Chapter 4.7-On

Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 105
4.7 EFFECT OF GEOMETRY OF THE IMPELLER ON ITS PERFORMANCE

At this stage the reader can determine the specific energy (head), capacity and brake power
of a centrifugal machine if the geometry, speed of rotation and density of the flow medium
are known. However he was not introduced as to how the given geometry and speed are
determined. The process of determining the geometry and speed of the impeller is known
as design. To design an effective impeller for a given performance the engineer has to
know the effect of the various geometric parameters of the impeller. In addition the
knowledge will help the engineer to make appropriate conclusion about each part of the
machine during selection, maintenance and installation. The next sections deal with the
effect of the various geometric parameters on the performance of turbo machines.
4.7.1 Effect of Blade Angle 2 on the Specific Work Yblade,

The blade angle 2 has a significant effect on the total head transferred from the blade to
the flow medium. The following section discusses how the specific energy depends on the
vane angle at the exit.
For simplicity consider the case of vane congruent flow with no pre-rotation, i.e., 0=900
Y blade, u 2 c2u (4.75)
u2 (u 2 c2m cot 2)
u 22 u 2 c2m cot 2
Let A u 22 and B u 2 c2 m
Therefore
Y blade, A B cot 2 (4.76)
For a given impeller at a given speed A and B are constants.
Table 4.2 Yblade, as a function of 2

2 00 900 1800
Y blade
, 2
u2
The effect of the blade angle 2 on the theoretical specific work is sketched in Figure 4.34
for given u2 and c2m values. It shows that the specific energy transferred by the blades
highly depends on the vane angle 2. Generally speaking, the theoretical specific work
increases with the blade angle.
Yblade,

Figure 4.34 The effect of the blade 2 angle on Yblade,
For a certain 2 value the vane cannot even transfer any energy at all. Such blades that have
a vane angle 2 which result in no energy transfer are known as datum blades.
Equation 4.77 is used to calculate the exit blade angle for a datum blade.
u2 c
2,datum cot 1 tan1 2 m (4.77)
c2 m u2
The impeller blades are classified into three basic types: backward, radial and forward
based on the discharge angle 2. The backward curved and backward inclined blades are
blades with 2 < 900, and they are curved or inclined in opposite direction to the rotation of
the impeller. The forward curved blades are blades with 2 > 900, and the blades are curved
in the same direction as the rotation of the impeller. Radial tip and radial blades have
2=900.
Backward Backward Forward

curved inclined Radial Tip Radial curved
Figure 4.35 Types of blades
From Figure 4.34 we also observe that for extremely forward curved blades (2>>900) the
theoretically transferable specific energy by the blade is extremely high. This means that
you can, theoretically, get a very small impeller that can transfer a very large amount of
energy just by giving it high blade angle at the discharge. This seems very attractive,
because it will then enable us to design very compact fluid machines. However it is not
only the size (compactness) that matters but also the efficiency of the pump, the latter being
more important in most cases especially in duties that require large power. The efficiency
is highly related to the fraction of the energy that is developed in the form of pressure
energy. This fraction is known as degree of reaction of the impeller and the static pressure
energy is commonly known as specific static rotor work. The next section deals with the
static rotor work or degree of reaction of the impeller.
4.7.2 The Specific Static Rotor Work

The blades of centrifugal and axial flow impellers transfer energy to the flow medium in
two forms: pressure energy and velocity energy. There is a qualitative difference between
pressure energy and velocity energy. As it can be remembered from fluid mechanics, fluid
friction losses increase in proportion to the square of the velocity of the fluid. If most of the
energy is developed in the form of velocity energy the efficiency of the pump will be low.
However pressure energy is not subject to such a loss. Therefore, with regard to efficiency
it is better if the energy transfer from the blade to the fluid is mostly in the form of pressure
energy. To do this we need to know how to determine not only the total energy but also the
fraction of the pressure energy. The specific work transferred from the impeller to the fluid
in the form of pressure energy is called specific static rotor work Yp.
3
2
1
0
Figure 4.36 Centrifugal impeller

Calculation of Yp for the case of 0=900 c0=c3m
P3 P0
YP (4.78)

Where P0 - P3 = Static pressure difference between the exit and inlet of the blade
channels.
YP =Energy transferred from the impeller to the fluid in the form of

pressure energy
=Density of the flow medium
The specific work of the machine Y is the total mechanical energy developed in the
impeller minus the loss in the guide vane. Therefore,
(4.79)
P3 P0 Increase of pressure energy

c3 c 0
2 2
Increase of velocity energy
2
Z guide Energy loss in the guide
The purpose of the guide is to convert the velocity energy to pressure energy and the
2
2 2
2 2
velocity energy is c3 c0 c3 c3m c3u , hence the efficiency of the guide is
2 2 2
2
c 3u
Z guide
guide 2 2 (4.80)
c 3u
2
Rearranging the above equation
2
c 3u
Z guide (1 guide) (4.81)
2
Using this in Equation in the equation for Yp
2 2
c3u c3u
Yp Y (1 guide)
2 2
2
c3u
Yp Y guide
2
c32u
guide
2
Y p Y 1
Y blade h

For the given condition Yblade= u2c3u
c32u
guide
2
Y p Y 1
u 2 c 3u h

Simplifying the above equation
guide c3u
Y p Y 1 (4.82)
h 2u 2
Degree of Reaction
The degree of reaction of a fluid machine is the fraction of the useful energy transferred to
the flow medium, which is in the form of pressure energy.
RYP (4.83)
Y
The degree of reaction for the case of 0=900 c0=c3m
guide c3u
Y p Y 1
h 2u 2
Yp guide c3u
R 1
Y h 2u 2
The guide efficiency and hydraulic efficiency are commonly taken to be equal, i.e.
guide=h.
c 3u
R 1
2u 2
For vane congruent flow
c 2u u 2 c2 m cot 2
R 1 1
2u 2 2u 2
1 c2 m cot 2
R 1 (4.84)
2 u2

c2 m
R=0 for cot 2
u2
Using the above equation the static rotor work can be calculated just by multiplying R by
Y. The curves for Yp and Yblade, at different values of 2 are as shown in Figure 4.37. The
fraction of the pressure energy Yp of the total specific energy transferred by the blade
increases as the exit blade angle 2 decreases. However the total energy transferred will
also reduce resulting in larger diameter of the impeller for a given specific energy.
e,
lad
Yb
Yvel
YP
YP

Figure 4.37 Yblade, and Yp as functions of 2
Hence the design of impellers at a given speed with small 2 results in larger but efficient
impellers than those with larger 2 for the same performance, which result in compact but
less efficient impellers. When 2=900, the reaction R=0.5, and the theoretical total head
comprises the velocity head and static head equal in value.
All blade types find use in various turbo machines. Pumps and compressors are almost
always provided with backward curved blades, because of the relative importance of
efficiency rather than compactness. Fans may have blades of any of the five basic types.
Fans with unshrouded, flat radial blades called paddle blade fans are used mostly for
moving air containing solids since they reasonably remain free from blockage and can
withstand considerable wear before failure.
Forward curved fans are commonly used for ventilation of commercial buildings in view of
their compact size for a given duty. Backward bladed fans are likely to be used for large
installations where their higher efficiency is of an advantage.
4.7.3 Shape Number and Specific Speed

The blade angle 2 affects both the efficiency and compactness of a turbo machine. What
about the shape of the impeller? How do we choose between an axial flow, radial flow and
mixed flow impellers? A dimensionless number called, shape number or an equivalent one
called specific speed relates the shape of the impeller to its performance. By the shape of
the impeller we mainly mean the ratio D1/D2. For axial flow pumps it is 1. For mixed flow
a bit greater (around 2) and for highly radial flow it is larger. The shape number is the
dimensionless number that relates the performance Q and Y of the impeller to the shape of
the impeller at a given impeller speed.
Derivation of the shape number

3 m2
N shape n 1 s Q s Y
m (4.85)
s 2
m: 3 2 0
s : 2 0
____________________
2 0

2
for =1
1 3

2 4
Therefore
n Q
N shape 3/ 4
(4.86)
Y
[Q]: m3/s, [n]: rps, [H]: m
However the most commonly used number in the role of shape number is the specific
speed. It has the same form to the shape number but it is not dimensionless. Two
modifications are made on the shape number to get the specific speed, the constant term g
is left out and commonly used unit of rotational speed, rpm, is used for n. The formula is
written below.
n Q
nq (4.87)
H 3/ 4
Where nq=Specific speed
n: impeller speed of rotation in rpm
Q: Volume flow rate in m3/s

H=Head in m
In North America, the units used are
[n]=rpm, [Q]=gpm, [H]=Ft
nq(Am)=51.65 nq
The shape number and the specific speed are related by the formula
nq= 333 Nshape.
4.7.4 Relation between Specific speed and Impeller Dimensions

For simplicity, we do the analysis for vane congruent flow
Q=D1b1c1m (4.88)
Assuming radial inlet flow
c1m= D1n tan 1 (4.89)
Using (4.80) in (4.79)
Q 2 D12 b1 n tan 1 (4.90)
c
Y h u 2 c2U h u 2 1 2 m
tan 2
c2m
Y h u 22 1

u 2 tan 2
but
c2m
Y h 2 D22 n 2 1
(4.91)
D2 n tan 2
b1 D1
c2 m c1m
b2 D 2
(u1 tan 1) b1 D1
b2 D 2
2
b
c2 m D1 1 n tan 1 (4.92)
D 2 b2
Using (4.83) in (4.82)
b1 tan 1
2

Y h D n 1
2 D
2 1
2
(4.93)
b tan 2
2
2 2
D
H=Y/g;
Using (4.81) and (4.84) in (4.78)
n Q
nq
H 3/ 4
60n[rps] D1 b1 n tan 1
nq 3/ 4
2
h 2 2 2 D1 b1 tan 1
D 2n 1

g D 2 b2 tan 2

Rearranging we get
D1 b1
tan 1
1 D 2 D2
n q 187.62 3 / 4 (4.94)
h 2
3/ 4
tan
1 D1 b1 1
D 2 b2 tan
2
The relationship between nq and the ratio D1/D2 can be observed from the equation above.
The relationship is also drawn in Figure 4.38. As it can be easily seen from the figure and
the formula, increase in the ratio means increase in the specific speed. This means to get a
performance with high head and low flow rate, for a given speed, we need an impeller with
low D1/D2 ratio, that means a radial flow impeller. On the other hand, to get high flow rate
and relatively low head, we need D1/D2 ratio close to 1, i.e., axial flow impellers. For a
performance midway we need a mixed flow impeller.
2000
1500
nq
1000
500
0
0 0.5 1
D1/D2
Radial Axial
Figure 4.38 Trend of D1/D2 and specific speed relationship
Hence the specific speed combines the flow rate and head for a given speed and tells us the
type of impeller we have to use. Figure 4.39 shows the relation between the specific speed
and shape of the impeller.
10 20 40 60 120 200 300

Figure 4.39 Specific speed and impeller shape relationship
The specific speed is highly related to the efficiency of the impeller, consequently, the fluid
machine. To get a performance that results in a very small specific speed (very high head
and relatively small capacity), we need an impeller with narrow and long impellers that
result in high energy loss due to fluid friction. Figure 4.40 shows the relationship between
efficiency, specific speed and volume flow rate. As can be seen from the figure, for a given
specific speed high flow rate results in a design with high efficiency. This is because the
impeller width will be larger and the energy loss due to fluid friction becomes small.
100
Over 2300m3/hr
90 2300m3/hr
80 3
680m3/hr
230m /hr
Eff. % 115 m3/hr
70 45 m3/hr
23 m3/hr
60
50
40
10 20 40 60 80 120 200 300
Figure 4.40 Relationship between efficiency and specific speed and flow rate.
The efficiency of centrifugal fluid machine falls very rapidly for specific speed below 20.
In such low specific speeds the efficiency will be unacceptably low.
In such cases, either positive displacement pumps or multi stage pumps, with the impellers
mounted on the same shaft are used. Multi stage centrifugal machines are commonly
manufactured with impellers mounted on the same shaft.
Figure 4.41 Centrifugal impellers in series
The number of stages can be determined easily if the minimum allowable specific speed
per stage is determined. The minimum allowable specific speed is determined mainly by a
compromise between the increase in the cost of the pump due to the complexity in design
and manufacturing of multistage pumps and the saving of power cost due to higher
efficiency.
Determination of number of stages

H total i H i
n Q n Q
nq,i 3/ 4 i
3/ 4
nq,total i3 / 4
H total
3/ 4
H total

i
Therefore the number of stages can be calculated by the following formula.
4/3
n q, i
i (4.95)
n q,total

nq,i is the lowest allowable specific speed and nq,total is the specific speed calculated from
the required total head and flow rate for the given impeller speed, nqi is mostly taken to be
around 15.
4.7.5 Double Suction Impellers

Due to the difference in the magnitude of the suction and discharge pressure and the area
over which it acts, there will be unbalanced axial thrust on the impeller towards the suction
pipe. In single stage, large size pumps double suction impellers are used to balance this
axial thrust. For small pumps thrust bearings are enough. Figure 4.42 depicts this
unbalanced axial thrust.
Discharge
Discharge Pressure Discharge
Pressure Pressure
Discharge
Pressure
Suction Suction Pressure Suction
Pressure Pressure
Figure 4.42 Balanced and Unbalanced Axial Thrust
Figure 4.43 shows double suction impeller, it is equivalent to two impellers working in
parallel; hence each impeller will have half the total flow rate and the same total head.
While double suction impellers have the advantage of reducing maintenance cost due to
unbalanced axial thrust, their efficiency is lower, because each impeller works with half the
flow rate. This results in reduced specific speed of each which leads to reduced efficiency.
Figure 4.43 A double suction impeller
In calculating the specific speed for such cases, the volume flow rate should be taken half
of the total flow handled by the pump (consider it as two pumps working in parallel)
whereas the head is the total head of the system.
4.7.6 Effect of Inlet Geometry and Speed of Pumps: Cavitation

The inlet part of centrifugal and axial flow pumps is very critical for their proper operation.
Unless it is properly designed and produced it will cause a serious pumping problem called
cavitation.
In pumping liquids, the pressure at any point in the suction line must never be reduced to
the vapor pressure of the liquid. If it happens the liquid will vaporize and form cavities of
vapor. The vapor bubbles are, then, carried along with the stream until a region of higher
pressure is reached where they collapse with a tremendous shock on the adjacent walls.
This phenomenon is called cavitation. The sudden inrush of liquids into the cavity created
by the collapsed vapor bubbles causes mechanical destruction on the impeller surfaces
called erosions. Besides the erosion it also causes other undesirable phenomenon like
vibration, noise, loss efficiency and loss of capacity. Once boiling occurs and vapor
bubbles are formed the erosion and wear due to cavitation occur further upstream at points
where sudden collapse occur due to increase in pressure.
Avoiding Cavitation
If vaporization can be avoided up to the entrance of the blade channel by ensuring a static
pressure above the vapor pressure, then the pump will be safe from cavitation since inside
the blade channel the pressure starts to increase. Measures to avoiding cavitation are taken
during the design and manufacturing of the pump and installation and operation of the
pumping system.
During design the most important components related to cavitation are those components
related to the suction condition of the pump. The quality of a centrifugal pump with
respect to cavitation is given by Net Positive Suction Head Requirement (NPSHR) of the
pump. The NPSHR is related to the head loss inside the pump and the dynamic head at the
inlet of the blade channel. When the NPSHR it is large it means the dynamic head and the
loss are large and the quality of the pump with respect to avoiding cavitation is poor.
The Net Positive Suction Head Available is the static pressure head of a given system that
is above the vapor pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature. It is the measure of
the safeness of the system with respect to cavitation. Higher NPSHA means that the system
is not susceptible to cavitation. The relation between the two is discussed in the next
section.
Consider a network, whose suction piping is represented by Figure 4.44.
NPSHR
NPSHA
hs
hA=PA/ g hstat
PT/ g
ZS
eS
PA=Patm
Figure 4.44 The NPSHA and NPSHR in a system
PA= The pressure above the liquid surface at beginning of the suction pipe (PA=
atmospheric pressure in Figure 4.44).
hA= PA/g
es= Geodetic head
zs= Friction loss
hs= Total suction head
PT= Vapor pressure at the liquid temperature T.
The total head before the liquid enters the pump is the pressure head at the surface of the
liquid, i.e., hA. No energy is added until the liquid reaches the pump blade channel. At the
inlet of the blade channel, the total suction head is the total static head minus the friction
loss, and the elevation above the liquid surface , i.e., hs= hA zs es. The total suction head
minus the vapor pressure head gives the NPSHA. Note that the total suction head at the
inlet can also be divided into the static head hstat and the dynamic head plus the friction loss
at the suction side of the pump, which is commonly known as the NPSHR. Hence we can
expect that the main parameters that affect the NPSHR are the flow angle 0, the pre-
rotation factor and the speed of rotation of the impeller, since they contribute to the
velocity of the liquid at the blade inlet and the velocity is directly related to the head loss
due to friction and the velocity energy of the pump.
The following derivation shows that to avoid cavitation the NPSHA of the system should
be greater than the NPSHR of the pump.
From Figure 4.44 it can be observed that
NPSHA PT hstat NPSHR (4.96)

g
NPSHA NPSHR hstat PT (4.97)

g
To avoid cavitation the static pressure head should be greater than the vapor pressure of the
liquid, i.e.,
PT P
h stat h stat T 0 (4.98)
g g
Comparing (4.97) with (4.98) we get
NPSHA NPSHR 0
Therefore to avoid cavitation
NPSHA NPSHR (4.99)
NPSHR is the characteristics of the pump and is normally given with the pump data. For
design purpose the NPSHR can be estimated by the following formula.
2 2
w0 C
NPSHR 1 2 0 (4.100)
2 2
Experimental values show that
1: 0.25 to 0.35
2: 1.1 to 1.3
The optimum values of 0 that minimize NPSHR at 1= 0.3, 2 =1.2 for various pre-
rotations are obtained by differentiation and equating the result to zero. The optimum 0
values are presented in the graph below. When there is no pre-rotation the optimum value
of 0 is 17.30.
0.3
60
30
0
2 r=1 0
Pre-rotation Pre-rotation
in opposite in direction
direction of rotation
Figure 4.45 Optimum inlet flow angle - 0

Suction Number and Suction Specific Speed
In design, selection and operation we need to characterize a pump regarding its quality with
respect to avoiding cavitation. A dimensionless number called suction number is used for
this purpose. The suction number is defined as
n Q
Sq (4.101)
NPSHR g 3 / 4
Some times the term suction specific speed is used.
n Q
Sq (4.102)
NPSHR 3 / 4
nqs=333Sq (4.103)
The attainable values of suction number are influenced by the pre-rotation in the eye of the
impeller for optimum 0 values are shown in Figure 4.46. The higher the value of the
suction number, Sq, the better is the quality of the pump with respect to avoiding
cavitation. As shown in the diagram a slight pre-rotation (r=0.8) in the direction of
impeller rotation avoids cavitation best. Providing, the fluid with a certain pre-rotation
however requires a special device in the suction side of the pump, and is used only when
the pump operates at high risk of cavitataion, like boiler feed pump. Otherwise, in almost
all cases pumps are designed with no pre-rotation.
0.6 0a =( )
0a opt
1=0.3
0.4 2=1.2
Sq
0.2
0
2 1.5 1 0.8 0.5 0
r
Figure 4.46 Effect of pre-rotation on suction number
From Figure 4.46 we see that the best flow angle 0 with respect to avoiding cavitation is
around 170. For design purpose 0 =17.20 is commonly used for a case of no-prorogation.
Hence the blade angle1 is determined based on 0=17.20 and considering the vane
contraction factor it becomes around 190.
Table 4.3 Range of suction number and quality with regard to cavitation
Sq
Comment
0.3 to 0.4 Low quality in regard to avoiding cavitation
0.4 to 0.45 Normal
>0.45 High quality in regard to avoiding cavitation
Limit on the speed

Since increase in speed of rotation increases the NPSHR, avoiding cavitation limits the
speed of rotation that can be used at safe condition regarding cavitation. If the NPSHA of
the network is known or can be estimated the speed of rotation can be determined as
follows.
From (4.101) we know that,
n Q
Sq
NPSHR g 3 / 4
Rearranging the above equation
4/3
1 n Q
NPSHR
g S q
To avoid cavitation
4/3
1 n Q
NPSHA NPSHR
g S q
4/3
1 n Q
NPSHA
g S q
After rearranging we get
S q NPSHA g
3/ 4
n (4.104)
Q
Hence, by assuming the attainable Sq, the NPSHA and the design flow rate; one can
determine the limit of the speed for avoiding cavitation. Too large Sq will be too ambitious
which may not be attained and finally will lead to unsafe operation with respect to
cavitation, too small Sq will lead to far much smaller speed, with a number of related
disadvantages mainly low efficiency and bulky design.
Determination of NPSHA for some typical cases

The NPSH available depends on pumping network suction side. Hence the analysis is done
only for the suction of the pumping system. Figure 4.47 shows some typical cases of
installation and determination of the NPSHA.
PA Patm
es=+ve
es=-ve
es=-ve Patm
Figure 4.47 NPSHA for typical cases

NPSHA P A es h fs PT (4.105)
g g
Note that the geodetic height es, is measured from the liquid surface to the entrance of the
suction blade. It is positive if we measure up from the liquid surface and negative if we
measure below the liquid surface.
Measures Outside the Pump for Avoiding Cavitation

As it is already indicated in the previous section the quality of a pump with respect to
cavitation is taken care of during design and manufacturing of the pump. Carefully
designed and manufactured pumps will have low NPSHR. On the other hand cavitation
can also be avoided by measures outside the pump, these methods are based on increasing
the NPSHA so that the condition for no cavitation, i.e., NPSHA > NPSHR is satisfied. In
the following section discusses how to increase the NPSHA. Note that the equation for the
NPSHA is given in (4.105):
NPSH A P A es h fs PT (4.105)
g g
a. Lower elevation (small es)
From Equation 4.105 we see that, lowering the value of the suction elevation es, increases
NPSHA. When the pump is below the surface of the liquid to be pumped, es becomes
negative hence it increases the NPSHA. Therefore it is always better, with respect to
avoiding cavitation, to install the pump below the surface of the liquid. This is usually
simple when we transfer liquid from one tank to another. In some cases, like pumping from
a well if the NPSHR is high, we have to use specially designed submersible pumps so that
the pump will be installed inside the liquid without damaging the motor.
b. Minimum suction Head loss (small hfs)

From the equation it can be seen that to increase the NPSHA, and avoid cavitation we must
minimize the head loss due to fluid friction at the suction side. This leads us to the
following conclusions:
i. The suction piping should be short. This means we have to install the
pump as close to the source as possible so that the suction piping gets
smaller.
ii. The suction piping should be as straight as possible:- To minimize the

minor losses ( losses in pipe fittings) we have to make the suction piping as
straight as possible.
iii. We have to use the discharge side valve for regulation. Valves for
regulation the flow rate, or control valves in general should not be put at the
suction side. This should be given special emphasis since usually control
valves are designed to absorb a large amount of pressure drop, which will
cause significant pressure drop in the NPSHA if it is installed at the suction
side.
c. Minimum Temeprature
When the pump is to be used in a system at various temperatures it is advisable to
install the pump so that it suction side is at the lowest temperature side. This will lead
to a lowee vapor pressure so that PT will be smaller, resulting in higher NPSHA.

g
d. Increase PA
In some cases when the risk of cavitation is high, we can increase the NPSHA by
increasing PA. This can be done by bypassing some of the liquid from the discharge line
to the suction line. By so doing we increase the static pressure of the suction side.
4.8 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF TURBO MACHINES

The importance and meaning of the performance characteristics of fluid machines is
discussed in chapter 3. In this section we see the relationship between the nature of the
performance characteristics of centrifugal machines, their dependence on the geometry and
speed of the impeller.
4.8.1 Theoretical Performance Characteristic Curves

a. Theoretical Head Capacity Curve
For simplicity the case of vane congruent flow with radial inlet flow, 0=900 is considered.
In this case
c2u u 2
H blade, (4.106)
g
From the velocity triangle at 2
c2u u2 c2m cot 2 (4.107)
For vane congruent flow
Q
c2 m (4.108)
D 2 b2
Using (4.97) in (4.96)
Q cot 2
c2u u 2 (4.109)
D 2 b2
Using (4.98) in (4.95)
u 2 u 2 Q cot 2
2
H blade, (4.110)
g g D2 b2
Replacing U2 with D2n
D2 n2 D2 nQ cot 2
H blade,
g g D2 b2
H blade,
D2 n 2 n cot 2
Q (4.111)
g g b2
For a given impeller, at a given speed

n cot 2
a constant (4.112a)
g b2
b
D2 n 2
constant (4.112b)
g
Using (4. 101a) and (4.101 b) in (4.100)
H blade, aQ b (4.113)
Where a and b are constants for a given impeller geometry and speed. The nature of the
theoretical head as a function of the flow rate for different blade angles 2, speed (n) and
impeller diameter D2 can be studied.
Hblade, =f(Q) for an impeller at different 2 values

n cot 2
since a
g b2
for 2<900 cot 2>0 hence a0
2=900 cot 2=0 hence a0
2>900 cot 2<0 hence a0
Therefore the theoretical characteristic curves for 2 in the mentioned ranges will be as
shown in Figure 4.48.
Hblade, 2>900
2=900
2
u2
b 2<900
g
Q
Figure 4.48 Theoretical characteristic curves
4.8.2 Theoretical H-Q Curve for Different Speeds

For a given impeller running at three different speeds such that n1<n2<n3,

D2 n1
2

D 2 n2
2

D2 n3
2
and
b1 b2 b3
g g g
n1 cot 2 n2 cot 2 n3 cot 2

a1 a2 a3
b2 g b2 g b2 g
Hence for values of 2 indicated in the figure the theoretical H-Q curve becomes
n3 n3
n2 Hblade, n2 Hblade, n3
Hblade, n2
n1 n1 n1
2>900 2=900 2<900
Q Q Q
Figure 4.49 Theoretical characteristic curves at different speeds and 2 and n

4.8.3 Theoretical H-Q curve for different Impeller Diameters

The theoretical H-Q curves for different diameters are very similar to Figure 4.49 except
the fact that the slopes are the same even if the diameters are different since the constant a
does not depend on the impeller diameter.
For three impellers running at the same speed, with difference only in their diameter
D2,1<D2,2< D2,3.

D2,1n
2

D2, 2 n
2

D2, 3 n
2
and
b1 b2 b3
g g g
n1 cot 2
a1 a 2 a3
b2 g
Hence the theoretical curves become
D2, 3 D2, 3
Hblade, D2, 2 Hblade, D2, 3
Hblade, D2, 2 D2, 3
D2, 1
D2,1 D2, 1
2>900 2=900 2<900
Q Q Q
Figure 4.50 Theoretical characteristic curves at different speeds and D2 and n
b. Theoretical Power Curves Nth= f(Q)

The theoretical power curve is obtained by multiplying the theoretical head in (4.113)
by the volume flow rate and the density.
Hence,
H blade, aQ bQ
2
as discussed earlier for

2<900 cot 2>0 hence a0
2=900 cot 2=0 hence a0
2>900 cot 2<0 hence a0

and the power curves become
2>900
Nth 2=900
2<900
Q
Figure 4.51 Theoretical power curves
4.8.4 Actual Characteristic Curves

The actual characteristic curves differ from the theoretical due to the deviation of actual
flow from vane congruent flow, the hydraulic loss, and losses caused by off-design
operation. The theoretical H-Q curves were in all cases straight lines, however the actual
curves are non-linear curves.
Hblade,
Hblade Hydraulic
H loss
Shock losses
Q
Figure 4.52 Deviation of theoretical characteristic curve from the actual
Remark
From Figure 4.52 it is observed that to come from vane congruent to actual flow
we multiply the head from the vane congruent by a factor that mainly depends only
on 2 and z.
To get H from Hblade we subtract the hydraulic loss. There is no hydraulic loss for
Q=0 and it increases as the flow rate increases.
When a turbo machine is operated at a point other than the design point the flow
angles and the blade angles will not be similar. The loss due to this difference is
called shock loss. Its value is zero at the design point and increases as you move
away from it.
Similarly typical actual power and efficiency curves for radial flow impellers are drawn in
Figure 4.53.
Nbrake
Q
Figure 4.53 Actual power curve and efficiency curve
The actual characteristic curves of centrifugal pumps are obtained by test and are usually
reported in the same axes (See Figure 4.54). The point of maximum efficiency is
commonly known as best efficiency point or BEP.
Best Efficiency
Point (BEP)
H
Nb (kw)
Figure 4.54 Typical actual characteristic curves of a centrifugal machine
4.8.5 Classification of Head- Capacity Curve Shapes

The shapes of head-capacity curves are sometimes helpful in selection and operation. The
various types of characteristic curves and related comments are given below.
Rising Characteristics
In these types of curves the head increases continuously as the capacity is decreased.
They are typical for radial flow impellers with backward curved blades.
Q
Figure 4.55 Rising H-Q curve
Dropping Characteristic
In this case there is a head greater than that developed at shutoff. Such characteristic
curves cause instability during operation, causing variation in flow rates even when the
machine works against one head. Dropping characteristic curves are commonly
obtained in forward curved radial blade impellers.
Q
Figure 4.56 Dropping H-Q curve
Steep Characteristic
In such types of characteristic curves there is a large difference in head between the
best efficiency point and the shutoff. This characteristic is sometimes applied to only
portion of the curve. Impellers with high specific speeds usually have such curves.
Q
Figure 4.57 Steep characteristic
Flat characteristic
A head- capacity curve in which the head varies very slightly with capacity from shutoff to
design capacity is known as flat characteristic curve. Radial flow impellers with blade
angle around 900 exhibit such characteristic curve.
Q
Figure 4.58 Flat H-Q curve
Characteristic curve in which only one capacity is obtained at any one head is called stable.
In some types of characteristic curves, however, we may get two or more capacities at one
head, such characteristic curves are known as unstable, dropping characteristic are
examples of unstable characteristic curves (See also Figure 4.59). Axial flow pumps also,
usually have unstable characteristic. Figure 4.59 is a typical axial flow impeller
characteristic.
Figure 4.59 Unstable H-Q curve
The Affinity Laws

The variations of head, capacity and brake power with impeller speed of turbo machines
follow definite rules known as affinity laws. These laws were originally found
experimentally, but have a rigorous theoretical background. When applied to every point
on the head capacity curve, they expressed by the following laws:
1. The capacity varies directly as the speed

Q1 n1
(4.114)
Q2 n2
2. The head varies directly as the square of the speed
2
H 1 n1 (4.115)
2
H 2 n2
3. The brake power (coupling power) varies directly as the cube of the speed
3
N 1 n1 (4.116)
3
N 2 n2
In all the calculations the overall efficiency of the fluid machine is assumed to remain
constant with speed for each point.
Example 4.5
The head and capacity of a centrifugal water pump is running at 1450 rpm are 64m and
240m3/hr respectively. The overall efficiency of the pump at the mentioned working point
is 75%. The density of water at the pumping condition is 998kg/m3. If the speed is changed
to 1980 rpm, what will be the head, capacity and brake power of the pump.
Solution
Data
=998kg/m3, H1=64m, Q1=240m3/hr, =75%, n1=1450 rpm, n2=1980 rpm
We use the affinity laws to solve each problem.
1st Method
i. Capacity
Q1 n1

Q2 n2
n2 1980
Q2 Q1 240 327.7 m3 /hr
n1 1450
ii. Head
2
H 1 n1
2
H 2 n2
2
2
n2 1980
H 2 H 1 2 64 119.3 m
n1 1450
iii. Brake Power
The brake power for the first speed can be calculated from the power formula
gQ1 H 1 998 9.81 (240 / 3600) 64 kW
N1 55.7 kW , the power for the
0.75 1000
new speed can be calculated using the affinity law
3
N 1 n1
3
N 2 n2
3
3
n2 2980
N 2 N 1 3 55.7 141.8 kW
n1 1450
2nd method
H2=119.3 m and Q2 =327.7 m3/hr are calculated before, the efficiency doesnt change with
speed, for the given point, =0.75% hence
gQ2 H 2 998 9.81 (327.7 / 3600) 119.3 kW
N2 141.8 kW
0.75 1000
The Iso-effciency Curves
Once the characteristic curve of a turbo machine is obtained for a certain speed,
characteristic curves for other speeds can be drawn using the affinity laws. Since the
affinity laws are used for calculating heads, flow rates and brake powers for the same
efficiency pints at various speeds, it is easier to do the calculation and the curve for the
same efficiency point. The resulting curves are known as iso- efficiency curves.
75% 70%
H [m] 60%
Q [m3/hr]
Figure 4.60 Iso-efficiency curves
You can follow the following procedure to draw the iso-effciency curves when the H-Q
and the efficiency curves are given for one speed.
Select certain efficiencies and the corresponding flow rates, heads and brake
powers. Note that except the best efficiency point a given efficiency can
correspond to two pints in the H-Q curve. It is clearly shown in Figure 4.61.
H
H1
1 2
H2
Q1 Q[m3/hr] Q2
Figure 4.61 One efficiency value(1=2 ) two H-Q points
Calculate H, Q, Nb for the same efficiency at various speeds and mark and join
these pints by a curve and they represent the corresponding points for the same
efficiency (iso-eficiency point) at different speed.
Joining the values of the head and Q for a given speed you get the H-Q curve for
that particular speed.
The characteristic curves (iso - efficiency) will finally appear as shown in Figure 4.60.
4.9 ADDITIONAL POINTS ABOUT TURBO COMPRESSORS

4.9.1 Determining the Compression Ratio
The Euler equation of turbo machines is a general equation for calculating the specific
energy or head of a turbo machine when the geometries of the impeller and the speed are
given. However in compressors and blower calculations we are interested also in the
compression ratio that can be achieved by the impeller. The following part discusses how
we calculate the compression ratio from the geometry and speed.
From (3.4)
cD cS
2 2
dp
Y D ge
S
2
The geodetic head for compressors is negligible, hence
cD cS
2 2
dp
Y D
S
(4.117)
2
Considering only the impeller inlet and outlet
cS=c0 The velocity of the gas at the inlet of the impeller
cD=c3 The velocity of the gas at the exit of the impeller
P1 The pressure of the gas at the inlet of the impeller
P2 The pressure of the gas at the exit of the impeller

T1 The temperature of the gas at the inlet of the impeller
T2 The temperature of the gas at exit of the impeller
Using this notation, for adiabatic compression
P1 ( k 1) / k c32 c02
Yad CpT1 1 (4.118)
P2 2
On the other hand the from Eulers equation we have

Yblade u 2 c3u u1cou (4.119)
Taking the compression efficiency in terms of adiabatic efficiency
Y Yblade ad (4.120)
Using (4.109) in (4.110)
Y (u 2 c3u u1cou ) ad (4.121)
Combining (4.108) and (4.109)
P ( k 1) / k c2 c2
(u 2 c3u u1c0u ) ad CpT1 2 1 3 0
1
P 2
Rearranging for the compression ratio =P2/P1

k /( k 1)
ad (c 2 c 2 )
1 (u 2 c3u u1c0u ) 3 0 (4.122)
CpT1 2
4.9.2 Multistage Compression

When the compression ratio =PD/PS is large it is difficult to achieve the compression in a
single stage. The reasons are:
Since centrifugal and axial flow compressors are dynamic machines increase in
pressure is obtained through increase in velocity of the flow medium in the
compressor. However to get this high flow velocity, the tip speed of the impeller
(U2) should be very high, and this cannot be achieved easily in one stage due to
the limited strength of the material from which the impeller is made.
Adiabatic compression consumes much more power than isothermal compression
and the power increment increases as the compression ratio increases. When the
compression ratio is high the heat to be removed to bring the compression close to
isothermal condition increases. The effective way to remove this large amount of
heat is to use multistage compression where the gas is cooled using separate heat
exchangers after each stage of compression.
Single stage designs with very high pressure compression ratio results in low
specific speed impellers that have very low efficiency.
4.9.3 Number of Stages

The optimum number of stages in multistage compression can be calculated easily by
assuming the same compression ratio at each stage and neglecting the pressure drop
between the stages. The latter assumption is reasonable since the pressure drop in the
coolers is small as compared to the pressure rise at each stage. According to this
assumption the suction pressure of a given stage will be the discharge pressure of the
previous stage.
P1, D P2, S

P2, D P3, S
(4.123)
.......
Pi , D Pi 1, S
Where Pi, S = The inlet pressure of stage i

Pi, D = The discharge pressure of stage i
For equal compression ratio at each stage
P1, D P1, S

P2, D P2, S 2 P1, S

P3, D P3, S 3 P1, S (4.124)
.....

Pz , D z P1, S

If the total compression ratio required and the compression ratio per stage are tot and
respectively, the number of stages z is given by
P
log D , z
Ps ,1
z

log( tot )
z (4.125)
log( )
where
tot=Total compression ratio
= Compression ratio of each stage
z=Number of stages
4.9.4 Cooling in Multistage Compression

The theoretical amount of heat to be removed at each stage is equal to the sensible heat to
bring the gas back to the suction temperature at each stage. There are various types of
cooling.
i) Inner cooling: - In this type of cooling, the cooling medium (commonly water)
is supplied through passages in the cast casing intended for the cooling purpose.
Inner cooling does not provide sufficient cooling for high compression ratio.
ii) Inter cooling: - In this type of cooling the gas is cooled by a heat exchanger
between every stage or group of stages. A significant amount of saving can be
achieved if the heat exchanger provides sufficient heat transfer area.
Figure 4.62 shows the p-v diagram for compression without and with inter cooler. Note that
the shaded area is the energy saved due to intercooling.
Specific energy saved

per stage due to cooling
P [kPa]
v [m3/kg]
Figure 4.62 Specific energy saved per stage due to cooling
iii) Combined inner and intercooling :- This is the most efficient and extensively
used method. However, due to the complexity of the design the cost is high.
iv) Direct cooling: - This is achieved by directly injecting cooling medium (oil or
water) into the flow medium. The oil/water should later be separated from the
compressed gas if it is in a level that cannot be tolerated.
4.10 LIMITATIONS OF TURBO MACHINES

4.10.1 Limitations of Centrifugal and Axial Flow Pumps
i. Need of Priming
Centrifugal and axial flow pumps cannot start pumping unless the air in the suction pipe is
replaced with liquid. The process of replacing the air with liquid is known as priming.
Priming is necessary in centrifugal pumps because they do not develop sufficient vacuum
to lift liquid as far as there is air is in the suction line. Unlike positive displacement pumps
centrifugal and axial flow pumps develop a certain maximum head these head will not be
sufficient to raise a liquid to any considerable distance if the pump is filled with gas.
Maximum
head
Q
Figure 4.63 Maximum head of a centrifugal pump
Consider a centrifugal water pump with a maximum head of 60m whose suction is filled
with air. Since the velocity triangle from which we calculate the head does not depend on
the type of fluid (whether liquid or gas) it will transfer a maximum head of 60m to the air.
Assuming the density of air to be 1.2 kg/m3 the total pressure developed will be P=1.2
9.8160=706.3 Pa. This pressure however will lift the water, density=1000 kg/m3, H=
706.3/ (1000* 9.81)=0.072 m or just 7.2cm. This however, in most cases, will not be
sufficient to cover even the friction loss. Therefore priming is necessary when centrifugal
and axial flow pumps are installed above the liquid surface.
Methods of Priming
The simplest and cheapest way to prime a centrifugal pump is accomplished during
installation. Whenever possible it is good to install the pump below the liquid level, in that
case no special priming mechanism is required. Just opening the suction valve and the vent
will let the liquid flow by gravity and push the air out. However, sometimes we will be
forced to install the pump above the liquid level (with suction lift). In such situations we
need special means of priming. Some of these priming methods are:
Using foot valve
Using priming chambers
Using Vacuum devises
Foot Valves
A foot valve is a form of check valve installed at the bottom or foot of a suction line. Like
any check valve, it allows flow in one direction only-toward the pump. When the pump is
stopped and the ports of the valve close, if the valve seats tightly, the liquid cannot drain
back to the suction well. Unfortunately a foot valve does not always seat tightly, and the
pump occasionally loses its prime.
Figure 4.64 Foot valve
Foot valves have another serious drawback. They cause significant pressure drop which
may increase the pumping cost and also reduces the NPSHA significantly. Due to this, foot
valves are not common in modern installations.
Priming Chambers
A priming chamber consists of a priming tank and suction and discharge openings that are
connected to the suction line at the top and suction nozzle of the pump at the bottom
respectively. The pump will be primed by gravity from the tank. Once the pump is primed
and started, vacuum will be created at the top of the priming tank. The liquid from the
source will flow to the tank due to the pressure difference between the source which is at
higher pressure and the priming tank.
Priming
tank
Suction
line Discharge
Vacuum line
Pump
Patm
Figure 4.65 Priming chamber
For proper operation the volume of the tank should be approximately three times the
volume of the suction piping. It is usually more advantageous to buy a commercial priming
chamber with proper automatic vents and other features. The use of priming chambers is
restricted because of their size to relatively small pumps.
Vacuum Devices
Almost every commercially made vacuum producing device can be used with systems in
which pumps are primed by evacuating air. Among these are
Ejectors ( discussed in chapter 2)
Positive displacement pumps ( reciprocating and rotary)
If there are several centrifugal pumps to be primed, one priming device can serve all. Such
an arrangement is known as a central automatic priming system.
ii. Pumping Viscous Liquids

Centrifugal and axial flow pumps have very limited capacities in handling viscous liquids.
Since they are dynamic pumps, the velocity of the flow medium inside the pump is very
high. The disc friction losses and hydraulic loss increase significantly when the viscosity
increases. Therefore these pumps are not normally used in pumping viscous liquids.
iii. Air or Gas in the Liquid

The head capacity curve of centrifugal pumps deteriorates significantly even if as little as
one percent of air or gas is present in the liquid to be pumped. As the percentage of air in
the liquid increases the effect becomes drastic and the pump may stop to perform
satisfactorily with as much as 6% air.
4.10.2 Limitation of Turbo Compressors

Proper operation of compressors put limits to the maximum and minimum flow rates
beyond which the compressor should not be operated. Too small flow rates cause
instability in the compression system widely known as surge. Operating at extremely high
flow rates may lead to a phenomena called choking. The next sections deal with these
compressor limitations.
i. Surge
Operation of compressors at much lower capacity leads to instability commonly known as
surge. Changes in operation conditions of compressors pressure and the molecular weight
(if a mixture of varying composition is compressed) can also cause instability. Surge is
characterized by intense and rapid flow and pressure fluctuations. This phenomenon is
generally accompanied by strong noise and violent vibration which can severely damage
the machines involved.
Surge prevention is effected through experimental tests in which pressure pulsation at low
flow rates is measured on the individual stages. On this basis, it is possible to identify the
flow values at which stable operation of the stage is guaranteed. Then the surge limit is
identified and is commonly presented with the H-Q curve of each stage of compressor.
Knowledge of the operating limits of each stage can then be used to evaluate the
corresponding operating limits of the machine as a whole. Figure 4.66 shows a
characteristic curve (compressor map) with the surge limit. The engineer has to make sure
that a compressor stage is operated at flow rate well above the surge line for a given head.
Stable
Unstable operation
operation
Had
Surge line H-Q curves

at various speeds
Q
Figure 4.66 Surge lines of a centrifugal compressor
ii. Choking
Choking or stonewall is a condition at which increased capacity results in a rapid decrease
in head. Choking occurs when the Mach number of the flow medium inside a centrifugal
compressor approaches one. Under this condition increased capacity results in rapid
decrease in head and it can also cause damage. In this condition no further increase in flow
rate will be possible and there will be rapid, abrupt decrease in the performance of the
stage.
Head
Shock wave
Friction
Q
Figure 4.67 Choking limit
The occurrence of choking depends not only on the geometry and operating conditions of
the stage, but also on the thermodynamic properties of the fluid. In this regard, chocking
can be particularly limiting for machines operating with fluids of higher molecular weight,
such as coolants. A good design will have a Mach number less than or equal to 0.9. A
given design operating at a very high flow rate also has similar effect.
Many types of compressors normally operate in conditions far from choking. For these
machines, the maximum flow limit is frequently defined as the flow corresponding to a
prescribed reduction in efficiency in respect to the peak value.
REVIEW EXERCISE
1. An axial flow pump has an impeller rotating at 2950 rpm , the impeller has an outside
diameter of 216mm and a hub ratio 0f 0.7. The outlet angle of the vane, 2, is 220 and
the flow velocity cm is 8.5 m/s. Assuming no pre-rotation at the inlet determine the
head of the impeller for vane congruent flow.
2. The impeller of an axial flow fan has a speed of speed of 1000 rpm. The dimensions of
the impeller are as given below. Determine the flow rate and head of the impeller for
vane congruent flow. Draw the velocity triangles to scale at the inlet and discharge
ends. Dimensions : Dh=160mm, D2=350mm,b1=180, b2=25. Assume no pre-
rotation at the inlet.
3. If the speed of rotation in question 2 is doubled what will be the effect on the flow
rate, head, power and velocity energy percentage of the impeller? What do you think
will happen to the efficiency? Why?
4. A centrifugal pump has an impeller rotating at 2950 rpm and the outside diameter of
the impeller is 216mm. The outlet angle of the vane 2 is 220 and the radial velocity at
the outlet of the vane c2m is 3.5m/s. Assuming radial inlet flow determine the head of
the impeller for vane congruent flow.
D1=160mm D2=350mm
b1=36 b2=28
b1=180 b2=25
5. A stage of an axial flow compressor used to compress air at 101.3 kPa and 200C has an
impeller rotating at 12000 rpm. The blade angle at the inlet,1 , is 250. The rotor stage
has a tip diameter of 42 cm, a hub diameter of 24.3 cm. The air enters the rotor and
leaves the stator in axial direction with no change in velocity or radius. The blade angle
at the discharge is 450 .Assuming constant specific heats with k=1.44. Assume a
hydraulic efficiency of 92%. There are no guide vanes at the inlet. Calculate the volume
flow rate and compression ration for a vane congruent flow.
6. A centrifugal impeller of a pump has a rotating speed of 1450 rpm. The dimensions of
the impeller are as given below. Determine the flow rate and head of the impeller for
vane congruent flow. Draw the velocity triangles to scale at the inlet and discharge
end.
7. A radial flow impeller rotating at a speed of 1450 rpm has the dimensions as given
below. Determine the flow rate and head of the blade assuming radial inlet flow.
Draw the velocity triangles for vane congruent and actual flow.
D1=160mm D2=350mm z=5 (Number of blades)
b1=36mm b2=28mm
1=180 2=250
t1=4mm t2=6mm
8. The impeller of a centrifugal compressor stage rotates at 18,000 rpm. The impeller inlet
and exit diameters are 38mm and 127mm. The blade angles at the inlet and outlet are
280 and 550. The impeller is designed so that the flow velocities at the inlet and exit of
the impeller are equal. Assuming radial inlet and adiabatic compression with k=1.44
and hydraulic efficiency of 86% calculate the compression ratio attained by the
compressor for vane congruent flow.
9. An axial flow impeller having a rotating speed of 1450 rpm has the dimensions given
below. Determine the flow rate and head of the blade. Draw the velocity triangles for
vane congruent and actual flow.
Dh=160mm Do=350mm
1=180 2=250
t1=4mm t2=6mm
z=5 (Number of blades)
10. A centrifugal pump should operate at a head and flow rate of 140m and 115m 3/hr
respectively the available motor speed is 1450 rpm determine the number of stages if
the minimum allowable specific speed is 15 and the actual specific speed in the
number of stages you calculated.
11. A double suction centrifugal pump with an impeller speed of 2950 rpm has flow rate of
1400m3/hr and head of 120 m estimate the highest efficiency expected from the
pump.
12. If the above pump is used to move water with =998kg/m3, using the specific speed-
efficiency curve determine the annual saving of power cost if you use a multi-stage
impeller with your proposed number of stages instead of using a single stage. What if
the number of stages is 8? Use 2600 hr/annum operating hours, unit cost of 0.75
Birr/kw-hr and motor efficiency 0.97.
13. The dimensions of a radial flow impeller rotating at a speed of 2000rpm is given
below draw the theoretical head capacity curves and the power curve. Given:
D2=250mm b2=13mm 2=250, number of blades is 6.
14. The flow rate and head of an impeller rotating at a speed of 1480rpm is 250m3/hr and
40m respectively. The overall efficiency of the pump under the mentioned condition
is 78%. Determine the flow rate, head and coupling power if the speed is increased to
2000 rpm.
14. A centrifugal pump is used to pump a liquid chemical with a density of 860kg/m3.
The vapor pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature is 40kPa. The friction
head loss in the suction pipe is 2.5m and the pressure PA at the surface of the liquid is
1.013 bar. If the NPSH requirement of the pump is 3m determine the elevation es,
above or below the liquid level that the pump has to be installed to avoid cavitation.
15. The performance characteristic of a centrifugal pump with a speed of 1500 rpm is
given below, answer the following questions about the pump characteristic.
Q [m3/hr] H[m] % Ncoup[kW]

0 52 0 -
50 51 25 27.7
100 49 47 28.4
150 46 65 28.9
200 43 75 31.2
250 38 78 33.1
300 30 70 35.0
350 20 48 39.7
a) Determine the flow rate and head of the pump at the BEP
b) Determine the type of Head Capacity curve and Power curve
c) Draw the characteristic curve with iso-efficiency curves for speeds 1750
rpm 2000rpm and 2500 rpm.
15. The sketch below shows the suction side of a pumping system using centrifugal pump
for pumping water at 500C from a hot spring well at a rate of 130 m3/hr. The NPSH
requirement of the pump is 5m determine, the possibility of cavaitation and if there is
a possibility suggests a method to avoid cavitation. The pipe is 5-40, commercial
steel pipe and has a total length of 25m.
Gate D1a=120mm
900 regular Valve
elbow
3m
PA=1 atm
Foot
Valve/Swing
check V
REFERENCES
[4.1] Matley,J., Fluid Movers: Pumps, Compressors, Fans and Blowers, 1979,McGraw-Hill
[4.2] Karassik, I.J., Krutzsch,W.C., (etal ), Pump Handbook, 2nd Edition, 1986, McGraw-Hill.
[4.3] Karassik, I.J., McGuire, T., Centrifugal Pumps, Chapman &Hall, 1998
[4.4] Sheer,W., Turbo Mahinery (AAU Teaching Material), 1976
[4.5] Cherkassky: Pumps, Fans and Compressors, Mir Publisher,1977.
[4.6] Hanlon, P.C., Compressor Handbook, McGraw-Hill, 2001
[4.7] Bleier,F.P., Fan Handbook, McGraw-Hill,1998
[4.8] Bathie,W.W., Fundamentals of Gas Turbines, John Wiley & Sons,Inc.,2nd Edition, 1996.
[4.9] Lazarkiewicz, S, Impeller Pumps, Pergamon Press, 1965.

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Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 105

4.7 EFFECT OF GEOMETRY OF THE IMPELLER ON ITS PERFORMANCE

4.7.1 Effect of Blade Angle 2 on the Specific Work Yblade,

Table 4.2 Yblade, as a function of 2

Backward Backward Forward

Figure 4.35 Types of blades

4.7.2 The Specific Static Rotor Work

Figure 4.36 Centrifugal impeller

YP =Energy transferred from the impeller to the fluid in the form of

4.7.3 Shape Number and Specific Speed

Derivation of the shape number

Q: Volume flow rate in m3/s

4.7.4 Relation between Specific speed and Impeller Dimensions

10 20 40 60 120 200 300

10 20 40 60 80 120 200 300

Figure 4.41 Centrifugal impellers in series

Determination of number of stages

4.7.5 Double Suction Impellers

Figure 4.42 Balanced and Unbalanced Axial Thrust

Figure 4.43 A double suction impeller

4.7.6 Effect of Inlet Geometry and Speed of Pumps: Cavitation

Consider a network, whose suction piping is represented by Figure 4.44.

From Figure 4.44 it can be observed that

NPSHA PT hstat NPSHR (4.96)

NPSHA NPSHR hstat PT (4.97)

Figure 4.45 Optimum inlet flow angle - 0

Some times the term suction specific speed is used.

Figure 4.46 Effect of pre-rotation on suction number

Limit on the speed

After rearranging we get

Determination of NPSHA for some typical cases

Figure 4.47 NPSHA for typical cases

Measures Outside the Pump for Avoiding Cavitation

b. Minimum suction Head loss (small hfs)

ii. The suction piping should be as straight as possible:- To minimize the

to a lowee vapor pressure so that PT will be smaller, resulting in higher NPSHA.

4.8 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF TURBO MACHINES

4.8.1 Theoretical Performance Characteristic Curves

For a given impeller, at a given speed

Hblade, =f(Q) for an impeller at different 2 values

2=900 cot 2=0 hence a0

2>900 cot 2<0 hence a0

4.8.2 Theoretical H-Q Curve for Different Speeds

n1 cot 2 n2 cot 2 n3 cot 2

2>900 2=900 2<900

Figure 4.49 Theoretical characteristic curves at different speeds and 2 and n

4.8.3 Theoretical H-Q curve for different Impeller Diameters

does not depend on the impeller diameter.

Figure 4.50 Theoretical characteristic curves at different speeds and D2 and n

b. Theoretical Power Curves Nth= f(Q)

as discussed earlier for

2=900 cot 2=0 hence a0

2>900 cot 2<0 hence a0

4.8.4 Actual Characteristic Curves

Figure 4.54 Typical actual characteristic curves of a centrifugal machine

4.8.5 Classification of Head- Capacity Curve Shapes

Figure 4.59 Unstable H-Q curve

The Affinity Laws

1. The capacity varies directly as the speed

Figure 4.60 Iso-efficiency curves

4.9 ADDITIONAL POINTS ABOUT TURBO COMPRESSORS

P2 The pressure of the gas at the exit of the impeller

On the other hand the from Eulers equation we have