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ENGINE MANAGEMENT FOR HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES

George P. Gogue
G2 Consulting,
Beaverton, OR

Craig Cambier
Unique Mobility, Inc.
Englewood, CO

ABSTRACT

A hybrid electric vehicle comprising an internal combustion

engine and a battery bank as sources of power is being
investigated.

In this study, the conversion of mechanical work from the engine

to electrical power using an alternator and regenerative phase
converter is investigated. The unique characteristics of the
three components above are analyzed to identify the corresponding
limitations. More importantly, the favorable range of operation
of these units operating together is identified.

An experimental van using the hybrid concept is constructed and

its starting and control modes are described. An analysis of
engine, alternator and converter is performed to formulate a
control strategy. Special attention is given to the converter and
its algorithm due to its important interface role between the
alternator and battery bank.

INTRODUCTION

Electric vehicles have the potential to greatly reduce the local

pollution levels within urban and suburban environments. The
technologies exist today to provide acceptable commuting vehicles
for a sizable group of the commuting public that would operate on
existing battery technologies. It has been determined that such a
vehicle is impractical to develop because of the limited usage
and market acceptability. Thus, without severe regulations or
incentives promoting their use, electric vehicles are still a
remote possibility until the development of a cost effective
energy storage means that offers range and performance that is
presently available in the vehicle market.

PURPOSE OF HYBRIDS

Advances in technology have brought about electric drive train

components that offer low weight and high efficiency and
performance capable of competing with internal combustion
vehicles. Electric vehicles offer the potential of a highly
sophisticated drive system that could include features such as
anti-lock braking, anti-slip differentials, four wheel drive
operation, as well as regenerative braking and motor-in-wheel
drive. Even without the ultimate battery, there are compelling
reasons to develop an electric drive system.
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The hybrid vehicle offers the bridge to carry the electric drive
train development into the next decade. Vehicles of this type
could have similar performance and superior range and emissions
characteristics. The implementation of a series hybrid, as
described in this paper, offers the opportunity to operate a
clean burning natural gas engine through a continuously variable
electronic transmission that recovers both regenerative braking
energy and available idling energy. The development of vehicles
of this type will also allow other potential clean burning fuel
technologies and/or fuel cell technologies to be introduced to
the market through the availability of a flexible vehicle
platform.

DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM

The system discussed in this paper is a series hybrid system

consisting of a natural gas engine and an electric drive train.
The term "series" refers to the fact that the mechanical power
output of the engine is converted first to electricity, and then
back to mechanical drive power. The engine speed in this type of
system is totally decoupled from the vehicle wheel speed. The
only relation of engine speed to vehicle speed is determined by
the average power required to maintain vehicle performance. The
engine is also downsized from what one would normally consider
for a vehicle of a particular size and weight. This is due to the
use of a small, high power density battery pack that serves as a
transient energy source during acceleration as well as an energy
sink during braking. Thus the battery acts like a flywheel or
load leveler to remove the load transients from the engine and
thus increase its operating efficiency. The ability of the system
to control both engine speed and torque independently allows the
engine to be operated at the most efficient point possible for
any driving condition.

The proper operation of the engine is paramount to the increased

efficiency of the system. This paper will illustrate the analysis
of the control algorithm for the engine and the resulting system
performance. The implementation of the system into a natural gas
powered Chrysler Caravan will be illustrated.

The three components of the system being investigated in this

study are represented by blocks in Figure 1. The command signal
to the engine will control its throttle position while the
command to the converter will determine the operating point of
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both alternator and converter.

The following are some of the parameters of each of the above

components:

The performance characteristics of each component of the system

are determined by either test or calculation. This information
forms the basis for the optimization process which is the subject
of this study.

COMPONENT ANALYSIS

In this section we will look at the characteristics of the three

components of the system shown in Figure 1.

1) I.C. Engine

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Figure 2 shows the results of tests done on the I.C. Engine for
available torque vs. speed. The fact that torque values vary by a
small amount for each of the four tests has no more significance
than making the test practical to perform. While testing for
torque, the amount of fuel consumption (BSFC) by the engine was
monitored. These values of BSFC are plotted vs. torque in Figure
3 showing that speed has a small effect on the distribution of
these points. The cluster of points tends to indicate a range of
torque at which the BSFC is minimum. This appears to be between
38 and 48 lb ft and is labeled "Zone A".

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Alternatively, Figure 4 shows the variation in BSFC as a result

of changing demands on the BHP of the engine. The "Hook" curves
resulting from constant speed operation show that there is a
minimum value of BSFC over a wide range of BHP if the engine
speed is allowed to change. This confirms the finding in Figure 3
of minimum BSFC at a particular range of engine torque.

2) Alternator

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The losses of the alternator are determined at various values of
current and alternator speed n. These losses consist of the
copper, iron, bearing and windage losses. Following are variables
affecting each of these losses:

The copper losses are affected by the change in temperature of

the alternator which in turn affects the winding resistance R.
The two terms in Equation (2) for the iron losses refer to the
losses in the stator teeth and in the flux return-path,
respectively. The flux-density in each of these two parts is
and . The bearing loss in Equation (3) is also a function of the
rotor weight which can be calculated from the physical parameters
of the alternator. The windage loss in Equation (4) is
additionally a function of the physical parameters of the rotor.

3) Converter

The converter performance characteristics are greatly influenced

by the chosen value of the duty-cycle of the commutation. Figure
5 shows the input power vs. output power at two values of duty-
cycle.

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Following are the equations used in calculating the curves in

Figure 5.

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The converter characteristics are then described in mathematical

form for particular values of (1-D).

SYSTEM ANALYSIS

The system represented in Figure 1 is then analyzed with its

three components operating together. The criteria for this
condition are the specific values of output power at the
converter terminals. The values chosen in this analysis are 5,
10, 15, 20 and 25 kW.

It was determined from the converter characteristics that its

efficiency is highest when operating at the lowest possible duty
cycle D. The efficiency is also highest when operating at the
lowest current possible.

Other equations are used in calculating the system performance.

These are:

Values of alternator current are calculated over the full range

of alternator speed and at various values of converter output
power. The results are plotted in Figure 6 up to a maximum
current of 150 A.
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These curves show the inverse non-linear relationship between

alternator speed and current at constant values of converter
output power. They, therefore, show the minimum speed needed for
the alternator to achieve a certain amount of output power at the
converter while staying below 150 A of alternator current. These
curves also identify the usable range of the efficiency curves of
Figure 7 for each value of output power.

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Figure 7 shows the values of efficiency for the combination of

alternator and converter over the full speed range. They were
calculated from the following equation:

Where is the input power to the alternator, calculated from

the following expression:

Figure 7 also shows that the efficiency drops significantly at

low speeds. The minimum operating speed is also dictated by the
limit of 150 A set upon the alternator current which was
demonstrated by superimposing Figure 6 and Figure 7. For a
particular value of output power, the speed corresponding to 150
A is the minimum speed allowed on the efficiency curve. However,
it is advantageous to operate at a speed higher than this minimum
value to achieve a higher efficiency.

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Other efficiency curves are plotted in Figures 8 and 9 for the

alternator and the converter, respectively, using the following
formulae:

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Figure 10 shows the temperature rise in the alternator over the

speed range while certain amounts of output power are obtained
from the converter. As expected, high speeds are required as the
output power demand from the converter is increased. Figure 6 can
also be superimposed on Figure 9 to identify the minimum speeds

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permissible for particular values of output power. However, we
can also use the results of Figures 11 and 12 to establish these
boundaries. Figures 11 and 12 give values of the temperature rise
in the alternator over the full speed range when the current is
limited to 150 A and 50 A, respectively. When these limits are
superimposed on the curves of Figure 10, the permissible range of
operation is identified.

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Next, we can tie the engine performance with the alternator

requirement via the following relationships:

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Figure 13 shows the curves of output torque needed from the

engine vs. engine speed to deliver the output power values at the
converter. The safe operating limits on the engine torque and
speed are the maximum values of the x and y axes.

Zone A appearing on the curve of Figure 13 is defined in Figure 3

by the range of engine torque corresponding to the minimum value
of BSFC. The minimum and maximum values of speed defined by Zone
A are then determined from Figure 13. These values are plotted in
Figure 10 to show the range of temperature rise corresponding to
Zone A.

Figure 14 shows the range of engine speed vs. converter output

power within the limits defined by Zone A. Operating the engine
at those speeds corresponds to the lowest values of BSFC.

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Figure 15 is a plot of engine BHP vs. engine speed at various

converter output power. Zone A, which identifies the lowest
possible BSFC is superimposed on the curves of Figure 15. Even
though this zone may appear narrow, the engine speed can vary by
several hundred rpm without a substantial change in the BHP (for

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a particular value of converter output power). These values of
BHP are plotted against the converter output power in Figure 16.

The relationship over this range appears to be almost linear and

can be described with the following expression:

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Expressed differently, the efficiency of the alternator and

converter combined is:

Looking at the engine performance in more detail, Figure 17 shows

how fuel consumption is affected by the output BHP required of
the engine. The y axis is BSFC * BHP i.e. cu ft/hour and the
relationship with BHP can be expressed as follows:

APPLICATION OF HYBRID SYSTEM IN CHRYSLER CARAVAN

The complete hybrid drive system has been implemented in a mini-

van platform. The system is illustrated in Figure 18. The drive
system components consist of a natural gas engine, a UNIQ motor
and controller operating in a starter/alternator configuration,
two UNIQ drive motor and controllers and planetary gear reduction
sets for independent front wheel drive, a vehicle control module,
an engine management system, and a battery pack. The entire
system operates around nominal voltage of 180 volts dc. The 12
volt systems are supplied from the a 60 amp dc-dc converter. Heat
and air conditioning are supplied from the engine. Power steering
and brakes are supplied from independent electric systems.

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The operation of the van was meant to be as familiar as possible.

Turning the ignition on without starting, allows the vehicle to
be driven from the battery only. Turning the ignition to start,
activates the engine and may be done while the vehicle is in
motion. Once the engine is started, the entire vehicle must be
switched off to kill the engine. Since the transaxle was replaced
with fixed ratio planetary gear sets there is no need for the
shift lever. The vehicle is reversed by pressing a single switch
which illuminates while in reverse.

The main power system in the van is supplied from a distribution

box underneath the van. This allows any one module to be
disconnected for servicing without disturbing the others, and
also allows for a single cable pair from the battery box for easy
removal. The power electronics are always connected to the power
bus and are activated electronically with only 2 ma of standby
current draw. This removes the expensive and unreliable
contactors from the power path, which also reduces the inrush
currents associated with capacitory charging. The electronics is
also designed to stay active while the vehicle is in motion even
if the switch is turned off.

The driver instrumentation includes the speedometer, which is now

electronic, including the odometer, a tachometer which shows
engine speed, battery voltage and current, natural gas fuel
level, and drive controller status.

CONTROL FUNCTIONS

The vehicle controller module is the main junction for the driver
controls such as ignition and throttle. All of the power
electronics associated with the drive receive their control

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inputs from this box. Some of the functions performed by this
device are listed below:

Vehicle Ignition

Engine Ignition

Forward/Reverse

Vehicle Speed Control

Battery Under and Over Voltage Limit

Instrumentation Interface

Data Acquisition Interface

Brake and Reverse Light Interface

Limited Slip Control

Engine Management Interface

The engine management unit is the device that controls the

natural gas engine's speed and torque. These parameters are
determined by the inputs from the vehicle controller and are
dependent on battery current, incremental battery state of
charge, and vehicle speed. Ideally, the batteries should end the
trip in the same state of charge as begun. The engine speed is
controlled by modulating a vacuum powered cruise control unit on
the engine carburetor. The engine torque is controlled by
supplying the desired regeneration current level to the
alternator controller. Because the regeneration is done in a
boost fashion, power may be derived from the engine at any speed.
The engine management system also controls the engine speed in
transient situations such as braking and waiting at stop signs or
lights. The control function is set up to slowly vary the engine
speed to prevent drastic changes in operating point for better
economy and emissions.

CONCLUSION

The use of hybrid systems in vehicles can help in the

introduction of alternatively fueled vehicles as well as electric
vehicles to build the necessary infrastructure to support and
manufacture cost effective clean vehicles.

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