
response to the imposed film geometry, its rate of variation in
time, and the initial conditions. It is commonly employed to (Hrf/) ox = (H\P)0 = 0 1
simulate the behavior of dynamic systems of which gas bearings (7)
(H<P) = (H^\y = H\p]
are a part. Such problems require the simultaneous integration
of the appropriate equations of motion governing all dynamic de- It Implicit Method [8]
grees of freedom [7, 8]. Due to the nonlinear nature of Reynolds'
(.1) Simultaneous
equation, direct numerical procedures must be used whenever
the expected excursions in film geometry are sufficiently large to (HxP),, = (H+)0y = Hi
invalidate small parameter linearization. (8)
(Hi) ,x = (Uip)ly = 0
The core of all numerical integration methods is to update
through a small time interval A71 the distribution of pressure (B) Alternating Direction
while the film geometry and its local rate of change are known.
1st step (H\p)0l = (H4>), = H\p
Three basic methods are described; explicit, implicit, and semi- (9)
implicit. The latter two, in turn, are further subdivided into (im = (H\p)ix = o
simultaneous and alternating direction techniques.
2nd step (Hi)0x = (Ht)iy = 0
All afore-mentioned methods can be obtained from a basic (10)
unified treatment which for the purpose of this presentation is (H<P)0y = (H\p)tx = H\p
applied to a particular though common form of Reynolds' equa-
III Semi-Implicit Method [9] [10]
tion
(.A) Simultaneous
A
bxP
bT
, b\L , b2\p
, c)2\p

, b2H
, b2H

( b f y
m -
b\p bH
bX bX
bjp bH'
(Hi) x = (Hi)

(Hi),, = (Hi)lu
0 = K

= (Hip) - Ii
(11)

- A + H\p - \p2 + H (1)

bX Y bY 2 Y bY2 / _ ?>Y bY (B) Alternating Direction

780 / O C T O B E R 1 9 6 8 Transactions of the A S M E

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 1st step (Hi)0x = K where
(Hi) 0 = 0 AT A?'
(12) a = (17)
(Hi)lz = (Hi) - K AA"2' AF2
(Hi),, = (Hi)
and az, ay are constant as AT, AX, and A F * 0.
The amplification factor is the number by which the modulus
2nd step (Hi)0y = K of any component of the error is multiplied by at each time step.
(Hi) , = 0 A sufficient condition for numerical stability is then that
(13)
(Hi)ly = (Hi) - K J.AT!
< 1 (18)
(Hi)ix = (Hi)
This results in the following stability conditions for:
K is an}' time-independent function. 1 Methods I, 11(A), 111(4):
The five methods exposed in the foregoing must now be com-
pared on the basis of two criteria: computational expediency and i 2 r (iH\x - (iH)0l (iH)ly - (iH)/
numerical stability. (19)
AT > A L (AX)2 (AF)2
Computational Comparison
Equation (19) combined with equations (7) or (8) or (11)
I The matrix [L] is diagonal with elements\/AT. Its inverse
yields the following detailed conditions.
is also diagonal with elements AT/A. Therefore this method is
I The well-known explicit stability limit
one of extremely rapid execution (much faster than any of the
others). 1 1
11(A) The matrix [L] is not diagonal and its inverse requires
AT ,(AA') 2
+ (A
i F! ) 2 ]
(iH) (20)
considerable computational time. Although the column method
presented in the Appendix can be employed for the inversion of
11(A) Unconditionally stable for AT.
[L], this method is slower than any of the others mainly because
I l l ( A ) Stable if
the elements of [L] vary with time and [L] - I must be obtained
at each time step.
11(B) If the problem involves M X A' grid of unknowns, [L]
is block diagonal and, in particular, in the 1st step it contains iV
1
AT > I
A [(AAV + (AW]
m
- K) (21)

M X M blocks and in the 2nd step .V N X N blocks. Obtaining which is always satisfied (making the method unconditionally
[ L ] - 1 is therefore much less laborious than in method 11(A). stable) if K is selected to be greater than ipH. Note that making
The drawback of having to recompute \L\ - 1 at each time step an a priori estimate for ipH is a simple task in most gas bearings.
remains. 2 Method 11(B) is unconditionally stable.
I l l ( A ) and I I I ( B ) . These methods are similar to 11 ( A ) and 3 Method I l l ( i i ) is unconditionally stable if K > iH.
11(B), respectively, with the essential difference that [L] does It should be noted that all of the foregoing criteria are based
not contain any time-varying terms; therefore [L] _ 1 can be ob- on small values of AT. Therefore the "unconditional stability"
tained once and for all. is subject in actuality to a finite magnitude of A2'. Moreover,
the foregoing stability conditions are invalidated at large values
Numerical Stability Comparison
of the local compressibility parameter A because the approxima-
The problem of numerical instability arises from the discretiza- tions employed in arriving at the stability limits neglected terms
tion of the time variable. Indeed it is well known that passive which should be retained at high A.
element electric analog computers (which discretize space but not
time) are not subjected to instability phenomena. Discussion
Characteristic of this phenomenon is the fact that the errors 1 M e t h o d I. It has a very rapid execution per time step but is
grow unbounded and uncontrolled, totally obliterating the solu- limited to the use of small AT for numerical stability. There-
tion. Any single step of the previously described methods can fore it should be used only when small values of the time step are
be analyzed for error growth by means of a simple treatment.. required b y the accuracy of the computation or by the need of
following rapidly varying degrees of freedom in the dynamic
Let i = i + e (14)
system connected with the bearing.
where 2 Method 11(A). This method has the advantage of uncondi-
i = solution at any point and time which deviates from the tional stability and, as compared to Method I, it should be used
actual solution i by the error term e. whenever the rest of the problem allows a A7' size large enough to
offset the slower execution per time step. However, it would seem
Introducing equation (14) in the numerical approximation to that the use of this method should be discontinued in view of im-
equation (4) yields an equation, which, for small values of e, can provements offered by methods 11(B), 111(A), and III(B). It
be solved by should be noted that vast experience exists with this method while
A'
the same is not true for those which follow.
e(X, F, T) = Y, A exp [anT + a / - 1 (bX + c n F ) ] (15)
71=1 3 Method 11(6). This method contains the benefits inherent in
the alternating direction solution concept. However, it has not
where every term represents a solution. been used in gas bearing work. Furthermore, the reservations
Solving for the "amplification factor" of any term in equation expressed in the foregoing concerning the implicit technique are
(15) to accuracy of (HAT1). retained.
j e nAr| =
4 Method lll(A). Computer timesaving in the order of two to
five times over competitive methods just mentioned is realized
I , b AX 1 , cA YI in this case. The method has been employed in numerous
1 - 4 - (iH)ixOtx sin2 4 (iH)lyav sin2 i
A I A 2 solutions of gas bearing problems and is presently establishing
its reputation as the choice over Methods 11(A) and 11(B).
1 + 4 ^ (tH)oxOi, sin2 h~~ + 4 i (iH)0y ay sin2 C"A5 5 Method lll(B). This method has been used once to the
2
authors' knowledge and appears to hold great promise for future
(16) work.

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 It is to be noted that with the exception of I and 11(A) limited
experience exists for the methods herein described. Assumptions + E ^ >'~i<) + E ^ q W
fc = 1 k=1
made in the process of arriving at conditions of stability are still
subject to verification by actual experience over an extended , " aD(QW) n .. dK^(QM)} .(r+l)
range of gas bearing problems. However, advantages, in particu-
lar for method III in terms of computation timesaving realized,
are already accumulating the required knowledge and skill. + e Aw>) + E - ^ r - 1
M=i i _ i
k=i y^' J+
vii. i+1
Further details for the implementation of these methods can be
found in references [11] and [12], ac ( t >(QW) (r) IL
* az>d2V'>(QM)
it<"
+ E y. Qk /ti(r)
Methods for the solution of the linear systems derived from the h
k=i bQn. i+1 1 k =, 1 bQ, j+i
foregoing approaches are described in the Appendix.
a R/>>(Q<r>)]
[ Qm. )+ i (r+1 > = Ri u l (Q' r > )
bQn. i+1 I
8 Time-Independent Solution Techniques M i + 1 df?.<>)(OW) M M J+ 1

The most commonly encountered problem in lubrication tech- - E E W > + E E E

nolog3r is that of producing data (pressure distributions, resulting
forces and moments, friction power losses) for equilibrium opera-
tion of gas bearing systems. Although it is possible to obtain
steady-state solutions as asymptotic limits of the time-dependent
problem, it is usually more economical to treat Reynolds' equa-
tion with the time-derivative term set equal to zero. Possible
exceptions to the preceding statement are provided by the cases
in which the equilibrium configuration of the system is not known
a priori such as those of tilting pad bearings with assigned pivot
position and pivotal clearance, and those of any gas bearing sys-
tem for which the geometry corresponding to a few externally
applied specified loads is desired. For these situations it is con-
venient to obtain the results by means of a time transient analysis
in which the equations of motion of the system can be written
with arbitrary values of inertia properties and externally imposed
clamping to promote quick attainment of equilibrium.
The greatest difficulty encountered in solving the steady-state
Reynolds' equation is provided by its nonlinear nature. Three
of the four techniques presented next are based on iteration
techniques in which linear problems are solved at each step. The
nonlinearity thus becomes a mere coefficient of the linear equa-
tion, the value of which is assumed known from the previous
iteration. The convergence characteristics of such iteration
techniques are difficult to analyze and skill and past experience
are the most valuable guides in this field.
8(A) "Newton-Raphson"Linearization Procedure
Reynolds' equation to be solved can be linearized by means of a
Newton-Raphson method. For this purpose we can treat a more
general form of the numerical problem.
M M
E Eik<(Q)Qk. j-i +
k= l
Note that, for the purpose of numerical treatment equation (4)
has the same general form of equation (1) in as much as it involves
unknowns located on t h e j 1, j, j + 1 columns only.
Equation (4) has a formidable appearance but, for most
problems, only few terms are nonzero. Furthermore, regardless
of the number of nonzero terms present, solutions may be ob-
tained by the columnwise method described in the Appendix.
The present linearization method affords great speed of con-
vergence (typically quadratic) even for problems with large values
of the compressibility number A. Due to the slight increase in
complexity of this method as compared to the natural lineariza-
tion one this method is recommended for the solution of problems
involving high values of A.
8(B) Natural Linearization. The natural linearization procedure
consists of writing Reynolds' equation in terms of a variable con-
taining P 2 multiplied by some convenient power of H . In terms
of this new variable all pressure flow terms (first term on left-
hand side of equation (1), Section II) become linear and the shear
flow terms (second term on left-hand side of equation (1), Section
[12]. The II) contain the nonlinearity in the form OF Vq.
Iteration is
then performed over the terms so that a linear problem is solved
each time.
M
E c<ka)(Q)Qk.,- + E A V ' W X ^ , = RiuKQ) (1)
k=1 it = 1
i = l , . . . Af. j = 1, . . . N

All nonlinear terms are absorbed in the E , C , D matrices and the

R vector. For example, using the definition
This procedure solves the system Q = P--H2 (1)
f(Q) = 0 (2) Reynolds' equation can be written as
by the sequence of approximations (Q)1, (Q)2, . . . . (Q) M gen- V2Q - (VQ) - (V In H ) - 2QV2H/H = R H S (2)
erated by the linear equations
where R H S is equal to
f(Q(r>) + (Q ( r + 1 ) - QM) = 0 (3) A lag aQ
for the time-dependent ease,
hVq Uy
Applying this to equation (1) results in
A aq
(b) for the steady-state case,
ii Vq ~dX

+ f.^1
I; = 1 OWjI. /-I
u g m
j-1
^ (c)
2A a
h
Vq
ax
for the steady-state case.

Note that case (c) differs from case (6) in the fact that iteration
bRJ'HQ^)] JH, f
- ' Q. ,-. (r+1 > + E (4) is performed on the entire nonlinear term thus obviating the
j -1 I u=l 1 necessit}' of inverting the operator operating on Q at each itera-

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 tion. However, the convergence of case (c) is poorer than that of
case (b). In the latter, convergence is rapid, yielding an improve-
ment in the order of one decimal digit accuracy with each itera-
tion. This convergence is unaffected by the shape of the film
easily solving cases with divergent-convergent profiles which are
notoriously ill-behaved when treated by relaxation methods.
Convergence rate becomes poorer as the value of the local com-
pressibility number increases (the local compressibility number is
formed by using the local value of the clearance). Typically no
convergence is obtained for local values of A of about 50.
Due to the fact that the linear problem is solved at each itera-
tion any of the linear methods enumerated in the Appendix can be
utilized.
It is noted that the foregoing procedures are effected after dis-
cretization of the continuous equations by means of finite-dif-
ference schemes.
8(C) Relaxation (13-16]. Relaxation methods can be applied to
the nonlinear algebraic equations constituting the numerical ap-
proximation to Reynolds' equation in essentially the same manner
as they are applied to linear problems (see Appendix). In es-
sence the equation applicable to grid point (i, j) is solved for the
value of the dependent variable at the same point in terms of
its value at other points in the grid considered known from a
previous iteration.
= 0(x) (2)
is equivalent to the original problem.
A step by step procedure is then employed by which g(x) is
obtained from the solution of equation (1) and then integrated
over an interval Av to obtain the distribution of <f>(x) at v + Av.
The integration may be performed for example by the well-known
Runge-Kutta technique. The procedure begins with a known
solution for 4>(x) at some value of the parameter v. Typically for
the Reynolds' equation the known starting solutions are at A = 0,
e = 0.
Note that if the dependent variable is PH the form of the equa-
tions generated is the same as that given in Section 10(A). As an
example consider equation (1) Section II written for a steady-
d
state isothermal film, i.e., = 0 and p c P. Let h be a function
dl'
of the parameter t (as in a journal bearing where h = 1 + e cos d).
The application of the present method yields the following
system:
CV-V*g + D-Vf/ + Eg + F = 0 ] (3)
dp
(4)
Te= g

Successive iterations over all points in the grid hopefully

produce a distribution of the dependent variable which satisfies
all equations simultaneously. Difficulties arise from the fact
that the methods presented in the Appendix for the study of con-
vergence are not applicable in this case and the successful at-
tainment of a solution depends on the intuition and skill of the
user.
Over and under relaxation can be employed in nonlinear cases
to both alter the rate of convergence of convergent cases and to
make convergent a limited number of nonconverging cases.
However, no theoretical prediction of values of the relaxation
parameter for maximum rate of convergence can be made in gen-
eral.
Particular difficulties are encountered wdien convergent-
divergent film shapes are analyzed and at high values of the local
compressibility number.
Due to the power of more recently developed methods enumer-
ated in this paper relaxation procedures are now seldom employed
to solve lubrication problems. General recommendations are:
Write the solution algorithm such that it will produce an itera-
tion matrix with as strong a diagonal dominance as possible.
(For definition of diagonal dominance, see Appendix, Section A.)
It should be noted that the values of the iteration matrix ele-
ments are functions of the dependent variable and therefore the
character of the matrix itself is altered at each iteration. How-
ever, pessimistic estimates of the values of the dependent varia-
ble can be made to verify a priori the diagonal dominance charac-
ter of the iteration matrix.
8(D) Parameter Perturbation [17]. A sequence of linear problems
each of which is obtained by a small parameter perturbation of a
previous one may be generated to solve a nonlinear problem. In
other words, the answer is realized by successive integration of the
rate of change of the solution with respect to some parameter ap-
pearing in the problem. Iteration may be avoided because each
differential equation solved is a linear one. The procedure may
be summarized symbolically as follows:
Given the nonlinear operator D[(j>(x)} = 0 where <f> is a func-
tion of the parameter v appearing algebraically in D{ } and/or
the boundary conditions.
Differentiating D} } and boundary conditions with respect to
p the linear operator L{ } is obtained, i.e.,
[fl{<(x)}] = L{ f f (x)} = 0 (1)
df
where
ph3
C =
12 pi
h-Vp /(V
+ 2
\12 n) 12/.
(5)
h3Vp hV
E = V- +
12/i
3 h*Vp VI dh
12p. + 2 }V de
If the distribution of p is known at a value of e = e0 the coef-
ficients of equations (5) can be evaluated and the linear equation
(3) solved for g. Integrating equation (4) over Ae yields dis-
tribution of p corresponding to o + Ae. Repeating this proce-
dure results in the pressure distribution for ail}' e.
9 Analytical Numerical Solution Methods
These methods are characterized by the fact that they ap-
proximate the solution of the problem by analytical means de-
signed to reduce the order of difficulty of the differential equa-
tions. This is usally accomplished by representing the de-
pendent variable by a parametric expansion or an expansion in a
complete set of functions. Therefore two basic approaches are
followed. In the first, the nonlinear problem is reduced to a se-
quence of linear ones. In the second, the problem is reduced to a
set of nonlinear algebraic equations in the unknown expansion
coefficients. Due to the practical necessity of truncating expan-
sions to a small number of terms, these methods result in sys-
tematic errors, the size of which is often difficult to determine.
Thus, in deciding whether to utilize the methods herein prescribed,
one has to carefully weigh the advantages drawn by the simplicity
of their implementation against the lack of faith in the validity
of the results so obtained.
10 Linearized Equations
10(A) "Linearized PH" [18, 19]. The governing nonlinear equa-
tion (2-1) is written in terms of the dependent, variable

Equation (1) coupled with Q = PH (1)

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 an entity which is particularly suitable for numerical treatment motions. Due to tne diffusion character of the compressible
due to its smooth behavior over the geometric domain. lubricant equation the bearing responses are time dependent and
This results in: they must be superimposed according to Duhamel's theorem.
In the implementation of this method an "orbit program" [7, 8]
HQV'Q - Q2V2H - A is utilized to generate the bearing responses very accurately.
dX After this initial investment of computer time all system re-
as shown sponses corresponding to different inertial conditions and ex-
ternal excitations can be run cheaply. This saving in computer
= Q(VVff-VQ) - ff(VQ-VQ) + A || (2) time plus the great accuracy maintained in small motion analysis
make the method preferable to all others in the study of stability
It is to be noted that transformations suitable for various geom- in the small for complex systems. The form of Duhamel's
etries which bring improvement over the straight P distribution t heorem used is
are recognized as Q, = P\ Q, = (PH)'/', Q3 = (PH)2. The
"PH Linearization Theory" proposes that all nonlinear terms are r,(0 = ^J?(0)S) + S^TWJAT - T)CH (7)
discarded and furthermore that variations in the coefficients are Jo
neglected by replacing It and Q with Hays.
This results in: where

dQ A_ i>0 r,-(t) = j t h force response at time I

V'Q - + V2 H (3)
HK dX H'nx bT Si(t) = displacement of ith degree of freedom at time t
//;;(< t ) denotes rs function at time t produced by a unit
The quotation marks are used in the foregoing because the state- value of the S j function at time r.
ment is at odds with the usual understanding of linearization n = number of degrees of freedom
procedures wherein terms strictly of the same order of magni-
As an example, if the system considered is that of a shaft in
tude are retained. There is no direct guarantee that such is the
translational motion supported bj' gas journal bearings the equa-
case here.
tions of motion are:
10(B) PH Perturbation [20,33], The present method is applicable
in cases where a regular perturbation of the dependent variable mbx = dFr + external forcing functions^
with respect to a small parameter v can be performed. (S)
mSij = 5Fy + external forcing functions/
The sum of the first two terms of a direct Taylor expansion are
used as approximations to the dependent variable Q and the film where

/:
thickness H, i.e.,

Q = Qo + vQ* SFX = Hxx{Q)8x(L) + dxHxx(l - T)CLT

(v = perturbation parameter) (4)

/:
H = Ho + vH* (9)
where Qo is the solution to equation (2) with v = 0. In the + Hxv{0)by{t) + 8,jHx,Jl - T)DR
particular case where VH0 = 0, equation (2-1) becomes

i>Qo and similarly for bF y .

HoQoV*Qo - A ^ = -Ho(VQoY (5)
Once the functions Hx Hxv, Hyy, It>JI have been generated it
where is a simple matter to integrate equations (8) to obtain the de-
sired motions. In practice the response functions H ; are trans-
Qo = Ho
formed from a numerical form given by the orbit program to an
on the boundaries where P = 1 analytical representation in terms of LaGuerre polynomials
Substitution of (4) into (2) yields in order v
H(t)-H(~)= X) AnLn{al)e- (10)
HoQo^Q* + H0Q*V2Q0 + H*QoV2Qo - 2Q0Q*V2H0 n= 0

- Qo^H* - A d - % = Qo(VHo-VH*) + Qo(Vff*-VQ 0 ) where

oA
dQ* .'1 are the LaGuerre coefficients
- 2H(VQo-VQo) - H*(VQo-VQo) + A (6) Ln(al) are the LaGuerre polynomials
~dT
a is a suitably chosen constant.

where Ho and Q0 are known. In the particular case where VH0

= 0 equation (6) simplifies to
dQ*
HoQo^-Q* + HoQ*V2Qo + H*QoV2Qo - Q02V2H* - A
dA
dQ*
= Q(Vff*-VQ) - (2Ho + ff*)(VQ)2 + A
52'
which is amenable to treatments proposed in the Appendix and in
the section on time-dependent Reynolds' equation solutions.
10(C) Step Jump [21]. The step-jump procedure is utilized in
the time transient and stability analysis of gas bearing systems.
This method generates the force responses of the bearing to per-
turbations of the dynamic degrees of freedom by solving the
complete nonlinear Reynolds' equation but then superposes
these results to generate the response of the system to any excita-
tion. In the latter step the system linearity is assumed, thus
limiting the range of validity of results to small amplitude
11 Nonlinearized Equations
Two examples are considered to illustrate treatment of non-
linear equations. The first examines a general procedurethe
Galerkin Method, the second describes a particular treatment of
the case of a hydrostatic source fed bearing.
11(A) Galerkin Method [22, 23]. The basic idea of this method
consists in seeking the approximate solution of the differential
equation Z>{ \p(x, j/)j = 0 with homogeneous boundary conditions
in the form
y) ^ ip(x, IJ) = V) (1)
!=1
ipi, i = 1, 2, . . . N, is a system of functions selected beforehand
which satisfy the same boundary conditions, and the a f are co-
efficients to be determined by the method. The i = 1,2,...
N, are selected from a set of functions which is complete in the re-

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 B C
L = i + ~ + (4)
712 11*

The desired limit is of course \p. For example considering two

estimates 1 and 2, the extrapolated limit becomes

4$. -
i = (5)

The computation of \p is facilitated by appropriate choice of the

approximating sets [A'] and [F], The ease of manipulation and
control of p Jf , v is affected by this choice. Mathematically no re-
strictions other than those imposed by the boundary conditions
and the aforementioned set completeness exist. However,
orthogonality is preferred for simplicity in derived results, and
Fig. 3
simplicity of functions is preferred to minimize analytical effort.
If the boundary conditions are not homogeneous they must be
gion of interest and the a, are determined from the condition that made so by an appropriate choice of a particular integral.
D\ 1p} is orthogonal to each of the tpt, i.e.,
The operator D{ } provides insight in the choice of appro-
priate sets. Considering the plain cylindrical journal bearing the
JJ^ "i<Pi(x, V) | <pj(x, y)dxdy = 0 (2) periodic trigonometric functions in the circumferential direction
present themselves as logical choices:
j - 1, 2, . . . N
M
The problem is thus reduced to the solution of N simultaneous i = H + c cos (2n - 1) +
1, = 1
equations in the a, and is linear only if the operator D { j is
linear. [A,,,,, cos ind cos (2n 1) "y B, sin m6 cos (2n 1)
This method is amply expounded in reference [22] and in the L 1-j _
original work by Galerkin. The question of convergence as
A" 00 has been answered by Keldysh in reference [35].
The problem connected with the fact that the boundary con- As a final note in this discussion of the Galerkin technique at-
ditions may not be homogeneous may be circumvented by con- tention is directed to the fact that it is particularly useful when
structing a function ipi(x, y) which is equal to the nonhomogenei- accuracy in the average is more important than accuracy in de-
ties 011 the boundaries and arbitrary otherwise. Changing tail. However, considerable detail accuracy is attainable under
variables to the proviso that the truncation error pifN is carefully controlled.
11(B) Hydrostatic-Discrete Source Bearing. The pressure dis-
iu(x, 11) = \p(x, y) - \pi(x, y) tribution in the clearance space of a hydrostatic bearing fed by a
number of discrete point sources is governed by the following form
the problem is reduced to the proper form.
of Reynolds' equation
In addition, the function 1p and the expansion (1) must satisfy
some conditions of continuity and differentiability which are
mentioned in the foregoing references. S(x, y)
In practice it is often possible to utilize functions which are
equal to products of the type
= - E WMX - xiWv - vi> (y)
j=i
a,<p,(x, y) = clmX,(x)Ym(y)
The source distribution-function S(x, y) is represented in the fore-
This is particularly the case in regions which are rectangular in going by a sum of delta functions locating the sources at the points
the coordinates, i.e., regions in which are bounded by lines where (Xj, y s ) and appropriately weighted by the mass flow rates 11',.
either x or y are equal to a constant. Introducing the following definitions
The series is truncated in I and m, respectively equal to M and
X, yielding a residue Pmx(x, y)- Note that if A',F, belong to a
complete set 3 M and N 9|pJ/w| < e where e < 0 and arbitrarily
U = a, = 2AnRl\\\
P 'c> a
(8)
small. Thus convergence of series subject to completeness con-
ditions is guaranteed. Furthermore, the residue is required to be and H = h/c, tj = two-dimensional position vector between the
orthogonal to all functions used in approximating the unknown j'th supply hole and any field point (x, y), equation (7) becomes
xp(.r, y) i.e., A'
B(tj)
(h r>i\ r> b Y-H3VU = E (9)
2-rn-j
dx j = i
I dx I pM.wXmYdy = I
Ja J c. Ja
This equation is linear in U and thus admits a solution

E CjjXtYj\XmYJy = 0 (3)
l> = l j = i > u = iijUj (10)
i=1
m = 1, 2, 3 . . . . .1/
where , satisfies
n = 1, 2, 3 . . . . A"
g(rJ)
Thereby, MXN algebraic equations required for the evaluation V-if'Vu, = - (ID
2irr ;
of the M X X unknowns c,y are established.
Richardson's extrapolation may be used to accelerate the with Uj = 0 on-the boundary.
asymptotic approach to the desired solution. Given f j , 3 The solution Uj is expressed as:
as a sequence of functions approaching \p (representing the
Galerkin expansion truncated at higher levels) the nth term of 1 I -1 f. X,r,-2
In ); (1 - In r , ) ] + F A (12)
the sequence is assumed to be Vj ' //V= 2tt ffV.

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 where { 4 }<m+ = [i)]-l[AH {}() + []-'{) Co)
Hj = Hit, = 0)
In a generalized form this method includes the case in which [D]
X(r) = V 2 / / ' / y / / 3 A
contains more terms of [A] than the mere diagonal ones. Typi-
Xy = X(ry = 0), X = Xy at source j
cally [D] may contain a series of blocks disposed along the
and where F s satisfies. diagonal thus being a "block-diagonal" matrix. In this case [Z>]
is obtained as block diagonal matrix where each one of the blocks
is an inverse of the corresponding block in the original [D].
( V 2 _ X ) F i = ( X
- A l ~ X/) l n r >_ T y r '* ( 1 ~ ln Ti)
(b) Gauss-Seidel. Examination of the Jacobi iteration method
(13) shows that in general one must save all the components of the
vector while computing the components of the vector
with B.C. ja.J(m+i)_ j t would intuitively seem very attractive to use the
latest estimates z,<m+I> of the components A , of the unique solu-
^boundary = fln ri ~ V/C1 ~ ln (14) tion vector { i } in all subsequent computations. This results
in the iterative method

This is recognized as a nonsingular equation with a well-

behaved source term and is therefore easily solved by numerical .(m+l) = - E a,;*/' + E a,7/ m) + ki (0)
methods such as the columnwise inversion technique (see Appen- an J= 1 j = i+1
dix).
Now define the influence coefficient a i S = tt,(xi/, xay) a suitable This method has the computational advantage in that it does
average u t over a circle centered at jth hole having the radius of not require the simultaneous storage of the two approximations
the jth hole. xS.m +i) a n c j x im) a a (j o e s t.lio point Jacobi iterative technique.

Pressure atj'th source becomes The matrix [A] is split in the following manner:

N N [A] = IB] - [E] - [F] (7)

P/ = 1 + E V&ii - 1 + E bW^n (15)
where
where [D] is the diagonal of [A]
[.E] lower triangular matrix of [A]
_ 24pRt .
h = j =* l , . . . N (16) [F] upper triangular matrix of [A]

Equation (2) is then solved by

Restrictor equations define the flow rates 17,- as
{*}<-+ = [[D] - []]-4F]{z)<'> + [[D] - [E]]-i{K\ (8)
IF,. = IF ,(/>,-, P.) (17)
Also in this case the matrix [D] can be block diagonal rather
where P, = supply pressure. than simply diagonal.
Solution of the foregoing 2N simultaneous equations (15) and
A relaxation procedure can be combined with either of the pre-
(17) results in the determination of the 2N unknowns P j and IFy.
vious methods by means of the formula
xXm+i) = x Xm) (9)
APPENDIX
where w is called the "relaxation factor."
Solution Techniques for Linear Systems Incorporating the foregoing formulation into the equations for
This section is concerned with the efficient solution of linear the Jacobi and Gauss-Seidel methods results, respectively, in:
sets of algebraic equations. Five techniques are presented:
{zjon+D = [(i _ W)[j] + w [B]- 1 [JV]]{) < "' )
iteration, columnwise inversion, Bickley-McNamee, Booj'-Cole-
man, and direct inversion. + w[D]">{/v) (10)
(A) Iteration Methods [24], [25], [6], [5]. The general form of the { } < - + = [(i co)[7] + c o [ [ D ] - [ i ? ] ] - [ F ] ]{*!<>
problem treated is
+ [[] - IJ5]]-{K) (11)
Ej auxi fc, i = 1, . . . n (1) Note that selecting go = 1 is equivalent to accepting x{m +1) as
the new iterate (m +1) .
or in matrix form Both methods can be expressed in the general form
[A]{*} = { K } (2) j x }(m+l) = [(?]{a;}(0 -f [C] (12)
Two basic techniques will be presented:
Of interest, is the study of the convergence properties of the
(a) Jacobi and (b) Gauss-Seidel. iteration process. Let
Both rely on starting from a guess of the distribution of the
unknowns and improving it by successive iterations. {x}(> = {z} + {}<'> (13)
(a) Jacobi. The ith equation is satisfied by adjusting the value
where E lm i
is the deviation of the ?nth iterate {:r}(",> from the
of ith unknown at the m + 1 iteration while all other unknowns
exact solution {a:}.
retain their values established at the ?th iteration. Symbolically
Substituting (13) into (12) and using (2),
k{ {}<m+n = [(?]{} o> = [G] ">+>{}> (14)
(3)
jVi For convergence it must be that

The matrix [A] is split in the following manner lim [&']' = 0 (15)
m
[A] = IB] - IN] (4)
Any matrix [G] possessing property (15) is called convergent.
where [D] = diagonal of [A]. Equation (2) is then solved by It can be proven that any n X n complex matrix is convergent if

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 and only if p( [G]) < 1 where p is the "spectral radius" of [G] de- Iteration procedures can be improved in terms of their rate of
fined by convergence. It can be shown that after a large number of
iterations the rate of convergence is equal to ln(p[G]). There-
p([G]) = maxjX.j (16) fore procedures producing a smaller spectral radius converge
1 < i < n faster. Moreover, after a large number of iterations the charac-
ter of the convergence is that of a decaying exponential. On the
and
basis of this, extrapolation schemes can be adopted of the type;
X,- = ?'th eigenvalue of [G] (17)

It is therefore important to establish a procedure for estimating }x}<"+'' - {a:}('">

a priori a value for p. Many such procedures can be found in the + (26)
1-P([G])
literature but perhaps the most powerful one is that based on the
theorem of Gerschgorin. The relaxation factor co can be used to improve the rate of con-
Let [G] = <7- be an arbitrary n X n complex matrix, and let vergence. This can be achieved by using the fact that there exists
a relation between the spectral radius p. of the Jacobi procedure
1 < i < n (18) with co = 1 and the spectral radius X of the Gauss-Seidel proce-
A , - E k i
3=1 dure with any value of co:
Mi
(X + co l); 1 = XP'^H" (27)
and
where
r,: E 1 < j < n (19) p = "index of cyclicity" of the matrix [A] and is equal to the
1=1 number of eigenvalues of [A] with modulus of p([A]).
tVj
then all the eigenvalues of [G] obey the following relations The index p can be easily established by graph theory. Equa-
tion (27) can be utilized to determine the value of co which
- ?,-,,< A f 1 < i < n minimizes X and therefore optimizes the rate of convergence.
(20) For example, given p = 2 (which is a very common case)
|X-flJ<r, 1 < j < n
(a) if p. is known
On the basis of the foregoing theorem it can be proven that if
the matrix [A] of equation (2) is a strictly or irreducibly di- COopt = (28)
agonally dominant complex matrix both iteration schemes of (1 - \ / l - M2)
equations (10) and (11) withco = 1 are convergent.
The following definitions are useful: (b) if X* corresponding to to* is known,
() Matrix [A] is strictly diagonally dominant if |a,-,| > A,
,+ [
2

for all i.
() Matrix [A] is irreducibly diagonally dominant if it is ir-
reducible and |o,,| > A, for all i with strict inequality for at least
one i.
(c) Matrix [A] is irreducible if it can not be partitioned into
the following block form:
An I A12
[A] =
o : A22
where An and A22 are square submatrices.
Simple techniques for establishing the irreducibility of a matrix
are available in texts on graph theory. For general matrices [A],
convergence is established in an ad hoc manner, if such informa-
tion is desired a priori. It is useful to note that the Jacobi and
the Gauss-Seidel methods both, either converge or diverge for
the same co.
The estimate of p can be improved during computation if the
matrix [G] contains only nonnegative elements. Then, if {:r} (0)
is positive, {.-r} is positive for all (m) and defining
V
COont (29)
- (X* "h co* l) 2
X*co*2
It is to be noted that proper use of co may effect dramatically
the rate of convergence and consequently the number of iterations
required to obtain the desired answer.
(B) Column Method [25], [27], [11]. T o d a t e this t e c h n i q u e is t h e
(21) most powerful used in the solution of gas bearing problems. Com-
parison with relaxation schemes for the same solution accuracy
in terms of the number of iterations has evidenced savings in the
realm of one or two orders of magnitude. Associated savings
in computer time in the performance of these calculations has
been similarly impressive. The technique has been adapted to
the solution of irregular boundary and multiply connected bod}-
problems in lubrication, elasticity, heat transfer, and other fields.
The general form of the numerical approximations to both the
incompressible Reynolds' equation and the linearized compressible
Reynolds' equation can be represented in matrix notation as
follows:

x.(' +i) [C,-] {Qj} + [ ^ { Q i - , } + [D y ]{Q; + .i = {/? y } (1)

Xi'"1' = max (22) j = 1, 2, . . ., N
x;,<m>
where N = number of columns,
X
X .(">) ' (23)
{Qj\ = vector of jth column of unknowns,
[Cy], [E,], [D,], M X M matrices of coefficients,
it can be proven that M = number of rows
{ R = vector of jth column of right-hand sides
X,(') < Xi (m+1) < p([G]) < X i ( m < X,<<> (24)
For regular field points and, in general, equations not involving
and
mixed second derivatives the matrices [E\ and [D] are diagonal
lim Xi('"> = lim Xi<-"> = p([G]) (25) while [C] is tridiagonal.
m-*- co m-*- co It should be observed that equation (1) is applicable to regular
field points as well as points defining boundaries and recesses.
The rate of convergence of these sequences is proportional to the
In the latter cases, the dependent variable is specified by
"dominance ratio"
Q Qboundary (2)

Journal of Lubrication Technology october 1968 / 787

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 which can be considered a particular form of a row of equation [C] = [T][W][T]~\ (2)
(1).
If the Mth row represents a line of physical symmetry, equa- and premultiplying by [I']-1 equation (1) becomes
tion (2) is replaced by
m m - ' W i + m-[Q][o] = m - m a)
QM+I, i = QM-I, . (3)
Changing variables to
which also is a particular form of equation (1).
Similar treatment can be given to lines of symmetry located at
[u\ =m ~ m (4)
the 1st row, the 1st column, and the Arth column. equation (3) becomes
The solution of equation (1) can then be obtained by searching
for influence coefficients of a column of unknowns on the pre- [W\[U] + [U][D] = = [Si- (5)
vious one, i.e., by relations of the type
For further clarity, writing equation (5) in indicial notation
{<?;-,} = [-4 ,]{<?,} + [Bj] (4)
1F(0u* + E Ui(D(i = SiH (6)
Substituting equation (4) into equation (1) and solving for
{;},
Ui([D(k + %.IF ( l ) ] = S , (7)
{Oil = [[Cy] + [Ej\ [.4j] ] ~l[Dj\ {Qy+i} f
+ liC,] + [ E j W A , ] ] - { { , } - [EMBj]}. (5) This equation can be solved separately for each value of i.
Thus a simultaneous set of M X N equations in M X Ar un-
Comparing equation (5) with equation (4), recurrence rela-
knowns has been reduced to M sets of N equations in N
tions for matrices [.4] and } / i j are obtained:
unknowns with corresponding saving in computation time.
MJ+1] = -HMD;}, (6) For particular forms of the operator matrix [C] it is possible to
produce the eigenvector matrix [7'] and the eigenvalue matrix
and
[II'] analytically, otherwise standard numerical procedures can
be used.
IBJ+> 1= - [,]{,!}, (7)
Very limited computational experience exists with this method.
where: It could possibly be very sensitive to the accuracy with which the
eigenvalues and eigenvectors of matrix [C] are obtained and
[/,] = [[C,l + [Ej\ [.'ly] ] - 1 (S)
handled.
If the boundary values of Q are known on column 1, (D) Booy's M e t h o d With C o l e m a n ' s I m p r o v e m e n t [30, 31]. This
method treats elliptic equations of the following general nature
[A 2 ] = [0] (9)
V2Q = fix, y, Q,Q,Z, Q,a) 0 < x < a
{ f t ! = {<?,} (io) f linear in Q, Q,x, Q,u 0 < y < b
(1)

Then, equations (6), (7), and (8) are used for

N POINTS
j = 2,..., N - 1 y

and the matrices [/!,], { B ; } are saved.

(o,b) (a,b)
If the boundary values of Q are known on column N, equation
(4) is used recursively for

j = X, N - 1, . . ., 2 .
M'S POINTS
At the end of this process all values of Q have been determined. (O.o) (a,oj X

As evidenced in the foregoing description this procedure in- Fig. 4

volves Ar inversions of an .1/ X M matrix. Since this represents the
greatest part of the required operations, the required running time
Mixed linear boundary conditions may be considered but in
is proportional to N X M 3 . It is therefore very important to per-
form the inversion in the bearing direction containing the least particular for demonstration purposes assume
number of grid points. This method presents great advantages <3(0, y) = Q(a, y) = Q(x, 0) = 1 (2a)
over relaxation and boundary influence methods since it solves
the problem exactly in a finite number of steps and it is not dQ
(x, b) = 0 (2b)
equivalent to the determination of homogeneous solutions. In- <>y
deed, the influences of neighboring columns are not multiplied
out until all boundary conditions are satisfied. Equation (1) written in central difference form generates vec-
(C) Bickley-McNamee Method [28, 29], This method is par- tor-matrix equations of the form
ticularly powerful and of simple application for a restricted class
{<?;+.} = [A,]{<?,} + [BylfQ;-,} + {7y}, j = 1, 2, . . . . N (3)
of problems; namely, ones involving no clearance variation along
one of the coordinate directions. Arranging the array of un- wherein the j subscript indicates the pertinent row of the grid
knowns in the form of a matrix corresponding to the geometrical mesh under consideration. Furthermore, note that the y } - row
distribution of the unknowns in the grid, the Reynolds' equation vector absorbs the boundaries Q(0, y) and Q(a, y) and that Q(x, 0)
can be expressed in the form
= 1 implies = 1,
^ = 0 implies Qi.x-1 = Qr, ,v+i
di/
[C] [Q] + [Q] [D] = [[{} (1)
A solution to equation (1) written in (3) format results in
Clearly, this is only possible if clearance variation is limited to
{Qy} = [S,]{Q 2 } + \Tj\ (4)
one coordinate direction.
Expressing the matrix [C] in terms of the matrix of its eigen- Equation (4) is now substituted into equation (3) to obtain re-
vectors [T] and the diagonal matrix of its eigenvalues [IF], cursion relations in [S] and { t } , i.e.,

788 / O C T O B E R 1 9 6 8 Transactions of the A S M E

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 {Qy+i] = ([A,] [Sy] + [By] [jS/_i] ){Q 2 } + [Ay]{r,j dure need be done only often enough to control the growth of
+ [By] {77-,} + { T y } (5) [SJ.
Very simple criteria may be used to determine when to ortho-
Therefore normalize. Let (?t, v) denote the usual inner product of two vec-
[S,-+J = [Ay] [Sy] + [By] [S,_J (6a) tors, then if at some j , (s>, s i )' / ' 2 becomes too large for some i, ortho-
normalization should be performed. This requires a test for each
{ry +1 } = [Ay] fry} + [By] {Tj_l} + { y y} (66) j, but even this can be avoided, for orthonormalizations can be
performed at preassigned intervals. In examples reported by
Starting values are obtained from the boundary conditions Coleman where the solution was to be of order one, every 10th
step was adequate with (s', = 103. Other more sophisti-
M = {1} [SJ = [0] cated tests exist but are less efficient computationally, and are not
{ n . , } = {0} [SJ = [J] needed to obtain accurate results.
This method compares favorably with the best techniques
The boundary conditions at y = b determine Q2 as follows: enumerated in this paper for cases of regular rectangular domains.
Its basic drawback is that it adapts poorly to irregular boundary
{Q* + 1 } = {Q*-.}
shapes and cases with internal feeding grooves and holes. Thus
{Qa'+J = [SA' + J{(? 2 } + {T,V+1} its application is limited to special purpose programs.
= [SA--I]{Q4 + {T,v-I} = {<2,v-.} (E) Direct Inversion [24, 25, 5], T h e matrix problem
.'. [Sw+i S J v_j{Q 2 } = {TN-I - r,v+i}
[A]{X) = {K} (1)
and can be solved directly in the form
{Q2I = [SN+1 - Sat-J _1{R,v-i - taM (7) {A'} = [A]-'{/<:} (2)

Calculations for Ar large become unstable (Ar = 20 on 16 digit The inverse [A] - 1 is usually obtained by means of the Gauss
machine for Laplacian) due to the loss of orthogonality and elimination procedure which is incorporated in standard com-
normality of the solution eigenvectors as a result of accumulation puter library subroutines. The description of the same is avail-
of truncation error. Coleman reinterpreted this procedure by able in all numerical methods texts. In the case of symmetric
suggesting the following: [A] matrices considerable computer timesaving can be obtained
With the initial condition [SJ = [0] and [S2] the identity by adopting the following procedure, called the "square root
matrix, equation (6a) generates a fundamental solution of the method" [32].
system of difference equation (3), i.e., M linearly independent Define the triangular matrix [S] with elements:
solutions of the homogeneous difference equation (6a) such that
for any boundary condition {Q 2 }, an appropriate linear combina- a'i
S,i = Van; Siy = j > 1
tion, viz. [Sy] {Qj}, can be found which is a solution of the ho- Sn
mogeneous equation, satisfies the {Q 2 } boundary condition, and
is {0j at { & } . The solution of (66) is the particular solution
that satisfies the initial condition Q,m = 1 and = 0, i = 1, 2, So- = \au - " e S,,.', i> 1;
' 1= 1
...,M.
Thus the columns of the 2M X M matrix
E SuStj
S = ~ , j > i (3)
(8)
LsJ S,.y = 0 i > j
are m linearly independent solutions of (3) at the jth point, just Now
as the 2m vector
[A] = [ S ] W (4)

(9) Equation (1) is equivalent to

[S]{Xl = {F} (5)

is the resultant of the integration of the particular solution to
the jth point. This is exactly analogous to the integration of a [S]''lF} = { K j (6)
system of nonhomogeneous linear differential equations with
boundary conditions at each end of the interval and allows the Therefore, with
problem to be attacked with powerful techniques from differential t-1
equations. K, - Z 3ltf,
The cause of the instability notfed previously is due to two (7)
r _ h . , _ -, i > 1
ji - , .u -
sources. As equation (6a) is repeatedly used, the M solutions Oil S
given by the columns of equation (8) grow in magnitude and be-
come more dependent. Originally the vectors were of length 1 the solution is given by
and orthogonal to each other. Either of these effects will lead
to poor numerical results, but combined they result in a poor in-
verse equation (7) and a loss of significant figures as equation (4)
is used due to the addition of large numbers to produce small
fn
/, " E
S
Snt,
, i < n.
(S)

results.
T o recover an accurate solution it is necessary to inhibit the
growth and the increasing dependence of the M vectors of the
fundamental solution. This is accomplished bj' orthonormaliz-
ing the M vectors of equation (8) and then projecting the par-
ticular solution equation (9) into the orthogonal complement of
the space spanned bj' the orthonormalized vectors. This proce-
The computation time involved in using these methods is
proportional to the third power of the matrix size. Therefore a
problem with N X M unknowns requires computer times pro-
portional to N 3 M Z . Obviously, this becomes prohibitive for
most practical cases.
2 [S] r = transpose of [>S].

Journal of Lubrication Technology october 1 9 6 8 / 7 8 9

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 29 ]'v[odrey, J., "Green's FWlCtions for Journal Bearings," Uuion
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790 I 0 C T 0 BER 1 968 Transactions of the AS ME

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