Introduction to a Second Language Acquisition

1. Language aspects that differ the preschool years from the school years?
Preschool years:
4 years old can ask questions, give commands, and report real
events etc. by using correct word order and grammatical markers.
They have mastered basic structures of the language.
3-4 continue learning language in the late preschool years.
Much of childrens language in the late preschool years is spent in
developing their ability to use language in a social environment.
They interact often with unfamiliar people.
They talk on phone with invisible parents.
They also develop metalinguistic awareness it means the ability to
treat language as an object to separate things.
The school years
Children develop more sophisticated metalinguistic awareness.
When they see a symbol, on readings, they notice that language
has form and meaning.
Reading reinforces the understanding of certain words.
They increase their vocabulary.
Children enter to schools with the ability to understand and
produce thousands of words.

2. How do children learn their first language according to the behaviourism

perspective?
Skinner: Language behavior is the production of the correct responses to
stimuli reinforcement. Traditional behaviourism hypothesized that when
children imitated the language produce by those around them, their
attempts to reproduce what they heard received positive reinforcement.
Encouraged by their environment, children would continue to imitate and
practice different sounds and patterns until they form habits of the
correct language use.

3. How do children acquire second language according to the behaviourism

perspective?

Second language: Behaviourism had a powerful influence on second

language and foreign language teaching. Nelson Brooks and Robert Lado
developed the idea of audiolingual teaching materials and in teacher
training. Therefore, audiolingual will help students to develop a second
language into an easy way. Finally, from the behaviourism perspective,
when first language habits are helpful to acquiring second language
habits, this is positive transfer.
4. How do children acquire language according to Noam Chomsky? How are
children able to correctly interpret the grammatical and ungrammatical
sentences?

He thinks that all human languages are innate. Also, he argued that
children are biologically programmed for language. Finally, he concluded
that childrens minds are not blanks slates, to fill by imitating language.
Instead by hypothesized children are born with a specific innate ability to
discover for themselves the rules of the language.

Grammatical / Ungrammatical
Researchers hypothesized that since all children acquire the language of
their environment, they must have some innate mechanism or
knowledge that allows them to discover such complex syntax. They
hypothesized that the innate mechanism is used exclusively for
language acquisition.

5. What is the critical period hypothesis about? Could language be acquired

successfully after critical period?

Critical period hypothesis

It refers that animals, including humans, are genetically programmed to
acquire certain kinds of knowledge and skills at specific time in life.

Critical Period: Could be acquired?

It is difficult or impossible to acquire those abilities son CPH suggests
that if children are not exposed to language early, they will never
acquire any language.

It is difficult or impossible to acquire those abilities on CPH suggests that

if children are not exposed to language early, they will never acquire any
language

CPH suggest that children who are not given access to language in
infancy and early childhood, because of isolation, will never acquire
language if these deprivations go on for too long time.

6. Why could second language learners need some explicit grammatical

information?

According to Lydia White, second language learners may sometimes

need explicit information about what is not grammatical in the second
language, because if we do not explain them this information, they will
 assume that some language structures of their first language are the
same for the second target language, when, in fact, they are not.
7. What is the difference between a proficient language user and learner?
The difference is that proficient language users can give full attention to
the complete meaning of a conversation, while language learners use
more of their attention on processing the meanings of individual key
words. This happens because proficient language users can process the
language in an automatic way, because they are accustomed to it,
whereas, that language learners have to be concentrated in the meaning
of each key word. Language learners gradually will increase their ability
to process the language faster and finally automatically.

8. How learners store and retrieve language?

According to Blaxton, when language learners learn some information,

their memories also record or store something about the context where
that information was learned and even about the way it was learned.
This information is best retrieved in situations that are similar to those in
which it was acquired.

9. What is the point of view of the cognitive and developmental

psychologist in relation to first and second language?

Cognitive and developmental psychologists in first language

learning say that there is no need to assume that there are specific brain
structures that controlled language acquisition. They attribute more
importance to the environment than to any innate mechanism of
learning, but they do recognize that there is a powerful learning
mechanism in the human brain. They also say that there is a close
relationship between childrens cognitive development and their
acquisition of language.

Cognitive and developmental psychologists in second language

compare the human mind with a computer in which we can store,
integrate, and retrieve information. Also, as in first language learning,
they say that there is no need to hypothesize that humans have a
specific module which controls language learning. Additionally, they say
that acquisition and learning are not different processes.

10.What does social cultural perspective provide us?

The socio cultural perspective says that humans can develop their
language through social interaction. It gives us the concept of Zone of
 proximal development, which means that language learners can co-
construct knowledge based on the interaction with an interlocutor.
The Interaction in second language acquisition is important because it
pushes second language learners to produce language and process it
more deeply and faster. The act of learn a second language must be a
social activity. We only learn when we talk to others.

11.What are the stages of negation in second language acquisition?

Stage1: Using no before the verb or noun.

Example: No bicycle. I no like it.

Stage2: At this stage no and not may alternate with dont

Example: She don not like it.
I do not can dance.

Stage 3: Learners begin to place the negative element after auxiliary

like are, is, and can with not. But, the dont form is still not
analyzed.
Example: You can not go there.
She was not sad.
Stage 4: In this stage do is marked for tense, person, and number and
most interlanguage sentences appear to be just like those of the TL.

As a result, in this stage we have the use of auxiliary verbs with not that
agree with tense, person, and number.

Example: It does not work.

I did not went there.

12.What are some important components of communicative competence?

13.Describe Krashens hypothesis.

 THE ACQUISITION LEARNING HYPOTHESIS: We acquire second
language as we are in contact with it. On the other hand, we learn with
conscious in rules and form.

THE MONITOR HYPOTHESIS: the process of acquiring and learning. The

speakers are responsible for spontaneous language use.

THE NATURAL ORDER HYPOTHESIS: earners acquire parts of language in

a predictable order. For any given language, certain grammatical
structures are acquired early while others are acquired later in the
process.

THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS: is that acquisition occurs when one is exposed

to language that is comprehensible and that contains i+1. Acquisition
occurs when learners receive messages that they can understand a
concept also known as comprehensible input.

AFFECTIVE FILTER ACQUISITION: is a metaphorical barrier that prevents

learners from acquiring language even when appropriate input is
available. Affect refers to feelings, motives, needs, attitudes, and
emotional states.

14.Explain the characteristics of good language learners

a) is a willing and accurate guesser

b) tries to get a message across even if specific language knowledge is
lacking
c) is willing to make mistakes
d) constantly looks for patterns in the language
e) practices as often as possible
f) analyzes his or her own speech and the speech of others
g) attends to whether his or her performance meets the standards he or
she has learned
h) enjoys grammar exercises
i) begins learning in childhood
j) has an above-average IQ
k) has good academic skills has a good self-image and lots of confidence

15.Explain briefly the teachers role in an oral class

Motivator: The teacher has to encourage the students taking account

their personalities, interests, attitudes, so he has to interest in the
student as person. He has to be sensitive, open-minded, and flexible. He
shouldnt be ridicule and sarcastic. The teacher can adopt paternal-
authoritative role, maternal-affectionate role, or fraternal-permissive
role. The teacher has to be confident and competent. He has to talk with
 clarity and care in preparation. In the classes he should include humor,
interesting topics, variety of activities, etc.

Informant: The teacher has to inform for new input, extension, revision,
explanation. He has to consider What? How much? When? How? Inform
to his/her students.

Diagnoser: The teacher has to correct students errors. He has to know

What? How much? When? How? correct them. He has to interest in the
student as person, so he has to consider the needs and interests of the
student. He shouldnt overcorrect, and dont expect too much. Also, he
has to encourage the students.

Conductor: the teacher should be able to elicit, to initiate rules and

check concepts, to explain, to handle aids, to provide models, to cue, to
establish contexts, to give instructions, to monitor, to correct.

16.What differences can you state between the contrastive analysis

hypothesis and error analysis?

According to the CAH errors were often assumed to be the result of

transfer from learners L1, while EAH involves detailed description and
analysis of the kinds of errors second language learners make. Also
errors would be bio directional. And error is similar to those made by
young first language learners. (the use of ed endings)

17.What kind of errors do second language learners make? Describe them

briefly.
Developmental errors: the errors that might very well be made by
children acquiring their L1 (e.g., a cowboy go).

Overgeneralization errors: the errors that are caused by trying to use

a rule in a context where it does not belong (e.g., They plays toys in the
bar, She buyed a dress.).

Simplification errors: the errors that are caused by simplifying or

leaving out some elements (e.g., all verbs have the same form
regardless of person, number or tense).

Misuse of formulaic expressions: (e.g., Santa Claus ride a one horse

open sleigh to sent present for children).
*See the lyric of Jingle Bell
Interference errors (transfer from L1): (e.g., On the back of his body
has big packet
Developmental errors: They are similar to those that children make when
they acquiring English as their first language.
Spelling and punctuation errors: Ex: Imediately. Subject-verb
agreement errors: Ex: A cowboy go.

Overgeneralization errors: are caused by trying to use a rule in a context

where it doesnt belong. Ex: the s ending on the verb in they plays.

Simplification errors: where elements of a sentence are left out or where all
the verbs have the same form regardless of person, number, or tense.

Use of formulaic expressions errors: occur by the influence of classroom

experiences. Ex: one horse open sleigh which is taken from a Christmas
song.

Transfer or Interference errors: they are caused by the transference

of patterns from the L1 to the L2. Ex. On the back of his body has big
packet. (this example is based on Chinese patterns

18.What are the stages of questions for second language learners?

Stage 1: Single words or sentence fragments.

Example: Cat? Six pencils?

Stage 2: Declarative word order (no fronting and no inversion)

Example: Its dad in the kitchen?

Stage 3: Fronting (wh- fronting but no inversion; do-fronting)

Example: Do you have a pencils in your bag?

Stage 4: Inversion in wh- + copula and yes/no questions

Example: Where is the ball?

Is there a dog in the house?

Stage 5: Inversion in wh- questions

Example: How do you say misunderstanding?

Whats she doing?

Stage 6: Complex questions (tag questions; negative questions;

embedded questions)

Example:
Question tag: It is correct, isnt it?

Negative question: Why she cant come?

 Embedded question: Can you tell me what the date is today?
19.What are the stages of negation?
Stage1: negation is usually expressed by the word no.
Stage 2: Utterances grow longer and the sentence subject may be
included. Sentences expressing rejection or prohibition often use dont.
Stage 3: children may add forms of the negative order than no,
including words like cant and dont.
Stage 4: children begin to attach the negative element to the correct
form of auxiliary verbs such as do and be.
20. Write a chart of developmental sequences.

Grammatical Negation Questions Referen

morphemes past
The acquisition of Questions similar in most respects to L1
Learners are negative sentences language acquisition Learners
often more by L2 learners very lim
accurate in follows a path that The developmental sequence for questions, languag
using plural -s looks nearly also appears to be affected to some degrees simply r
than in using identical to the by L1 influence events in
possessive -s. stages of L1 order in
language Stages of forming questions (see examples they occ
Learners are acquisition (* on p. 79): or menti
often more Please see p. 6). stage 1 single words or sentence time or p
accurate in fragments My son c
using -ing than The difference is
in using -ed that L2 learners stage 2 declarative word order (no fronting
past. from different and no inversion) Later, le
language start to a
The learners backgrounds stage 3 fronting (wh- fronting but no a gramm
L1 has some behave somewhat inversion; do-fronting) morphem
effect on the differently within learners
accuracy order those stages. stage 4 inversion in wh- + copula and still mak
of grammatical yes/no questions errors su
morphemes; Stages of forming overgen
however, it is negative sentences stage 5 inversion in wh- questions tion of th
not entirely (see examples on regular -
determined by pp. 77-78): stage 6 complex questions (tag questions; ending.
the learners negative questions; embedded questions)
L1 stage 1 using no Relative clauses John wo
before the verb or in the ba
noun Subject (The girl who was sick went home)
stage 2 using He rided
dont Direct object (The story that/which I read bicycle.
was long)
stage 3 using
 are, is, and can Indirect object (The man who[m] I gave the
with not present to was absent)

stage 4 using Object of preposition (I found the book that

auxiliary verbs with John was talking about)
not that agree
with tense, person, Possessive (I know the woman whose
and number. father is visiting)

Object of comparison (The person that

Susan is taller than is Mary)

21.Write a chart of the stages of the cognitive developmental according to

Piaget. Explain each stage.
SENSORIOMOTOR STAGE 0-2 years old
Intelligence in action: Child interacts with the environment by
manipulating objects.
Child begins to make use of imitation, memory, and thought.
Moves from reflex actions to goal-directed activity.

PREOPERATIONAL PRECONCEPTUAL 2-7 years old

 Child gradually develops use of language and ability to think in symbolic
form.
Able to think operations through logically in one direction.
Has difficulties seeing another person's point of view.

CONCRETE OPERATIONAL 7-11 years old

Logical reasoning can only be applied to objects that are real or can be
seen.
Able to solve concrete (hands-on) problems in logical fashion.
Understands reversibility.

FORMAL OPERATIONS 12 years old up

"Adolescence through adulthood"
Individual can think logically about potential events or abstract ideas.
Becomes more scientific in thinking.
Develops concerns about social issues, identity.

22.State the difference between error and mistake.

A mistake is made by lack of focus, or carelessness by the speaker, but

he or she knows that is a wrong. And an error is made when you do not
know the rule or you are unfamiliar with the structure.

Second part

Register: is a style or way of using language that is typical of or appropriate

for a particular setting. For example speaking and writing usually require
different registers; the register used in writing a research report is different for
that use in writing a letter to a friend.

Connectionism: This is a theory that said that language acquisition does not
need a separate module of the mind, but it can explain that what children need
to know. Many researches explain that language acquisition in terms of how to
children obtain relations or connections between words and phrases and the
context in which they happen. When the children hear a word in a specific
context, they associate the word with the context in which they heard, for this
reason when children listen the word, brings the object to their minds.

Instrumental Motivation: the learner wishes to learn a language for fulfill

certain goals, such as getting a job, passing an examination, etc.

Integrative Motivation: the learner wishes to learn a language in order to

communicate with people from another culture that speak that language. While
both integrative and instrumental motivation is essential elements of success
in L2.
Modified Interaction: its necessary for making language comprehensible
through interaction. The necessary mechanism for making language
comprehensible

Fossilization: it refers to the fact that some features in a learners language

may stop changing. This may be especially true for learners who exposure to
the second language does not include instruction or the kind of feedback that
would help them to recognize different between their interlanguage and the
target language