Cattle

Cattle
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Cattlecolloquiallycows[note1]arethemostcommontypeoflarge
domesticatedungulates.Theyareaprominentmodernmemberofthesubfamily Cattle
Bovinae,arethemostwidespreadspeciesofthegenusBos,andaremost
commonlyclassifiedcollectivelyasBostaurus.Cattleareraisedaslivestockfor
meat(beefandveal),asdairyanimalsformilkandotherdairyproducts,andas
draftanimals(oxenorbullocksthatpullcarts,plowsandotherimplements).Other
productsincludeleatheranddungformanureorfuel.Insomeregions,suchas
partsofIndia,cattlehavesignificantreligiousmeaning.Around10,500yearsago,
cattleweredomesticatedfromasfewas80progenitorsinsoutheastTurkey.[1]
Accordingtoanestimatefrom2011,thereare1.4billioncattleintheworld.[2]In
2009,cattlebecameoneofthefirstlivestockanimalstohaveafullymapped
genome.[3]Someconsidercattletheoldestformofwealth,andcattleraiding
consequentlyoneoftheearliestformsoftheft.
ASwissBraunviehcowwearingacowbell
Contents
Conservationstatus
1 Taxonomy
Domesticated
2 Etymology
3 Terminology Scientificclassification
3.1 Singularterminologyissue
3.2 Otherterminology Kingdom: Animalia
4 Characteristics Phylum: Chordata
4.1 Anatomy
4.1.1 DigestiveSystem Class: Mammalia
4.1.2 Gestationandsize
4.1.3 Reproduction Order: Artiodactyla
4.2 Weight Family: Bovidae
5 Cognition
6 Temperamentandemotions Subfamily: Bovinae
7 Senses Genus: Bos
7.1 Vision
7.2 Taste Species: B.taurus
7.3 Audition
7.4 Olfactionandgustation Binomialname
7.5 Touch Bostaurus
7.6 Magnetoreception
Linnaeus,1758
8 Behavior
8.1 Reproductivebehavior
8.2 Dominanceandleadership
8.3 Grazingbehavior
9 Genetics
10 Domesticationandhusbandry
10.1 Usageasmoney
10.2 Modernhusbandry
10.3 Sleep Bovinerange
11 Economy
Synonyms
11.1 Cattlemeatproduction
11.2 Dairy
11.3 Hides Bosprimigenius
12 Feralcattle Bosindicus
13 Environmentalimpact
14 Health
14.1 Effectofhighstockingdensity
15 Oxen
16 Religion,traditionsandfolklore
16.1 Hindutradition
16.2 Othertraditions
17 Inheraldry
18 Population
19 Seealso
20 References
21 Notes
22 Furtherreading
Taxonomy
Cattlewereoriginallyidentifiedasthreeseparatespecies:Bostaurus,theEuropeanor"taurine"cattle(includingsimilartypes
fromAfricaandAsia)Bosindicus,thezebuandtheextinctBosprimigenius,theaurochs.Theaurochsisancestraltoboth
zebuandtaurinecattle.Thesehavebeenreclassifiedasonespecies,Bostaurus,withthreesubspecies:Bostaurusprimigenius,
Bostaurusindicus,andBostaurustaurus.[4][5]
Complicatingthematteristheabilityofcattletointerbreedwithothercloselyrelatedspecies.Hybridindividualsandeven
breedsexist,notonlybetweentaurinecattleandzebu(suchasthesangacattle,Bostaurusafricanus),butalsobetweenoneor
bothoftheseandsomeothermembersofthegenusBosyaks(thedzooryattle[6]),banteng,andgaur.Hybridssuchasthe
beefalobreedcanevenoccurbetweentaurinecattleandeitherspeciesofbison,leadingsomeauthorstoconsiderthempartof
thegenusBos,aswell.[7]Thehybridoriginofsometypesmaynotbeobviousforexample,genetictestingoftheDwarfLulu
breed,theonlytaurinetypecattleinNepal,foundthemtobeamixoftaurinecattle,zebu,andyak.[8]However,cattlecannot
successfullybehybridizedwithmoredistantlyrelatedbovinessuchaswaterbuffaloorAfricanbuffalo.
TheaurochsoriginallyrangedthroughoutEurope,NorthAfrica,andmuchofAsia.Inhistoricaltimes,itsrangebecame
restrictedtoEurope,andthelastknownindividualdiedinMasovia,Poland,inabout1627.[9]Breedershaveattemptedto
recreatecattleofsimilarappearancetoaurochsbycrossingtraditionaltypesofdomesticatedcattle,creatingtheHeckcattle
breed.
AHolsteinFresian ubro,awisentand
cow,atypicalmember cattlehybrid
oftheBostaurus
taurussubspecies
Etymology
Cattledidnotoriginateasthetermforbovineanimals.ItwasborrowedfromAngloNormancatel,itselffrommedievalLatin
capitale'principalsumofmoney,capital',itselfderivedinturnfromLatincaput'head'.Cattleoriginallymeantmovable
personalproperty,especiallylivestockofanykind,asopposedtorealproperty(theland,whichalsoincludedwildorsmall
freeroaminganimalssuchaschickenstheyweresoldaspartoftheland).[10]Thewordisavariantofchattel(aunitof
personalproperty)andcloselyrelatedtocapitalintheeconomicsense.[11]ThetermreplacedearlierOldEnglishfeoh'cattle,
property',whichsurvivestodayasfee(cf.German:Vieh,Dutch:vee,Gothic:faihu).
Theword"cow"cameviaAngloSaxonc(pluralc),fromCommonIndoEuropeangus(genitivegows)="abovine
animal",comparePersiangv,Sanskritgo,Welshbuwch.[12]ThepluralcbecamekiorkieinMiddleEnglish,andan
additionalpluralendingwasoftenadded,givingkine,kien,butalsokies,kuinandothers.Thisistheoriginofthenowarchaic
Englishplural,"kine".TheScotslanguagesingulariscooorcou,andthepluralis"kye".
InolderEnglishsourcessuchastheKingJamesVersionoftheBible,"cattle"referstolivestock,asopposedto"deer"which
referstowildlife."Wildcattle"mayrefertoferalcattleortoundomesticatedspeciesofthegenusBos.Today,whenused
withoutanyotherqualifier,themodernmeaningof"cattle"isusuallyrestrictedtodomesticatedbovines.[13]
Terminology
Ingeneral,thesamewordsareusedindifferentpartsoftheworld,butwithminor Lookupcattleorcowin
differencesinthedefinitions.Theterminologydescribedherecontraststhedifferences Wiktionary,thefree
indefinitionbetweentheUnitedKingdomandotherBritishinfluencedpartsofthe dictionary.
worldsuchasCanada,Australia,NewZealand,IrelandandtheUnitedStates.[14]
An"intact"(i.e.,notcastrated)adultmaleiscalledabull.Awild,young,
unmarkedbullisknownasa"micky"inAustralia.[15]Anunbrandedbovineof
eithersexiscalleda"maverick"intheUSAandCanada.
Anadultfemalethathashadacalf(ortwo,dependingonregionalusage)isa
cow.
Ayoungfemalebeforeshehashadacalfofherown[16]andisunderthreeyears
ofageiscalledaheifer(/hfr/r).[17]Ayoungfemalethathashadonly
onecalfisoccasionallycalledafirstcalfheifer.
Youngcattleofbothsexesarecalledcalvesuntiltheyareweaned,thenweaners AnOngolebull
untiltheyareayearoldinsomeareasinotherareas,particularlywithmalebeef
cattle,theymaybeknownasfeedercalvesorsimplyfeeders.Afterthat,theyare
referredtoasyearlingsorstirks[18]ifbetweenoneandtwoyearsofage.[19]
AcastratedmaleiscalledasteerintheUnitedStatesoldersteersareoften
calledbullocksinotherpartsoftheworld,[20]butinNorthAmericathisterm
referstoayoungbull.Pikerbullocksaremickybulls(uncastratedyoungmale
bulls)thatwerecaught,castratedandthenlaterlost.[15]InAustralia,theterm
"Japaneseox"isusedforgrainfedsteersintheweightrangeof500to650kg
thataredestinedfortheJapanesemeattrade.[21]InNorthAmerica,draftcattle
underfouryearsoldarecalledworkingsteers.Improperorlatecastrationona
bullresultsinitbecomingacoarsesteerknownasastaginAustralia,Canada AHerefordbull
andNewZealand.[22]Insomecountries,anincompletelycastratedmaleis
knownalsoasarig.
Acastratedmale(occasionallyafemaleorinsomeareasabull)keptfordraftpurposesiscalledanox(pluraloxen)
"ox"mayalsobeusedtorefertosomecarcassproductsfromanyadultcattle,suchasoxhide,oxblood,oxtail,orox
liver.[17]
Aspringerisacoworheiferclosetocalving.[23]
Inallcattlespecies,afemaletwinofabullusuallybecomesaninfertilepartialintersex,andiscalledafreemartin.
Neat(hornedoxen,fromwhichneatsfootoilisderived),beef(youngox)andbeefing(younganimalfitforslaughtering)
areobsoleteterms,althoughpoll,pollardorpolledcattlearestilltermsinusefornaturallyhornlessanimals,orin
someareasalsoforthosethathavebeendisbuddedordehorned.
Cattleraisedforhumanconsumptionarecalledbeefcattle.WithintheAmericanbeefcattleindustry,theoldertermbeef
(pluralbeeves)isstillusedtorefertoananimalofeithersex.SomeAustralian,Canadian,NewZealandandBritish
peopleusethetermbeast.[24]
Cattlebredspecificallyformilkproductionarecalledmilkingordairycattle[14]acowkepttoprovidemilkforone
familymaybecalledahousecowormilker.A"freshcow"isadairytermforacoworfirstcalfheiferwhohas
recentlygivenbirth,or"freshened."
Theadjectiveapplyingtocattleingeneralisusuallybovine.Theterms"bull","cow"and"calf"arealsousedby
extensiontodenotethesexorageofotherlargeanimals,includingwhales,hippopotamuses,camels,elkandelephants.
Singularterminologyissue
Cattlecanonlybeusedinthepluralandnotinthesingular:itisapluraletantum.[25]Thusonemayreferto"threecattle"or
"somecattle",butnot"onecattle".NouniversallyusedsingularforminmodernEnglishof"cattle"exists,otherthanthesex
andagespecifictermssuchascow,bull,steerandheifer.Historically,"ox"wasnotasexspecifictermforadultcattle,but
generallythisisnowusedonlyfordraftcattle,especiallyadultcastratedmales.Thetermisalsoincorporatedintothenamesof
otherspecies,suchasthemuskoxand"gruntingox"(yak),andisusedinsomeareastodescribecertaincattleproductssuch
asoxhideandoxtail.[26]
"Cow"isingeneraluseasasingularforthecollective"cattle",despitetheobjections
bythosewhoinsistittobeafemalespecificterm.Althoughthephrase"thatcowisa
bull"isabsurdfromalexicographicstandpoint,theword"cow"iseasytousewhena
singularisneededandthesexisunknownorirrelevantwhen"thereisacowinthe
road",forexample.Further,anyherdoffullymaturecattleinornearapastureis
statisticallylikelytoconsistmostlyofcows,sothetermisprobablyaccurateevenin
therestrictivesense.Otherthanthefewbullsneededforbreeding,thevastmajorityof
malecattlearecastratedascalvesandslaughteredformeatbeforetheageofthree
years.Thus,inapasturedherd,anycalvesorherdbullsusuallyareclearly
distinguishablefromthecowsduetodistinctivelydifferentsizesandclearanatomical
differences.MerriamWebster,aUSdictionary,recognizesthesexnonspecificuseof ABrahmancalf
"cow"asanalternatedefinition,[27]whereasCollins,aUKdictionary,doesnot.
Colloquially,moregeneralnonspecifictermsmaydenotecattlewhenasingularformisneeded.Australian,NewZealandand
Britishfarmersusetheterm"beast"or"cattlebeast"."Bovine"isalsousedinBritain.Theterm"critter"iscommoninthe
westernUnitedStatesandCanada,particularlywhenreferringtoyoungcattle.[28]InsomeareasoftheAmericanSouth
(particularlytheAppalachianregion),wherebothdairyandbeefcattlearepresent,anindividualanimalwasoncecalleda
"beefcritter",thoughthattermisbecomingarchaic.
Otherterminology
Cattleraisedforhumanconsumptionarecalled"beefcattle".Withinthe
Acow'smoo
beefcattleindustryinpartsoftheUnitedStates,theterm"beef"(plural
0:00 MENU
"beeves")isstillusedinitsarchaicsensetorefertoananimalofeithersex.
Cowsofcertainbreedsthatarekeptforthemilktheygivearecalled"dairy
cows"or"milkingcows"(formerly"milchcows").Mostyoungmale Problemsplayingthisfile?Seemediahelp.
offspringofdairycowsaresoldforveal,andmaybereferredtoasveal
calves.
Theterm"dogies"isusedtodescribeorphanedcalvesinthecontextofranchworkintheAmericanWest,asin"Keepthem
dogiesmoving".[29]Insomeplaces,acowkepttoprovidemilkforonefamilyiscalleda"housecow".Otherobsoleteterms
forcattleinclude"neat"(thisusesurvivesin"neatsfootoil",extractedfromthefeetandlegsofcattle),and"beefing"(young
animalfitforslaughter).
Anonomatopoeictermforoneofthemostcommonsoundsmadebycattleis"moo"(alsocalledlowing).Thereareanumber
ofothersoundsmadebycattle,includingcalvesbawling,andbullsbellowing.Bawlingismostcommonforcowsafter
weaningofacalf.Thebullroarermakesasoundsimilartoabull'sterritorialcall.[30]
Characteristics
Anatomy
Cattlearelargequadrupedalungulatemammalswithclovenhooves.Mostbreedshavehorns,
whichcanbeaslargeastheTexasLonghornorsmalllikeascur.Carefulgeneticselectionhas
allowedpolled(hornless)cattletobecomewidespread.
DigestiveSystem
Cattleareruminants,meaningtheirdigestivesystemishighlyspecializedtoallowtheuseof
poorlydigestibleplantsasfood.Cattlehaveonestomachwithfourcompartments,therumen,
reticulum,omasum,andabomasum,withtherumenbeingthelargestcompartment.The
reticulum,thesmallestcompartment,isknownasthe"honeycomb".Cattlesometimes
consumemetalobjectswhicharedepositedinthereticulumandirritationfromthemetal
objectscauseshardwaredisease.Theomasum'smainfunctionistoabsorbwaterandnutrients
fromthedigestiblefeed.Theomasumisknownasthe"manyplies".Theabomasumislikethe
humanstomachthisiswhyitisknownasthe"truestomach". Dairyfarmingandthe
milkingofcattlewasonce
Cattleareknownforregurgitatingandrechewingtheirfood,knownascudchewing,likemost performedlargelybyhand,
ruminants.Whiletheanimalisfeeding,thefoodisswallowedwithoutbeingchewedandgoes butisnowusuallyreplaced
intotherumenforstorageuntiltheanimalcanfindaquietplacetocontinuethedigestion bymachine
process.Thefoodisregurgitated,amouthfulatatime,backuptothemouth,wherethe
food,nowcalledthecud,ischewedbythemolars,grindingdownthecourse
vegetationtosmallparticles.Thecudisthenswallowedagainandfurtherdigestedby
specializedmicroorganismsintherumen.Thesemicrobesareprimarilyresponsiblefor
decomposingcelluloseandothercarbohydratesintovolatilefattyacidscattleuseas
theirprimarymetabolicfuel.Themicrobesinsidetherumenalsosynthesizeamino
acidsfromnonproteinnitrogenoussources,suchasureaandammonia.Asthese
microbesreproduceintherumen,oldergenerationsdieandtheircellscontinueon
throughthedigestivetract.Thesecellsarethenpartiallydigestedinthesmall
intestines,allowingcattletogainahighqualityproteinsource.Thesefeaturesallow
Anatomymodelofacow
cattletothriveongrassesandothertoughvegetation.
Gestationandsize
Thegestationperiodforacowisaboutninemonthslong.Anewborncalf'ssizecanvaryamongbreeds,butatypicalcalf
weighsbetween25to45kg(55to99lb).Adultsizeandweightvarysignificantlyamongbreedsandsex.Theworldrecordfor
theheaviestbullwas1,740kg(3,840lb),aChianinanamedDonetto,whenhewasexhibitedattheArezzoshowin1955.[31]
TheheavieststeerwaseightyearoldOldBen,aShorthorn/Herefordcrossweighinginat2,140kg(4,720lb)in1910.[32]
Steersaregenerallykilledbeforereaching750kg(1,650lb).Breedingstockmaybeallowedalongerlifespan,occasionally
livingaslongas25years.Theoldestrecordedcow,BigBertha,diedattheageof48in1993.
Reproduction
Onfarmsitisverycommontouseartificialinsemination(AI)),amedicallyassistedreproductiontechniqueconsistingofthe
artificialdepositionofsemeninthefemale'sgenitaltract.[33]Itisusedincaseswherethespermatozoacannotreachthe
fallopiantubesorsimplybychoiceoftheowneroftheanimal.Itconsistsoftransferring,totheuterinecavity,spermatozoa
previouslycollectedandprocessed,withtheselectionofmorphologicallymorenormalandmobilespermatozoa.
Thegestationperiodforacowisaboutninemonthslong.Anewborncalf'ssizecanvaryamong
breeds,butatypicalcalfweighsbetween25to45kg(55to99lb).Adultsizeandweightvary
significantlyamongbreedsandsex.Theworldrecordfortheheaviestbullwas1,740kg(3,840lb),
aChianinanamedDonetto,whenhewasexhibitedattheArezzoshowin1955.[34]Theheaviest
steerwaseightyearoldOldBen,aShorthorn/Herefordcrossweighinginat2,140kg(4,720lb)
in1910.[35]Steersaregenerallykilledbeforereaching750kg(1,650lb).Breedingstockmaybe
allowedalongerlifespan,occasionallylivingaslongas25years.Theoldestrecordedcow,Big
Bertha,diedattheageof48in1993.
Acow'suddercontainstwopairsofmammaryglands,(commonlyreferredtoasteats)creatingfour
"quarters".[36]Thefrontonesarereferredtoasforequartersandtherearonesrearquarters.[37]
Reproductivesystemof
Bullsbecomefertileataboutsevenmonthsofage.Theirfertilityiscloselyrelatedtothesizeof
abovinefemale.
theirtesticles,andonesimpletestoffertilityistomeasurethecircumferenceofthescrotum:a
youngbullislikelytobefertileoncethisreaches28centimetres(11in)thatofafullyadultbull
maybeover40centimetres(16in).[38][39]
Bullshaveafibroelasticpenis.Giventhesmallamountoferectiletissue,thereislittleenlargement
aftererection.Thepenisisquiterigidwhennonerect,andbecomesevenmorerigidduring
erection.Protrusionisnotaffectedmuchbyerection,butmorebyrelaxationoftheretractorpenis
muscleandstraighteningofthesigmoidflexure.[40][41][42]
Weight
Theworldrecordfortheheaviestbullwas1,740kg(3,840lb),aChianinanamedDonetto,whenhe
wasexhibitedattheArezzoshowin1955.[43]TheheavieststeerwaseightyearoldOldBen,a
Shorthorn/Herefordcrossweighinginat2,140kg(4,720lb)in1910.[44] Oxtestis.
Theweightofadultcattlevaries,dependingonthebreed.Smallerkinds,suchasDexterandJersey
adults,rangebetween272to454kg(600to1,000lb).LargeContinentalbreeds,suchasCharolais,Marchigiana,BelgianBlue
andChianina,adultsrangefrom635to1,134kg(1,400to2,500lb).Britishbreeds,suchasHereford,Angus,andShorthorn,
maturebetween454to907kg(1,000to2,000lb),occasionallyhigher,particularlywithAngusandHereford.[45]
Bullswillbeabitlargerthancowsofthesamebreedbyafewhundredkilograms.Chianinabullscanweighupto1,500kg
(3,300lb)Britishbulls,suchasAngusandHereford,canweighaslittleas907kg(2,000lb)toasmuchas1,361kg
(3,000lb).
Itisdifficulttogeneralizeoraverageouttheweightofallcattlebecausedifferentkindshavedifferentaveragesofweights.
However,accordingtosomesources,theaverageweightofallcattleis753kg(1,660lb).Finishingsteersinthefeedlot
averageabout640kg(1,410lb)cowsabout725kg(1,600lb),andbullsabout1,090kg(2,400lb).[46]
IntheUnitedStates,theaverageweightofbeefcattlehassteadilyincreased,especiallysincethe1970s,requiringthebuilding
ofnewslaughterhousesabletohandlelargercarcasses.Newpackingplantsinthe1980sstimulatedalargeincreaseincattle
weights.[47]Before1790beefcattleaveragedonly160kg(350lb)netandthereafterweightsclimbedsteadily.[48][49]
Cognition
Inlaboratorystudies,youngcattleareabletomemorizethelocationsofseveralfoodsourcesandretainthismemoryforat
least8hours,althoughthisdeclinedafter12hours.[50]Fifteenmontholdheiferslearnmorequicklythanadultcowswhich
havehadeitheroneortwocalvings,buttheirlongertermmemoryislessstable.[51]Maturecattleperformwellinspatial
learningtasksandhaveagoodlongtermmemoryinthesetests.Cattletestedinaradialarmmazeareabletorememberthe
locationsofhighqualityfoodforatleast30days.Althoughtheyinitiallylearntoavoidlowqualityfood,thismemory
diminishesoverthesameduration.[52]Underlessartificialtestingconditions,youngcattleshowedtheywereabletoremember
thelocationoffeedforatleast48days.[53]Cattlecanmakeanassociationbetweenavisualstimulusandfoodwithin1day
memoryofthisassociationcanberetainedfor1year,despiteaslightdecay.[54]
Calvesarecapableofdiscriminationlearning[55]andadultcattlecomparefavourablywithsmallmammalsintheirlearning
abilityintheClosedfieldTest.[56]
Theyarealsoabletodiscriminatebetweenfamiliarindividuals,andamonghumans.Cattlecantellthedifferencebetween
familiarandunfamiliaranimalsofthesamespecies(conspecifics).Studiesshowtheybehavelessaggressivelytowardfamiliar
individualswhentheyareforminganewgroup.[57]Calvescanalsodiscriminatebetweenhumansbasedonprevious
experience,asshownbyapproachingthosewhohandledthempositivelyandavoidingthosewhohandledthemaversively.[58]
Althoughcattlecandiscriminatebetweenhumansbytheirfacesalone,theyalsouseothercuessuchasthecolorofclothes
whentheseareavailable.[59]
Inaudioplaybackstudies,calvesprefertheirownmother'svocalizationscomparedtothevocalizationsofanunfamiliar
mother.[60]
Inlaboratorystudiesusingimages,cattlecandiscriminatebetweenimagesoftheheadsofcattleandotheranimalspecies.[61]
Theyarealsoabletodistinguishbetweenfamiliarandunfamiliarconspecifics.Furthermore,theyareabletocategorizeimages
asfamiliarandunfamiliarindividuals.[57]
Whenmixedwithotherindividuals,clonedcalvesfromthesamedonorformsubgroups,indicatingthatkindiscrimination
occursandmaybeabasisofgroupingbehaviour.Ithasalsobeenshownusingimagesofcattlethatbothartificially
inseminatedandclonedcalveshavesimilarcognitivecapacitiesofkinandnonkindiscrimination.[62]
Cattlecanrecognizefamiliarindividuals.Visualindividualrecognitionisamorecomplexmentalprocessthanvisual
discrimination.Itrequirestherecollectionofthelearnedidiosyncraticidentityofanindividualthathasbeenpreviously
encounteredandtheformationofamentalrepresentation.[63]Byusing2dimensionalimagesoftheheadsofonecow(face,
profiles,views),allthetestedheifersshowedindividualrecognitionoffamiliarandunfamiliarindividualsfromtheirown
breed.Furthermore,almostalltheheifersrecognizedunknownindividualsfromdifferentbreeds,althoughthiswasachieved
withgreaterdifficulty.Individualrecognitionwasmostdifficultwhenthevisualfeaturesofthebreedbeingtestedwerequite
differentfromthebreedintheimage,forexample,thebreedbeingtestedhadnospotswhereastheimagewasofaspotted
breed.[64]
Cattleusevisual/brainlateralisationintheirvisualscanningofnovelandfamiliarstimuli.[65]Domesticcattleprefertoview
novelstimuliwiththelefteye,i.e.usingtherightbrainhemisphere(similartohorses,Australianmagpies,chicks,toadsand
fish)butusetherighteye,i.e.usingthelefthemisphere,forviewingfamiliarstimuli.[66]
Temperamentandemotions
Incattle,temperamentcanaffectproductiontraitssuchascarcassandmeatqualityormilkyieldaswellasaffectingthe
animal'soverallhealthandreproduction.Cattletemperamentisdefinedas"theconsistentbehavioralandphysiological
differenceobservedbetweenindividualsinresponsetoastressororenvironmentalchallengeandisusedtodescribethe
relativelystabledifferenceinthebehavioralpredispositionofananimal,whichcanberelatedtopsychobiological
mechanisms".[68]Generally,cattletemperamentisassumedtobemultidimensional.Fiveunderlyingcategoriesoftemperament
traitshavebeenproposed:[69]
shynessboldness
explorationavoidance
activity
aggressiveness
sociability
InastudyonHolsteinFriesianheiferslearningtopressapaneltoopenagatefor
accesstoafoodreward,theresearchersalsorecordedtheheartrateandbehaviorofthe
heiferswhenmovingalongtheracetowardsthefood.Whentheheifersmadeclear
improvementsinlearning,theyhadhigherheartratesandtendedtomovemore
vigorouslyalongtherace.Theresearchersconcludedthiswasanindicationthatcattle
mayreactemotionallytotheirownlearningimprovement.[70]
Negativeemotionalstatesareassociatedwithabiastowardnegative(pessimistic)
responsestowardsambiguouscuesinjudgementtasksasencapsulatedinthequestion
of"istheglasshalfemptyorhalffull?".Afterseparationfromtheirmothers,Holstein
calvesshowedsuchacognitivebiasindicativeoflowmood.[71]Asimilarstudy
showedthatafterhotirondisbudding(dehorning),calveshadasimilarnegativebias
indicatingthatpostoperativepainfollowingthisroutineprocedureresultsinanegative
changeinemotionalstate.[72]
Earposturesofcowsarestudiedas
indicatorsoftheiremotionalstateand
Instudiesofvisualdiscrimination,thepositionoftheearshasbeenusedasanindicator
overallanimalwelfare. [67]
ofemotionalstate.[57]Whencattlearestressed,thiscanberecognisedbyothercattleas
itiscommunicatedbyalarmsubstancesintheurine.[73]
Cattleareverygregariousandevenshorttermisolationisconsideredtocauseseverepsychologicalstress.WhenAubracand
Fresianheifersareisolated,theyincreasetheirvocalizationsandexperienceincreasedheartrateandplasmacortisol
concentrations.ThesephysiologicalchangesaregreaterinAubracs.Whenvisualcontactisreinstated,vocalisationsrapidly
decline,regardlessofthefamiliarityofthereturningcattle,however,heartratedecreasesaregreaterifthereturningcattleare
familiartothepreviouslyisolatedindividual.[74]Mirrorshavebeenusedtoreducestressinisolatedcattle.[75]
Senses
Cattleuseallofthefivewidelyrecognizedsensorymodalities.Thesecanassistinsomecomplexbehaviouralpatterns,for
example,ingrazingbehaviour.Cattleeatmixeddiets,butwhengiventheopportunity,showapartialpreferenceof
approximately70%cloverand30%grass.Thispreferencehasadiurnalpattern,withastrongerpreferenceforcloverinthe
morning,andtheproportionofgrassincreasingtowardstheevening.[76]
Vision
Visionisthedominantsenseincattleandtheyobtainalmost50%oftheirinformationvisually.[77]
Cattleareapreyanimalandtoassistpredatordetection,theireyesarelocatedonthesidesoftheirheadratherthanthefront.
Thisgivesthemawidefieldofviewof330obutlimitsbinocularvision(andthereforestereopsis)to30oto50ocomparedto
140oinhumans.[57][78]Thismeanstheyhaveablindspotdirectlybehindthem.Cattlehavegoodvisualacuity(1/20)[57]but
comparedtohumans,thevisualaccommodationofcattleispoor.[77]
Cattlehavetwokindsofcolorreceptorsintheconecellsoftheirretinas.Thismeansthatcattlearedichromatic,asaremost
othernonprimatelandmammals.[79][80]Therearetwotothreerodsperconeinthefoveacentralisbutfivetosixneartheoptic
papilla.[78]Cattlecandistinguishlongwavelengthcolors(yellow,orangeandred)muchbetterthantheshorterwavelengths
(blue,greyandgreen).Calvesareabletodiscriminatebetweenlong(red)andshort(blue)ormedium(green)wavelengths,but
havelimitedabilitytodiscriminatebetweentheshortandmedium.Theyalsoapproachhandlersmorequicklyunderred
light.[81]Whilsthavinggoodcolorsensitivity,itisnotasgoodashumansorsheep.[57]
Acommonmisconceptionaboutcattle(particularlybulls)isthattheyareenragedbythecolorred(somethingprovocativeis
oftensaidtobe"likearedflagtoabull").Thisisamyth.Inbullfighting,itisthemovementoftheredflagorcapethat
irritatesthebullandincitesittocharge.
Taste
Cattlehaveawelldevelopedsenseoftasteandcandistinguishthefourprimarytastes(sweet,salty,bitterandsour).They
possessaround20,000tastebuds.Thestrengthoftasteperceptiondependsontheindividual'scurrentfoodrequirements.They
avoidbittertastingfoods(potentiallytoxic)andhaveamarkedpreferenceforsweet(highcalorificvalue)andsaltyfoods
(electrolytebalance).TheirsensitivitytosourtastingfoodshelpsthemtomaintainoptimalruminalpH.[77]
Plantshavelowlevelsofsodiumandcattlehavedevelopedthecapacityofseekingsaltbytasteandsmell.Ifcattlebecome
depletedofsodiumsalts,theyshowincreasedlocomotiondirectedtosearchingforthese.Toassistintheirsearch,theolfactory
andgustatoryreceptorsabletodetectminuteamountsofsodiumsaltsincreasetheirsensitivityasbiochemicaldisruption
developswithsodiumsaltdepletion.[82][83]
Audition
Cattlehearingrangesfrom23Hzto35kHz.Theirfrequencyofbestsensitivityis8kHzandtheyhavealowestthresholdof
21db(re20N/m2),whichmeanstheirhearingismoreacutethanhorses(lowestthresholdof7db).[84]Soundlocalization
acuitythresholdsareanaverageof30.Thismeansthatcattlearelessabletolocalisesoundscomparedtogoats(18),dogs
(8)andhumans(0.8).[85]Becausecattlehaveabroadfovealfieldsofviewcoveringalmosttheentirehorizon,theymaynot
needveryaccuratelocusinformationfromtheirauditorysystemstodirecttheirgazetoasoundsource.
Vocalisationsareanimportantmodeofcommunicationamongstcattleandcanprovideinformationontheage,sex,dominance
statusandreproductivestatusofthecaller.Calvescanrecognizetheirmothersusingvocalandvocalbehaviourmayplaya
rolebyindicatingestrusandcompetitivedisplaybybulls.[86]
Olfactionandgustation
Cattlehavearangeofodiferousglandsovertheirbodyincludinginterdigital,
infraorbital,inguinalandsebaceousglands,indicatingthatolfactionprobably
playsalargeroleintheirsociallife.Boththeprimaryolfactorysystemusingthe
olfactorybulbs,andthesecondaryolfactorysystemusingthevomeronasalorgan
areused.[87]Thislatterolfactorysystemisusedintheflehmenresponse.Thereis
evidencethatwhencattlearestressed,thiscanberecognisedbyothercattleand
thisiscommunicatedbyalarmsubstancesintheurine.[73]Theodourofdogfaeces
inducesbehaviouralchangespriortocattlefeeding,whereastheodoursofurine
fromeitherstressedornonstressedconspecificsandbloodhavenoeffect.[88]
Inthelaboratory,cattlecanbetrainedtorecogniseconspecificindividualsusing Severalsensesareusedinsocial
olfactiononly.[87] relationshipsbetweencattle
Ingeneral,cattleusetheirsenseofsmellto"expand"oninformationdetectedby
othersensorymodalities.However,inthecaseofsocialandreproductivebehaviours,olfactionisakeysourceof
information.[77]
Touch
Cattlehavetactilesensationsdetectedmainlybymechanoreceptors,thermoreceptorsandnociceptorsintheskinandmuzzle.
Theseareusedmostfrequentlywhencattleexploretheirenvironment.[77]
Magnetoreception
Thereisconflictingevidenceformagnetoreceptionincattle.Onestudyreportedthatrestingandgrazingcattletendtoalign
theirbodyaxesinthegeomagneticNorthSouth(NS)direction.[89]Inafollowupstudy,cattleexposedtovariousmagnetic
fieldsdirectlybeneathorinthevicinityofpowerlinestrendinginvariousmagneticdirectionsexhibiteddistinctpatternsof
alignment.[90]However,in2011,agroupofCzechresearchersreportedtheirfailedattempttoreplicatethefindingusing
GoogleEarthimages.[91]
Behavior
Undernaturalconditions,calvesstaywiththeirmotheruntilweaningat8to11months.Heiferandbullcalvesareequally
attachedtotheirmothersinthefirstfewmonthsoflife.[92]Cattleareconsideredtobe"hider"typeanimals,butintheartificial
environmentofsmallcalvingpens,closeproximitybetweencowandcalfismaintainedbythemotheratthefirstthree
calvingsbutthischangestobeingmediatedbythecalfafterthese.Primiparousdamsshowahigherincidenceofabnormal
maternalbehavior.[93]
Beefcalvesrearedontherangesuckleanaverageof5.0timesevery24hourswithan
averagetotaltimeof46minspentsuckling.Thereisadiurnalrhythminsuckling
activitywithpeaksbetween05:0007:00,10:0013:00and17:0021:00.[94]
Studiesonthenaturalweaningofzebucattle(Bosindicus)haveshownthatthecow
weanshercalvesovera2weekperiod,butafterthat,shecontinuestoshowstrong
affiliatorybehaviorwithheroffspringandpreferentiallychoosesthemforgrooming
andasgrazingpartnersforatleast45years.[95] Videoofacalfsuckling
Reproductivebehavior
SemiwildHighlandcattleheifersfirstgivebirthat2or3yearsofageandthetimingofbirthissynchronizedwithincreasesin
naturalfoodquality.Averagecalvingintervalis391days,andcalvingmortalitywithinthefirstyearoflifeis5%.[96]
Dominanceandleadership
Onestudyshowedthatovera4yearperiod,dominancerelationshipswithinaherdofsemiwildhighlandcattlewerevery
firm.Therewerefewovertaggressiveconflictsandthemajorityofdisputesweresettledbyagonistic(nonaggressive,
competitive)behaviorsthatinvolvednophysicalcontactbetweenopponents(e.g.threateningandspontaneouswithdrawing).
Suchagonisticbehaviorreducestheriskofinjury.Dominancestatusdependedonageandsex,witholderanimalsgenerally
beingdominanttoyoungonesandmalesdominanttofemales.Youngbullsgainedsuperiordominancestatusoveradultcows
whentheyreachedabout2yearsofage.[96]
Aswithmanyanimaldominancehierarchies,dominanceassociatedaggressivenessdoesnotcorrelatewithrankposition,but
iscloselyrelatedtorankdistancebetweenindividuals.[96]
Dominanceismaintainedinseveralways.Cattleoftenengageinmockfightswheretheytesteachother'sstrengthinanon
aggressiveway.Lickingisprimarilyperformedbysubordinatesandreceivedbydominantanimals.Mountingisaplayful
behaviorshownbycalvesofbothsexesandbybullsandsometimesbycowsinestrus,[97]however,thisisnotadominance
relatedbehaviorashasbeenfoundinotherspecies.[96]
Thehornsofcattleare"honestsignals"usedinmateselection.Furthermore,hornedcattleattempttokeepgreaterdistances
betweenthemselvesandhavefewerphysicalinteractionsthanhornlesscattle.Thisleadstomorestablesocialrelationships.[98]
Incalves,thefrequencyofagonisticbehaviordecreasesasspaceallowanceincreases,butthisdoesnotoccurforchangesin
groupsize.However,inadultcattle,thenumberofagonisticencountersincreasesasthegroupsizeincreases.[99]
Grazingbehavior
Whengrazing,cattlevaryseveralaspectsoftheirbite,i.e.tongueandjawmovements,dependingoncharacteristicsofthe
planttheyareeating.Biteareadecreaseswiththedensityoftheplantsbutincreaseswiththeirheight.Biteareaisdetermined
bythesweepofthetongueinonestudyobserving750kilogram(1,650lb)steers,biteareareachedamaximumof
approximately170cm2(30sqin).Bitedepthincreaseswiththeheightoftheplants.Byadjustingtheirbehavior,cattleobtain
heavierbitesinswardsthataretallandsparsecomparedwithshort,denseswardsofequalmass/area.[100]Cattleadjustother
aspectsoftheirgrazingbehaviorinrelationtotheavailablefoodforagingvelocitydecreasesandintakerateincreasesinareas
ofabundantpalatableforage.[101]
Cattleavoidgrazingareascontaminatedbythefaecesofothercattlemorestronglythantheyavoidareascontaminatedby
sheep,[102]buttheydonotavoidpasturecontaminatedbyrabbitfaeces.[103]
Genetics
Inthe24April2009,editionofthejournalScience,ateamofresearchersledbytheNationalInstitutesofHealthandtheUS
DepartmentofAgriculturereportedhavingmappedthebovinegenome.[104]Thescientistsfoundcattlehaveabout22,000
genes,and80%oftheirgenesaresharedwithhumans,andtheyshareabout1000geneswithdogsandrodents,butarenot
foundinhumans.Usingthisbovine"HapMap",researcherscantrackthedifferencesbetweenthebreedsthataffectthequality
ofmeatandmilkyields.[105]
Behavioraltraitsofcattlecanbeasheritableassomeproductiontraits,andoften,thetwocanberelated.[106]Theheritability
offearvariesmarkedlyincattlefromlow(0.1)tohigh(0.53)suchhighvariationisalsofoundinpigsandsheep,probably
duetodifferencesinthemethodsused.[107]Theheritabilityoftemperament(responsetoisolationduringhandling)hasbeen
calculatedas0.36and0.46forhabituationtohandling.[108]Rangelandassessmentsshowthattheheritabilityofaggressiveness
incattleisaround0.36.[109]
Quantitativetraitloci(QTLs)havebeenfoundforarangeofproductionandbehavioralcharacteristicsforbothdairyandbeef
cattle.[110]
Domesticationandhusbandry
Cattleoccupyauniqueroleinhumanhistory,havingbeendomesticatedsinceatleast
theearlyneolithicage.
Archeozoologicalandgeneticdataindicatethatcattlewerefirstdomesticatedfrom
wildaurochs(Bosprimigenius)approximately10,500yearsago.Thereweretwomajor
areasofdomestication:oneintheareathatisnowTurkey,givingrisetothetaurine
line,andasecondintheareathatisnowPakistan,resultingintheindicineline.[111]
ModernmitochondrialDNAvariationindicatesthetaurinelinemayhavearisenfrom
asfewas80aurochstamedintheupperreachesofMesopotamianearthevillagesof
TexasLonghornsareaUSbreed aynTepesiinsoutheasternTurkeyandDja'deelMugharainnorthernIraq.[1]
AlthoughEuropeancattlearelargelydescendedfromthetaurinelineage,geneflowfromAfricancattle(partiallyofindicine
origin)contributedsubstantialgenomiccomponentstobothsouthernEuropeancattlebreedsandtheirNewWorld
descendants.[111]Astudyon134breedsshowedthatmoderntaurinecattleoriginatedfromAfrica,Asia,NorthandSouth
America,Australia,andEurope.[112]SomeresearchershavesuggestedthatAfricantaurinecattlearederivedfromathird
independentdomesticationfromNorthAfricanaurochsen.[111]
Usageasmoney
Asearlyas9000BCbothgrainandcattlewereusedasmoneyorasbarter(Davies)(thefirstgrainremainsfound,considered
tobeevidenceofpreagriculturalpracticedateto17,000BC).[113][114][115]Someevidencealsoexiststosuggestthatother
animals,suchascamelsandgoats,mayhavebeenusedascurrencyinsomepartsoftheworld.[116]Oneoftheadvantagesof
usingcattleascurrencyisthatitallowsthesellertosetafixedprice.Itevencreatedthestandardpricing.Forexample,two
chickensweretradedforonecowascowsweredeemedtobemorevaluablethanchickens.[114]
Modernhusbandry
Cattleareoftenraisedbyallowingherdstograzeonthegrassesoflargetractsof
rangeland.Raisingcattleinthismannerallowstheuseoflandthatmightbeunsuitable
forgrowingcrops.Themostcommoninteractionswithcattleinvolvedailyfeeding,
cleaningandmilking.Manyroutinehusbandrypracticesinvolveeartagging,
dehorning,loading,medicaloperations,vaccinationsandhoofcare,aswellastraining
foragriculturalshowsandpreparations.Also,someculturaldifferencesoccurin
workingwithcattlethecattlehusbandryofFulanimenrestsonbehavioural ThisHerefordisbeinginspectedfor
techniques,whereasinEurope,cattlearecontrolledprimarilybyphysicalmeans,such tickscattleareoftenrestrainedor
asfences.[117]BreedersusecattlehusbandrytoreduceM.bovisinfectionsusceptibility confinedincattlecrushes(squeeze
byselectivebreedingandmaintainingherdhealthtoavoidconcurrentdisease.[118] chutes)whengivenmedicalattention.
Cattlearefarmedforbeef,veal,dairy,andleather,andtheyarelesscommonlyusedfor
conservationgrazing,simplytomaintaingrasslandforwildlifeforexample,in
EppingForest,England.Theyareoftenusedinsomeofthemostwildplacesfor
livestock.Dependingonthebreed,cattlecansurviveonhillgrazing,heaths,marshes,
moorsandsemidesert.Moderncattlearemorecommercialthanolderbreedsand,
havingbecomemorespecialized,arelessversatile.Forthisreason,manysmaller
farmersstillfavoroldbreeds,suchastheJerseydairybreed.InPortugal,Spain,
southernFranceandsomeLatinAmericancountries,bullsareusedintheactivityof
bullfightingJallikattuinIndiaisabulltamingsportradicallydifferentfromEuropean
bullfighting,humansareunarmedandbullsarenotkilled.Inmanyothercountries
bullfightingisillegal.Otheractivitiessuchasbullridingareseenaspartofarodeo, Thisyoungbovinehasanoseringto
especiallyinNorthAmerica.Bullleaping,acentralritualinBronzeAgeMinoan preventitfromsuckling,whichis
culture(seeBull(mythology)),stillexistsinsouthwesternFrance.Inmoderntimes, usuallytoassistinweaning.
cattlearealsoenteredintoagriculturalcompetitions.Thesecompetitionscaninvolve
livecattleorcattlecarcasesinhoofandhookevents.
Intermsoffoodintakebyhumans,consumptionofcattleislessefficientthanofgrainorvegetableswithregardtolanduse,
andhencecattlegrazingconsumesmoreareathansuchotheragriculturalproductionwhenraisedongrains.[119]Nonetheless,
cattleandotherformsofdomesticatedanimalscansometimeshelptouseplantresourcesinareasnoteasilyamenabletoother
formsofagriculture.
Sleep
Theaveragesleeptimeofadomesticcowisaboutfourhoursaday.[120]Cattledohaveastayapparatus,[121]butdonotsleep
standingup,[122]theyliedowntosleepdeeply.[123]Inspiteoftheurbanlegend,cowscannotbetippedoverbypeoplepushing
onthem.[124]
Economy
Themeatofadultcattleisknownasbeef,andthatofcalvesisveal.Otheranimalpartsarealsousedasfoodproducts,
includingblood,liver,kidney,heartandoxtail.Cattlealsoproducemilk,anddairycattlearespecificallybredtoproducethe
largequantitiesofmilkprocessedandsoldforhumanconsumption.Cattletodayarethebasisofamultibilliondollarindustry
worldwide.Theinternationaltradeinbeeffor2000wasover$30billionandrepresentedonly23%ofworldbeef
production.[125]Theproductionofmilk,whichisalsomadeintocheese,butter,yogurt,
andotherdairyproducts,iscomparableineconomicsizetobeefproduction,and
providesanimportantpartofthefoodsupplyformanyoftheworld'speople.Cattle
hides,usedforleathertomakeshoes,couchesandclothing,areanotherwidespread
product.Cattleremainbroadlyusedasdraftanimalsinmanydevelopingcountries,
suchasIndia.Cattlearealsousedinsomesportinggames,includingrodeoand
bullfighting.
Cattlemeatproduction Holsteincattlearetheprimarydairy
breed,bredforhighmilkproduction.
Cattlemeatproduction(kt)
Country 2008 2009 2010 2011
Argentina 3132 3378 2630 2497
Australia 2132 2124 2630 2420
Brazil 9024 9395 9115 9030
China 5841 6060 6244 6182
Germany 1199 1190 1205 1170
Japan 520 517 515 500
USA 12163 11891 12046 11988
Source:HelgiLibrary,[126]WorldBank,FAOSTAT
Abouthalftheworld'smeatcomesfromcattle.[127]
Dairy
Certainbreedsofcattle,suchastheHolsteinFriesian,areusedtoproducemilk,[128][129]whichcanbeprocessedintodairy
productssuchasmilk,cheeseoryogurt.Dairycattleareusuallykeptonspecializeddairyfarmsdesignedformilkproduction.
Mostcowsaremilkedtwiceperday,withmilkprocessedatadairy,whichmaybeonsiteatthefarmorthemilkmaybe
shippedtoadairyplantforeventualsaleofadairyproduct.[130]Fordairycattletocontinueproducingmilk,theymustgive
birthtoonecalfperyear.Ifthecalfismale,itgenerallyisslaughteredatayoungagetoproduceveal.[131]Theywillcontinue
toproducemilkuntilthreeweeksbeforebirth.[129]Overthelastfiftyyears,dairyfarminghasbecomemoreintensiveto
increasetheyieldofmilkproducedbyeachcow.TheHolsteinFriesianisthebreedofdairycowmostcommonintheUK,
EuropeandtheUnitedStates.Ithasbeenbredselectivelytoproducethehighestyieldsofmilkofanycow.Around22litres
perdayisaverageintheUK.[128][129]
Hides
Mostcattlearenotkeptsolelyforhides,whichareusuallyabyproductofbeefproduction.Hidesaremostcommonlyusedfor
leatherwhichcanbemadeintoavarietyofproductincludingshoes.In2012Indiawastheworld'slargestproducerofcattle
hides.[132]
Feralcattle
Feralcattlearedefinedasbeing'cattlethatarenotdomesticatedorcultivated'.[133]Populationsofferalcattleareknownto
comefromandexistin:Australia,UnitedStatesofAmerica,Colombia,Argentina,Spain,Franceandmanyislands,including
NewGuinea,Hawaii,Galapagos,JuanFernndezIslands,Hispaniola(DominicanRepublicandHaiti),TristandaCunhaand
leAmsterdam,[134]twoislandsofKuchinoshima[135]andKazuraIslandnexttoNaruIslandinJapan.[136][137]Chillingham
cattleissometimesregardedasaferalbreed.[138]AleutianwildcattlescanbefoundonAleutianIslands.[139]The"Kinmen
cattle"whichisdominantlyfoundonKinmenIsland,Taiwanismostlydomesticatedwhilesmallerportionofthepopulationis
believedtoliveinthewildduetoaccidentalreleases.[140]
Environmentalimpact
Gutfloraincattleincludemethanogensthatproducemethaneasabyproductofenteric
fermentation,whichcattlebelchout.Thesamevolumeofatmosphericmethanehasahigher
globalwarmingpotentialthanatmosphericcarbondioxide.[141][142]Methanebelchingfrom
cattlecanbereducedwithgeneticselection,immunization,rumendefaunation,diet
modificationandgrazingmanagement,amongothers.[143][144][145]
AreportfromtheFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO)statesthatthelivestocksectoris
"responsiblefor18%ofgreenhousegasemissions".[146]TheIPCCestimatesthatCattleand
otherlivestockemitabout80to93Megatonnesofmethaneperyear,[147]accountingforan
estimated37%ofanthropogenicmethaneemissions,[146]andadditionalmethaneisproduced
byanaerobicfermentationofmanureinmanurelagoonsandothermanurestorage
structures.[148]Thenetchangeinatmosphericmethanecontentwasrecentlyabout1
Megatonneperyear,[149]andinsomerecentyearstherehasbeennoincreaseinatmospheric
Cattleindrylandscapenorth
methanecontent.[150]Whilecattlefedforageactuallyproducemoremethanethangrainfed ofAliceSprings,Australia
cattle,theincreasemaybeoffsetbytheincreasedcarbonrecaptureofpastures,which (CSIRO)
recapturethreetimestheCO2ofcroplandusedforgrain.[151]
Oneofthecitedchangessuggestedtoreducegreenhousegasemissionsis
intensificationofthelivestockindustry,sinceintensificationleadstolesslandfora
givenlevelofproduction.ThisassertionissupportedbystudiesoftheUSbeef
productionsystem,suggestingpracticesprevailingin2007involved8.6%lessfossil
fueluse,16.3%lessgreenhousegasemissions,12.1%lesswateruse,and33.0%less
landuse,perunitmassofbeefproduced,thanthoseusedin1977.[152]Theanalysis
tookintoaccountnotonlypracticesinfeedlots,butalsofeedproduction(withlessfeed
neededinmoreintensiveproductionsystems),foragebasedcowcalfoperationsand CattleneartheBruneauRiverinElko
backgroundingbeforecattleenterafeedlot(withmorebeefproducedperheadof County,Nevada
cattlefromthosesources,inmoreintensivesystems),andbeeffromanimalsderived
fromthedairyindustry.
ThenumberofAmericancattlekeptinconfinedfeedlotconditionsfluctuates.From1January2002through1January2012,
therewasnosignificantoverallupwardordownwardtrendinthenumberofUScattleonfeedforslaughter,whichaveraged
about14.046millionheadoverthatperiod.[153][154]Previously,thenumberhadincreaseditwas12.453millionin1985.[155]
Cattleonfeed(forslaughter)numberedabout14.121millionon1January2012,i.e.about15.5%oftheestimatedinventoryof
90.8millionUScattle(includingcalves)onthatdate.Ofthe14.121million,UScattleonfeed(forslaughter)inoperations
with1000headormorewereestimatedtonumber11.9million.[154]Cattlefeedlotsinthissizecategorycorrespondtothe
regulatorydefinitionof"large"concentratedanimalfeedingoperations(CAFOs)forcattleotherthanmaturedairycowsor
vealcalves.[156]Significantnumbersofdairy,aswellasbeefcattle,areconfinedinCAFOs,definedas"newandexisting
operationswhichstableorconfineandfeedormaintainforatotalof45daysormoreinany12monthperiodmorethanthe
numberofanimalsspecified"[157]where"[c]rops,vegetation,foragegrowth,orpostharvestresiduesarenotsustainedinthe
normalgrowingseasonoveranyportionofthelotorfacility."[158]Theymaybedesignatedassmall,mediumandlarge.Such
designationofcattleCAFOsisaccordingtocattletype(maturedairycows,vealcalvesorother)andcattlenumbers,but
mediumCAFOsaresodesignatedonlyiftheymeetcertaindischargecriteria,andsmallCAFOsaredesignatedonlyonacase
bycasebasis.[159]
ACAFOthatdischargespollutantsisrequiredtoobtainapermit,whichrequiresaplantomanagenutrientrunoff,manure,
chemicals,contaminants,andotherwastewaterpursuanttotheUSCleanWaterAct.[160]TheregulationsinvolvingCAFO
permittinghavebeenextensivelylitigated.[161]Commonly,CAFOwastewaterandmanurenutrientsareappliedtolandat
agronomicratesforusebyforagesorcrops,anditisoftenassumedthatvariousconstituentsofwastewaterandmanure,e.g.
organiccontaminantsandpathogens,willberetained,inactivatedordegradedonthelandwithapplicationatsuchrates
however,additionalevidenceisneededtotestreliabilityofsuchassumptions.[162]ConcernsraisedbyopponentsofCAFOs
haveincludedrisksofcontaminatedwaterduetofeedlotrunoff,[163]soilerosion,humanandanimalexposuretotoxic
chemicals,developmentofantibioticresistantbacteriaandanincreaseinE.colicontamination.[164]Whileresearchsuggests
someoftheseimpactscanbemitigatedbydevelopingwastewatertreatmentsystems[163]andplantingcovercropsinlarger
setbackzones,[165]theUnionofConcernedScientistsreleasedareportin2008concludingthatCAFOsaregenerally
unsustainableandexternalizecosts.[151]
Anestimated935,000cattleoperationswereoperatingintheUSAin2010.[166]In2001,theUSEnvironmentalProtection
Agency(EPA)tallied5,990cattleCAFOsthenregulated,consistingofbeef(2,200),dairy(3,150),heifer(620)andveal
operations(20).[167]Sincethattime,theEPAhasestablishedCAFOsasanenforcementpriority.EPAenforcementhighlights
forfiscalyear2010indicatedenforcementactionsagainst12cattleCAFOsforviolationsthatincludedfailurestoobtaina
permit,failurestomeetthetermsofapermit,anddischargesofcontaminatedwater.[168]
Anotherconcernismanure,whichifnotwellmanaged,canleadto
adverseenvironmentalconsequences.However,manurealsoisavaluable
sourceofnutrientsandorganicmatterwhenusedasafertilizer.[169]
Manurewasusedasafertilizeronabout15.8millionacresofUScropland
in2006,withmanurefromcattleaccountingfornearly70%ofmanure
applicationstosoybeansandabout80%ormoreofmanureapplicationsto
corn,wheat,barley,oatsandsorghum.[170]Substitutionofmanurefor
syntheticfertilizersincropproductioncanbeenvironmentallysignificant,
asbetween43and88megajoulesoffossilfuelenergywouldbeusedper
kgofnitrogeninmanufactureofsyntheticnitrogenousfertilizers.[171]
Grazingbycattleatlowintensitiescancreateafavourableenvironment
fornativeherbsandforbsinmanyworldregions,though,cattleare Cattlegrazinginahighelevationenvironmentat
reducingbiodiversityduetoovergrazing.[172]Asurveyofrefugemanagers theBigPasturePlateau,Slovenia
on123NationalWildlifeRefugesintheUStallied86speciesofwildlife
consideredpositivelyaffectedand82considerednegativelyaffectedby
refugecattlegrazingorhaying.[173]Propermanagementofpastures,notablymanagedintensiverotationalgrazingandgrazing
atlowintensitiescanleadtolessuseoffossilfuelenergy,increasedrecaptureofcarbondioxide,fewerammoniaemissions
intotheatmosphere,reducedsoilerosion,betterairquality,andlesswaterpollution.[151]
Health
Theveterinarydisciplinedealingwithcattleandcattlediseases(bovineveterinary)iscalledbuiatrics.[174]Veterinariansand
professionalsworkingoncattlehealthissuesarepooledintheWorldAssociationforBuiatrics,foundedin1960.[175]National
associationsandaffiliatesalsoexist.[176]
Cattlediseaseswereinthecenterofattentioninthe1980sand1990swhentheBovinespongiformencephalopathy(BSE),also
knownasmadcowdisease,wasofconcern.Cattlemightcatchanddevelopvariousotherdiseases,likeblackleg,bluetongue,
footrottoo.[177][178][179]
Inmoststates,ascattlehealthisnotonlyaveterinarianissue,butalsoapublichealthissue,publichealthandfoodsafety
standardsandfarmingregulationsdirectlyaffectthedailyworkoffarmerswhokeepcattle.[180]However,saidruleschange
frequentlyandareoftendebated.Forinstance,intheU.K.,itwasproposedin2011thatmilkfromtuberculosisinfectedcattle
shouldbeallowedtoenterthefoodchain.[181]Internalfoodsafetyregulationsmightaffectacountry'stradepolicyaswell.For
example,theUnitedStateshasjustrevieweditsbeefimportrulesaccordingtothe"madcowstandards"whileMexicoforbids
theentryofcattlewhoareolderthan30months.[182]
CowurineiscommonlyusedinIndiaforinternalmedicalpurposes.[183][184]Itisdistilledandthenconsumedbypatients
seekingtreatmentforawidevarietyofillnesses.[185]Atpresent,noconclusivemedicalevidenceshowsthishasanyeffect.[186]
However,anIndianmedicinecontainingcowurinehasalreadyobtainedU.S.patents.[187]
DigitaldermatitisiscausedbythebacteriafromthegenusTreponema.Itdiffersfromfootrotandcanappearunderunsanitary
conditionssuchaspoorhygieneorinadequatehooftrimming,amongothercauses.Itprimarilyaffectsdairycattleandhas
beenknowntolowerthequantityofmilkproduced,howeverthemilkqualityremainsunaffected.Cattlearealsosusceptibleto
ringwormcausedbythefungus,Trichophytonverrucosum,acontagiousskindiseasewhichmaybetransferredtohumans
exposedtoinfectedcows.[188]
Mycobacteriumvaccaeisanonpathogenic,possiblyevenbeneficialbacteria,thatisseennaturallyinsoil[189]thatwasfirst
isolatedfromcowdung.[190]
Effectofhighstockingdensity
Stockingdensityreferstothenumberofanimalswithinaspecifiedarea.Whenstockingdensityreacheshighlevels,the
behaviouralneedsoftheanimalsmaynotbemet.Thiscannegativelyinfluencehealth,welfareandproduction
performance.[191]
Theeffectofoverstockingincowscanhaveanegativeeffectonmilkproductionandreproductionrateswhicharetwovery
importanttraitsfordairyfarmers.Overcrowdingofcowsinbarnshasbeenfoundtoreducedfeeding,restingand
rumination.[191]Althoughtheyconsumethesameamountofdrymatterwithinthespanofaday,theyconsumethefoodata
muchmorerapidrate,andthisbehaviourincowscanleadtofurthercomplications.[192]Thefeedingbehaviourofcowsduring
theirpostmilkingperiodisveryimportantasithasbeenproventhatthelongeranimalscaneataftermilking,thelongerthey
willbestandingupandthereforecausinglesscontaminationtotheteatends.[193]Thisisnecessarytoreducetheriskof
mastitisasinfectionhasbeenshowntoincreasethechancesofembryonicloss.[194]Sufficientrestisimportantfordairycows
becauseitisduringthisperiodthattheirrestingbloodflowincreasesupto50%,thisisdirectlyproportionatetomilk
production.[193]Eachadditionalhourofrestcanbeseentotranslateto2to3.5morepoundsofmilkpercowdaily.Stocking
densitiesofanythingover120%havebeenshowntodecreasetheamountoftimecowsspendlyingdown.[195]
Cortisolisanimportantstresshormoneitsplasmaconcentrationsincreasegreatlywhensubjectedtohighlevelsofstress.[196]
Increasedconcentrationlevelsofcortisolhavebeenassociatedwithsignificantincreasesingonadotrophinlevelsandlowered
progestinlevels.Reductionofstressisimportantinthereproductivestateofcowsasanincreaseingonadotrophinandlowered
progesteronelevelsmayimpingeontheovulatoryandlutenizationprocessandtoreducethechancesofsuccessful
implantation.[197]Ahighcortisollevelwillalsostimulatethedegradationoffatsandproteinswhichmaymakeitdifficultfor
theanimaltosustainitspregnancyifimplantedsuccessfully.[196]
Oxen
Oxen(singularox)arecattletrainedasdraftanimals.Oftentheyareadult,castratedmalesoflargerbreeds,althoughfemales
andbullsarealsousedinsomeareas.Usually,anoxisoverfouryearsoldduetotheneedfortrainingandtoallowittogrow
tofullsize.Oxenareusedforplowing,transport,haulingcargo,graingrindingbytramplingorbypoweringmachines,
irrigationbypoweringpumps,andwagondrawing.Oxenwerecommonlyusedtoskidlogsinforests,andsometimesstillare,
inlowimpact,selectcutlogging.Oxenaremostoftenusedinteamsoftwo,paired,forlightworksuchascarting,with
additionalpairsaddedwhenmorepowerisrequired,sometimesuptoatotalof20ormore.
Anoxisamaturebovinewhichhaslearnedtorespondappropriatelytoateamster's
signals.Thesesignalsaregivenbyverbalcommandsorbynoise(whipcracks).Verbal
commandsvaryaccordingtodialectandlocaltradition.InonetraditioninNorth
America,thecommandsare:
"Backup":gobackwards
"Gee":turnright
"Getup":walkforward
"Haw":turnleft
"Whoa":stop
DraftZebusinMumbai,
Oxencanpullharderandlongerthanhorses.Thoughnotasfastashorses,theyareless Maharashtra,India
pronetoinjurybecausetheyaremoresurefooted.
Manyoxenareusedworldwide,especiallyindevelopingcountries.About11.3million
draftoxenareusedinsubSaharanAfrica.[198]InIndia,thenumberofdraftcattlein
1998wasestimatedat65.7millionhead.[199]Abouthalftheworld'scropproductionis
thoughttodependonlandpreparation(suchasplowing)madepossiblebyanimal
traction.[200]
Religion,traditionsandfolklore
Hindutradition OxenusedinPlowing
CattleareveneratedwithintheHindureligionofIndia.IntheVedicperiodtheywerea
symbolofplenty[201]:130andwerefrequentlyslaughtered.Inlatertimestheygradually
acquiredtheirpresentstatus.AccordingtotheMahabharatatheyaretobetreatedwith
thesamerespect'asone'smother'.[202]Inthemiddleofthefirstmillennium,the
consumptionofbeefbegantobedisfavouredbylawgivers.[201]:144Althoughtherehas
neverbeenanycowgoddessesortemplesdedicatedtothem,[201]:146cowsappearin
numerousstoriesfromtheVedasandPuranas.ThedeityKrishnawasbroughtupina
familyofcowherders,andgiventhenameGovinda(protectorofthecows).Also,Shiva
istraditionallysaidtorideonthebackofabullnamedNandi.
MilkandmilkproductswereusedinVedicrituals.[201]:130Inthepostvedicperiod RidinganoxinHova,Sweden
productsofthecowmilk,curd,ghee,butalsocowdungandurine(gomutra),orthe
combinationofthesefive(panchagavya)begantoassumeanincreasinglyimportant
roleinritualpurificationandexpiation.[201]:1301
VenerationofthecowhasbecomeasymboloftheidentityofHindusasa
community,[201]:20especiallysincetheendofthe19thcentury.Slaughterofcows
(includingoxen,bullsandcalves)isforbiddenbylawinseveralstatesoftheIndian
Union.McDonald'soutletsinIndiadonotserveanybeefburgers.InMaharajaRanjit
Singh'sempireoftheearly19thcentury,thekillingofacowwaspunishableby
death.[203]
The"UreOx"(Aurochs)byEdward
Topsell,1658
Othertraditions
TheEvangelistSt.LukeisdepictedasanoxinChristianart.
InJudaism,asdescribedinNumbers19:2(http://www.mechonmamre.org/p/pt/pt0419.htm#2),theashesofasacrificed
unblemishedredheiferthathasneverbeenyokedcanbeusedforritualpurificationofpeoplewhocameintocontact
withacorpse.
Theoxisoneofthe12yearcycleofanimalswhichappearintheChinesezodiacrelated
totheChinesecalendar.See:Ox(Zodiac).
TheconstellationTaurusrepresentsabull.
AnapocryphalstoryhasitthatacowstartedtheGreatChicagoFirebykickingovera
kerosenelamp.MichaelAhern,thereporterwhocreatedthecowstory,admittedin1893
thathehadfabricateditformorecolorfulcopy.
On18February1930,ElmFarmOlliebecamethefirstcowtoflyinanairplaneandalso
thefirstcowtobemilkedinanairplane.
ThefirstknownlawrequiringbrandinginNorthAmericawasenactedon5February
1644,byConnecticut.Itsaidthatallcattleandpigshadtohavearegisteredbrandor
earmarkby1May1644.[204]
Theakabeko(,redcow)isatraditionaltoyfromtheAizuregionofJapanthatis
thoughttowardoffillness.[205] Legendofthefoundingof
ThecaseofSherwoodv.Walkerinvolvingasupposedlybarrenheiferthatwasactually DurhamCathedralisthat
pregnantfirstenunciatedtheconceptofmutualmistakeasameansofdestroyingthe monkscarryingthebodyof
meetingofthemindsincontractlaw. SaintCuthbertwereledto
TheFulaniofWestAfricaaretheworld'slargestnomadiccattleherders. thelocationbyamilkmaid
TheMaasaitribeofEastAfricatraditionallybelievetheirgodEngaientitledthemto whohadlostherduncow,
divinerightstotheownershipofallcattleonearth.[206] whichwasfoundrestingon
thespot.
Inheraldry
Cattlearetypicallyrepresentedinheraldrybythebull.
Anidealizeddepictionofgirlcow
herdersin19thcenturyNorway
byKnudBergslien.
ArmsofMecklenburg ArmsofTurin,Italy ArmsofKaunas,
region,Germany Lithuania
ArmsofTurek,Poland ArmsofBielsk ArmsoftheAzores

Podlaski,Poland
Population
For2013,theFAOestimatedglobalcattlenumbersat1.47billion.[207]Regionally,theFAOestimatefor2013includes:Asia
495millionSouthAmerica348millionAfrica305millionEurope122millionNorthAmerica102millionCentral
America46millionOceania42millionandCaribbean9million.Thefollowingtableshowsthecattlepopulationin
2009.[208]
Asof2003,Africahadabout231millionheadofcattle,raisedinbothtraditionalandnontraditionalsystems,butoftenan
"integral"partofthecultureandwayoflife.[209]
Cattlepopulation
Region 2009 2013[210]
India 285,000,000(By2003)[211] 194,655,285
Brazil 187,087,000 186,646,205
China 139,721,000 102,668,900
USA 96,669,000 96,956,461
EuropeanUnion 87,650,000
Argentina 51,062,000 52,509,049
Pakistan 38,300,000 26,007,848
Australia 29,202,000 27,249,291
Mexico 26,489,000 31,222,196
Bangladesh 22,976,000 22,844,190
Russia 18,370,000 28,685,315
SouthAfrica 14,187,000 13,526,296
Canada 13,945,000 13,287,866
Others 49,756,000
Seealso
1966anticowslaughteragitation Cowboy
BritishCattleHealthInitiative Factoryfarming
Bullbaiting Category:Individualcattle
Bullocky Listofcattlebreeds
BullsandCows(game) Listofdomesticatedanimals
Cattleagedetermination Ranch
Cattlejudging
Cowtipping
Cowboy
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Notes
1.Thenouncattle(whichistreatedasapluralandhasnosingular)encompassesbothsexes.Thesingular,cow,unambiguouslymeans
thefemale,themalebeingbull.Thepluralfeminineformcowsissometimesusedcolloquiallytorefertobothsexescollectively,as
e.g.inaherd,butthatusagecanbemisleadingasthespeaker'sintentmayindeedbejustthefemales.Thebovinespeciesperseis
clearlydimorphic.
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Today.Retrieved26December2006
Clay,J.2004.WorldAgricultureandtheEnvironment:ACommoditybyCommodity WikimediaCommonshas
GuidetoImpactsandPractices.Washington,D.C.,USA:IslandPress.ISBN155963 mediarelatedtoBull
3700. (cattle).
CluttonBrock,J.1999.ANaturalHistoryofDomesticatedMammals.CambridgeUK:
CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN0521634954.
Purdy,HermanR.R.JohnDawesDr.RobertHough(2008).BreedsOfCattle(2nded.).Avisualtextbookcontaining
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