SIMPLE SENTENCES

called an independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a

complete thought.

very often when writing a paper or an essay, we have to use complex or compound
sentences, i.e. we need to combine two or more simple sentences using coordination or
subordination

independent clause Dependent clauses

An independent clause contains a A dependent clause contains a subject

subject, a verb, and a complete
thought.
I wrote my first novel last year
independent (can stand alone as a
complete simple sentence)
"I went to the store" (independent)
because I went to the store" (dependent)
"after I went to the store" (dependent)
and a verb, but no complete thought.
After i wrote my first novel last year.
dependent (must be connected to a clause
or part of another clause; subordinate to a
main clause) or
The dependent clause begins with
what is called a subordinating conjunction.
This causes the clause to be dependent upon
the rest of the sentence for its meaning; it
cannot stand by itself.
The train has automatic doors that
only open when the train is stationary

COORDINATION

o FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) , however.

o both . . . and either . . . or neither . . . nor not . . . but
not . . . nor not only . . . but (also) whether . . . Or
o A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating
conjunction:
o Henry got a new job, so he has to move.
o I have a lot of homework, but I am not going to study tonight.
Except for very short sentences, coordinators are always preceded by a comma.
A. I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.
B. Alejandro played football, so Maria went shopping.
coordinating conjunctions for (BECAUSE), nor, yet occur almost exclusively in
writing, so they add a level of formality:
o The experiment was deemed successful, yet our results were unsatisfactory.
o The students were unhappy with their professor, for he often wasted their time
in class.
Punctuation patterns

Independent c, coordinating conj. Tom reads novels, but Jack reads

independent clause Independent c; comics.
conjunctive adverb, independent Tom reads novels; however, Jack
Independent clause; independent reads comics
clause. Tom reads novels; his friend reads
comics.

Conjunctive adverbs - When the job of an adverb is to connect ideas, we call it a

conjunctive adverb.
 Accordingly, also, besides, consequently, meanwhile, Moreover, nevertheless, next,
conversely nonetheless
finally, furthermore, Hence, however, Otherwise, similarly, still, subsequently,
indeed, instead, likewise, Then, therefore, thus

SUBORDINATION =COMPLEX SENTENCE

A complex sentence has an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses
(independent clauses are in italics):
o Since we got to the concert late, we had to make our way to our seats in the
dark.
o We left class early so that we could attend a special lecture.
Lucy sang beautifully(main clauses), even though she was tired(subordinate clause).
subordinating conjunction - because, since, after, although, when or a relative
pronoun such as that, who, or which.
o When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.
o B. The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error.

R Conjuctions example
e
l
a
ti
o
n
s
h
i
p
Ti when, while, Whenever the afternoon bell rings, a teeming horde of
me whenever children rush eagerly out of the school building.
I never knew what love meant until I met you.
after, once, still,
My uncle always calls after he watches the news.
until, before, as soon

as
Pl Where, I know a place where blackberries grow wild all along the
ace wherever roadside.
Wherever you can find an empty spot, just drop your

luggage there.

C as, in order Since you have to leave early, why don't you arrive a few
ause/ that , because , days earlier too?
e since, so that The cat took off in a panic because the dog started barking
ffect and growling.


C if, provided that, If my ticket doesn't arrive today, I won't be able to fly out
ondition unless tomorrow.
if only, in case He won't listen to you unless you make him turn off the radio
and look at you.


C although, Although I have called repeatedly, the credit card company
ontrast though has not corrected my account.
even though, He still brings her roses even though he knows she is allergic
to them.
while, wheras,

Punctuation patterns

A. Dependent clause, independent Although Tom reads novels, Jack

clause reads comics.

B. Independent clause dependent Jack reads comics although Tom reads

clause novels.

C. Independent, nonessential Jack Smith, who reads comics, rarely

dependent clause, clause. reads novels.

D. Independent essential dependent People who read comics rarely read

clause clause. novels.

Because he spent too long in the sun, he felt ill.

Georgie was told off after forgetting to do her homework.
In the case of an emergency, ring 999.
Stuart, who didnt have a clue about the time, was late.
Some subordinate clauses begin with a non-finite verb. These can be easily spotted by -ed
or -ing at the end of the verb, e.g.
o Hoping for success, Rob worked really hard.
o Sam, being a hard worker, gained great respect.
o Filled with mischief, Tom put salt in the sugar bowl.
o Praised for her hard work, Gemma felt pleased with herself.

RELATIVE CLAUSES

A relative clause is a dependent, subordinate clause that begins with a question word
(e.g. who, which, where) or the word that. You can use it to modify a noun or
pronoun (i.e. to identify or give more information about it).

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
o these clauses give essential information to define or identify the person or thing we
are talking about. Obviously, this is only necessary if there is more than one person
or thing involved.
Elephants who like mice are very unusual.
o In this sentence we understand that there are many elephants, but it is clear that we
are only talking about the ones who like mice.
o Punctuation: Commas are not used in defining relative clauses.

NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

o You use a non-defining relative clause to supply additional information about the
noun, whose identity or reference is already established. You can also use it to
comment on the whole situation described in a main clause.
 Albert Einstein, who put forward the theory of relativity, is considered by many
as the most intelligent person in human history.
o You should not use the relative pronoun that in non-defining relative clauses.
o Non-defining relative clause is always separated by commas from the rest of the
sentence

Relative pronouns
Person Thing Place Time Reason
Subject who/that which/that
Object who/whom/ that/ which/ where when why
Possessive whose whose

- In defining relative clauses who, that or which can sometimes be omitted. This
depends on whether the relative clause is the subject or the object of a sentence.
- When the relative clause is the subject of the sentence it cannot be omitted.
o The woman who lives next door works as a nurse.
o We cannot say The woman lives next door works as a nurse, as the woman is
the subject of the sentence.
- When the relative clause is the object of the sentence it can be omitted.
o The chair that I am sitting on belonged to my grandmother. =
o The chair I am sitting on belonged to my grandmother.
- A trick that may help decide if the relative clause is the subject or object is to look at
the word followed by the relative pronoun
o ... who showed me the pictures... --> the pronoun is followed by a verb so you
cannot omit it
o ... which I showed him ... --> the pronoun is NOT followed by a verb so you can
omit it
- But this explanation only applies for "who", "which", and "that".
- In addition to this, when a defining relative clause takes a continuous or ing form who,
that or which can be omitted.
1. The dog that is lying on the grass is very vicious. The dog lying on the grass is
very vicious.
2. The children who are doing the test are very intelligent. The children doing the
test are very intelligent.

In extra information clauses nothing can be omitted from the sentence. Instead, it
should be remembered that commas are always placed around the extra information
clause.

1. David Keene, who plays for Birmingham City, is an excellent footballer.

2. London, which is the largest city in England, has a population of around
ten million

Finit and non-finit clauses

o The verbal element in a non-finite clause may take four forms:

bare infinitive
to-infinitive
-ing participle
-en participle
for NP to infinitive
I remembered that I was responsible. (finite)
I remembered to do it. (non-finite)
I saw that you did it. (finite)
I saw you do it. (non-finite)
 Tired from studying all afternoon, she went for a walk.
Opening the book slowly, she began to read.
Having already finished their projects, they can have a rest.
They have made plans to send their friends birthday cards this year.

Compering compound and complex

o compound sentences differ from complex sentences in one important way:

o COMPOUND John was tired, but he finished his homework.
o COMPLEX Although John was tired, he finished his homework.
o In the first sentence, the writer is communicating that both clauses are equally important. In
the second sentence, the writer is saying that the subordinate clause ("John was tired") is
less important than the independent clause ("he finished his homework").

Compound- compley senteces
o They have two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause:
o Judy went to the bookshop, and she bought a book which she needed for a friend.
o Because it is a well-known thing, I assumed everybody knew it, but then I had to
explain it from the begining.

Academic style
o the English used in academic texts, particularly in written ones
o a style of writing that is formal and impersonal
o promoted in universities as it makes university essays and reports appear serious and
scholarly
o can enable you to think more logically, more clearly and more realistically as you work on
your assignment

o feauters of academic style avoid always and never

tentative rather than assertive o formal academic writing
language characteristic
formal vocabulary words derived from latin/french
formal grammar origin
clarity and accuracy single word verbs
coherence and cohesion formal connecting words
referencing correctly impersonal constructions
tentative rather then assertive complex sentences
language no contractions
avoid using strong, assertive claims the use of abstract nouns/noun
use the following words: possible, phrases
probably, may, might, appears, use of cautious language
seems, often, ... structure of writing
e.g. This may be/appears to be the reference to credible sources as
most important factor. spporting evidence