CHAPTER 5

THEORY OF POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

Reciprocating and rotary positive displacement pumps are common in the
chemical and process industries. The characteristic features and operating
principles of the most common positive displacement pumps are discussed
in chapter 2. In this chapter the relation between their geometry and
performance is discussed.

5.1 THEORY OF RECIPROCATING PUMPS

Reciprocating pumps include piston pumps, plunger pumps and diaphragm pumps. The
operating principle of these pumps is the same. Therefore the theory is discussed based
on just one of them, i.e., a piston pump.

5.1.1 Capacity of Reciprocating Pumps

The capacity of a reciprocating pump is determined by the size of the cylinder, the
number of piston strokes or the speed of rotation of the crank shaft, the number of
cylinders and the number of actions (single acting and double acting). A single acting-
reciprocating pump is a pump with only one side of the piston acting on the liquid. When
the two sides act we call it double acting. Figure 5.1a and Figure 5.1b describe the two
types of pumps.

R
R

Figure 5.1a Single acting piston pump Figure 5.1b Double acting piston pump

147
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 148

a. Single acting pumps

The capacity of a single acting reciprocating pump is the product of the displaced
volume, the number of double strokes (rpm), and the volumetric efficiency as it is given
by Equation 5.1.

Q D Sn vol
2
(5.1)
4
Where n= number of piston double strokes
D=Inner diameter of the cylinder (bore diameter)
S= piston stroke, S 2R
vol= Volumetric efficiency
Q= Capacity (Volume flow rate)

It is good to note that the stroke length is twice the size of the radius of the crank, R,
shown in Figure 5.1a and Figure 5.1b.The volumetric efficiency takes into account
leakage through clearances and suction and discharge valves during the suction stroke
and vice versa. It is determined, in the course of pump tests, by measuring the actual
volume of liquid delivered by the pump per unit time.

Q
'
(5.2a)
vol
Q
Q: Actual volume flow rate
Q: Theoretical volume flow rate

For a reciprocating pump it is common to give the slip of the pump instead of the
volumetric efficiency. The slip of the pump is the measure of the total volumetric loss of
the pump given as a fraction of the theoretical capacity. The slip is given by
Equation 5.2b.

Slip 1 (5.2b)
vol

Q' 2
D Sn (5.3)
4
Normally vol = 0.7 to 0.97
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 149

b. Double acting pumps

The capacity of a double acting pump is twice the capacity of the single acting minus the
reduction in capacity due to the volume displaced by the connecting rod. Hence,

Q (2 D2 d 2) Sn vol (5.4)
4
Where d is the diameter of the rod
c. Multiple Cylinders
If a pump has several cylinders of same size with their pistons actuated by a common
crankshaft (multiplex pump), the pump capacity is calculated as the capacity developed
by one times the number of pistons.

Example 5.1
The stroke length and bore diameter of a double acting single cylinder reciprocating
pump are 30cm, and 35cm respectively. The diameter of the rod is 22mm.The speed of
the crank is 60 rpm. Determine the capacity of the pump if the slip of the pump is 5%.

Solution

Q
4
(2 D 2 d 2) Sn vol
4
2 0.30 2

0.0222 0.35 60 (1 0.05) 2.81 m3/min

2.81 60 168.8 m3/hr

Example 5.2
The flow rate of a reciprocating pump that runs at 90 rpm is measured to be 38.2 m3/hr.
The stroke length and the internal diameter of the cylinder are 24cm and 20cm
respectively. Calculate the slip of the pump.

Solution

Q' D Sn
2
0.20 0.24 90 0.679m / min 40.74m /hr
2 3 3

4 4
Q 38.2
From (5.2a) vol '
100% 93.8%
Q 40.74

Slip 100 93.8 6.2%

Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 150

5.1.2 Suction and Discharge Pulsations in Reciprocating Pumps

Since liquid is an incompressible medium the velocity of the liquid inside the cylinder of
reciprocating pumps is the same as the velocity of the piston head. The velocity of the
piston head, if it is actuated by crank, varies with the crank angle (see the derivation
below). Hence the velocity of the liquid inside the cylinder and consequently the capacity
vary with the crank angle. Unless special steps are taken, the motion of the liquid in the
suction and discharge pipes will be also non-uniform. It is this non-uniformity that we
call pulsation. Pulsation is one of the major problems of piston pumps actuated by crank.

Pulsation causes several of problems in addition to the non-uniform delivery. It reduces

the NPSHA significantly and to avoid cavitaion the pump should run at a reduced speed.
It causes mechanical instability of the piping network. It also causes increased power
consumption due to the acceleration head involved caused by variation in flow velocity.

The Velocity and Acceleration of the Flow Medium in Reciprocating Pumps

As it is stated previously the velocity and acceleration of the liquid inside the cylinder of
reciprocating pumps is the same as the velocity and acceleration of the piston head.
Therefore they can be calculated by calculating the velocity and acceleration of the piston
head. The analysis below is based on Figure 5.2.

L
R

x
L+ R

Figure 5.2 Geometric relations in a reciprocating pump

x L2 R2 sin 2 R cos L R (5.5)

x R(1 cos ) L L2 R2 sin 2

2
x R(1 cos ) L(1 1 R2 sin 2 ) (5.6)
L
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 151

The velocity of the piston head

vp
dx
dt
R sin
d 1 2 2 2
sin
dt 2 L R

1 / 2
2 R2 sin cos
d
dt

dx 2
(2 sin cos ) d
vp R sin R
dt 2 L2 R2 sin 2 dt

sin 2
v p R sin 2


(5.7)
2 L 2 sin 2
R

The ratio L/R is commonly in the range of 4:1 to 6:1. Lower L/R ratio causes high
pulsation and larger L/R ratio results in large uneconomical power frame.

2
L
sin
2
Since
R
sin 2
v p R sin (5.8a)
2 L / R
When L/R >>1, the motion can be approximated by simple harmonic motion
v p R sin (5.8b)

The Acceleration of the Piston Head (plunger)

2
d x cos 2
a p 2 R cos 2 (5.9a)
dt L/ R
For simple harmonic (i.e., L R )

a p R cos
2
(5.9b)

Example 5.3
For the pump in Example 5.2 determine the flow rate and acceleration of the liquid in the
cylinder of the pump at the beginning and middle of the suction stroke (1) assuming
L>>R and (2) without the assumption in (1) and taking the length of the connecting rod
to be 75cm.
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 152

Solution
n=90 rpm =1.5 rps
2n 2 1.5 9.42 rad/s ,
S=24cm=0.24 m
D=20 cm=0.20m
Radius of the crank R S / 2 0.24 / 2 .12 cm
(1) Assuming L/R>>1
A) At the beginning of the stoke, =0,
D 2
Q Apist v pist v pist
4
Using (5.8b) in the above equation
D 2
Q Apist v pist R sin( )
4
0.2 2
(0.12)(9.42) sin(0) 0
4
Acceleration of the liquid is equal to the acceleration of the piston
From (5.4b)
a p R 2 cos( ) 0.129.42 cos(0)
2

10.65 m/s 2

B) At the middle of the suction stroke =900,

i) Flow rate
D 2
Q Apist v pist R sin(90)
4
0.202
(0.12)(2 1.5) sin(90) 0.0355 m3/s
4
127.9 m3/hr

ii) Acceleration

a p R cos 9.42 0.12 cos(90 ) 0

2 2 0

(2) Assuming L=75cm

A) At the beginning of the suction stroke=00
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 153

i) Flow rate
From (5.8a)
sin 2
v p R sin
2 L / R

sin 0
R sin(0) 0
2 L / R
Therefore Q=0 at the beginning of the suction stroke
ii) Acceleration
cos 2
a p R cos 2
L/ R
cos(2 0)
(0.12) cos(0) (9.42) 12.35 m/s
2 2

0.75 / 0.12
A) At the middle of the suction stroke, =900
i) From (5.8a)
D 2 sin 2
Q Ap v p R sin
4 2 L / R
0
0.20 2
sin(180 )
0
(0.12) sin(90 0 ) (9.42) 0.0355m 3 / s
4 2L / R

127.9 m3/hr

ii) Acceleration
cos 2
a p R cos 2
L/ R
cos(1800 )
(0.12) cos(900 ) (9.42) 1.73 m/s
2 2

0.75 / 0.12
Table 5.1 Summary of results
Flow Rate Q [m3/hr] Acceleration m/s2
Crank angle Assuming L/R>>1 Assuming L=0.75 Assuming L/R>>1 Assuming L=0.75

00 0 0 10.65 12.35
900 127.9 127.9 0 -1.73
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 154

The Acceleration Head of the Flow Medium in the Suction and Discharge Pipes
Because of the acceleration of liquid in the cylinder the liquid in the suction and
discharge pipes also accelerate. From the continuity equation,
Ap v p As vs (5.10)

v p Ap
vs (5.11)
As
Where
Ap= Cross -sectional Area of the piston head
vp=velocity of the piston head
As= Flow area of the suction pipe
vs= velocity of the liquid in the suction pipe

Therefore the acceleration of the liquid in the suction pipe is given by

dv s v p Ap
as
dt As

Ap dv p Ap
as ap
As dt As

Ap cos 2
as R cos 2 (5.12a)
As L/ R
Similarly for the liquid in the discharge pipe
Ap cos 2
ad R cos 2 (5.12b)
Ad L/ R
Ad= Flow area of the discharge pipe
For simple harmonic motion the accelerations of the liquid in the suction and discharge
pipes are given by (5.13a) and (5.13b) respectively
Ap
as R 2 cos (5.13a)
As

Ap
ad R 2 cos (5.13b)
Ad
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 155

The specific work to accelerate the liquid through the suction and discharge pipes are
given by
mas Ls
Ya , s FLs a s Ls
m
mas Ls
Ya ,d FLs a d Ld
m
F=Force to accelerate the liquid
Ya,s= The specific work to accelerate the liquid in the suction pipe
Ya,d= The specific work to accelerate the liquid in the discharge pipe
Ls= Portion of the suction pipe through which there is acceleration
(pulsation)
Ld= Portion of the discharge pipe through which there is acceleration
m= Mass of liquid in consideration
Hence,
Ap
Ya , s a p Ls (5.14a)
As

Ap
Ya ,d a p Ls (5.14b)
Ad
The acceleration head, ha=Ya /g is therefore
Ap
ha , s a p Ls (5.15a)
As g

Ap
ha ,d a p Ld (5.15b)
As g
Using (5.14) in (5.16)
Ap R 2 Ls cos 2
ha , s cos (5.16a)
As g L/ R

Ap R 2 Ld cos 2
ha ,d cos (5.16b)
Ad g L/ R
For simple harmonic motion
Ap R 2 Ls
ha , s cos (5.17a)
As g
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 156

Ap R 2 Ld
ha ,d cos (5.17b)
Ad g
Example 5.4
The dimensions and speed of a single acting single cylinder reciprocating pump and the
dimensions of the suction pipe are as given below.
S= 32cm, D=30cm, ds= 2" (Diameter of suction pipe), n=50rpm, Ls= 5m
Assume L/R>>1 and
Determine the acceleration head of the liquid in the suction pipe at the beginning, middle
and end of the suction stroke.

Solution
D 2 (0.32 )
Ap 0.0707 m 2
4 4
R S / 2 0.32 / 2 0.16 m
50
2n 2 5.24 rad/s
60
The internal diameter of a standard 2 Schedule 40 pipe is 52.5mm=0.052m
0.052 2
As 0.00217
4
i) At the beginning of the suction stroke
Ap R 2 Ls 0.0707 0.16 5.24 2 5
ha ,s cos cos(0) 73.0 m/s 2
As g 0.00217 9.81
ii) At the middle of the suction stroke
Ap R 2 Ls (0.0707) (0.16) (5.24 2 ) 5
ha ,s cos cos(90 0 ) 0 m/s 2
As g (0.00212) 9.81

iii) At the end of the suction stroke

Ap R 2 Ls (0.0707) (0.16) (5.24 2 ) 5
ha , s cos cos(180 0 ) 73.0 m/s 2
As g (0.00217) (9.81)
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 157

5.1.3 The Minimum Pressure for the Piston to Move in the Cylinder
The piston or plunger of a reciprocating pump should apply a certain minimum pressure
to move inside the cylinder. This pressure depends on the pump design, speed and the
piping system, and the flow medium.

Figure 5.3 represents a pumping system using reciprocating pump. The relationship
between the total mechanical energy of the flow medium at point 1 and 2 shown in
Figure 5.3, is given by (5.18)
P1 P
z1 2 z 2 ha h fs (5.18)
g g

hs Ls

Figure 5.3 A pumping system using reciprocating pump

Where
ha= acceleration head in the suction pipe
hfs= friction head in the suction pipe

Therefore the pressure inside the cylinder,P2 can be calculated by

P2 P
1 ( z 2 z1 ) ha h fs
g g
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 158

Since most commonly P1=Patm

P2 Patm
hs ha h fs (5.19a)
g g
Similarly for the discharge stroke
P2 P
d hd ha h fd (5.19b)
g g
Note that during the discharge stroke ha < 0 since cos < 0 for >900

5.1.4 The Minimum Pressure to Open the Suction Valve

From Equation 5.19a
P2 Patm
hs ha h fs
g g
The maximum acceleration head is much larger than the maximum friction head.
Therefore the minimum pressure occurs when the acceleration head is maximum, i.e. at
=00. At this pressure the friction head is zero, since the velocity of the flow medium is
zero. Hence,
P2,min Patm
hs ha , max (5.20)
g g
For simple harmonic motion from (5.27a), with =00.
Ap R 2 Ls
has,max (5.21)
As
Using (5.31) in (5.30), the minimum pressure to open the suction valve is
P2,min Patm Ap R 2 Ls
hs
g g As

5.1.5 The Minimum Pressure to Open the Discharge Valve

The minimum pressure during the discharge can be similarly calculated. Equation 5.22
gives the minimum pressure to open the discharge valve.
P2,min Pd Ap R 2 Ld
hd (5.22)
g g Ad
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 159

5.1.6 The Indicator Diagram

The indicator diagram of a reciprocating pump shows the pressure variations in the
cylinder and valve chest over the length of two piston strokes. The actual indicator
diagram of a reciprocating pump is drawn using readings of indicators connected to the
pump. The indicator diagram is used to calculate the work done by the pump during one
complete suction and discharge stroke.

Theoretical Indicator Diagram

Figure 5.4 shows the theoretical indicator diagram. As the piston moves to the right the
pressure inside the cylinder is reduced and the suction valve is opened while the
discharge valve is closed. The enclosed space of the cylinder is increased and is filled
with liquid coming from the intake pipe through suction valve.

3 2
P

Patm
4 1

1
S (Vpist)

Figure 5.4 Theoretical Indicator Diagram of a Piston Pump

At this point, the pressure in the valve chest is below atmospheric, which is due to the
hydraulic resistance of the suction line. The change in pressure over the whole length of
rightward stroke of the piston is given by suction line 4-1. When the piston head assumes
position 1, the piston reverses its direction of motion and the suction valve is
automatically closed; the pressure in the valve chest builds up abruptly to its level P 2.
This process is shown by the vertical line 1-2. At the instant the pressure grows as high as
P2 the pressure difference across the discharge valve overcomes the weight and tension of
its spring, thus opening the valve. As the piston moves steadily from point 2 leftwards,
the liquid is discharged at constant pressure P2. In the extreme left position the piston
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 160

again reverse its direction of motion. The result is that the pressure in the valve chest
drops abruptly along line 3-4, discharge valve is closed and the suction valve is opened.
The pressuredisplacement diagram, referred to as indicator diagram, is completed.
The Indicator Power
The indicator power is the theoretical power of a reciprocating pump that can be
calculated from the theoretical indicator diagram. The derivation is discussed below.

Work done by the piston in any of the strokes can be given as

Work done Force Dis tan ce (5.23)
For the suction stroke
W 1 P1 Apist S
For the discharge stroke
W 2 P2 Apist S
The total work done in one complete cycle
W ( P1 P2 ) Apist S

W Pi Apist S (5.24)

Where Pi is the indicator pressure

For one revolution of shaft the work done by a single acting pump is
W Pi Apist S (5.25)

Since V=Apist S, if the indicator diagram is constructed with volume as the horizontal
axis the area of the indicator diagram ( the rectangle 1-2-3-4) is equal to the work done in
one revolution.

The indicator power can be calculated by multiplying the area of the indicator curve by
the speed of rotation. It can also be noted that Q=Apist S n, hence the indicator power is
equal to the product of the indicator pressure and the theoretical volume flow rate.
N i Pi Apist Sn (5.26a)

N i Pi Q' (5.26a)
Brake Power and Useful Power
The break power that should be delivered from the motor to the pump hence is,
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 161

N brake N i (5.27)
m
Where m is the mechanical efficiency
m = 0.9 to 0.95

Pi A pist Sn
N brake (5.28)
m
Q'
N brake Pi (5.29)
m
The useful power N
N N ii (5.30)

Where i is the internal efficiency which takes care of the hydraulic loss and leakage
losses
i h vol (5.31)

h = 0.8 to 0.94
vol = 0.7 to 0.97
The overall efficiency is determine by
h vol m
The coupling power is determined by the formula
N
N brake (5.32)

QgH
N brake (5.33)

The efficiency of a piston pump is determined by experiment.

Head of Reciprocating Pumps

Modifying (5.33)
N brake
H (5.34)
Qg
Using (5.28a) in (5.34) we get
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 162

Pi A pist Sn
N brake
m
Pi Apist Sn vol h m Pi Q h m Pi h
H
m Qg m Qg g
Therefore the head of a reciprocating pump can be obtained from the indicator pressure
using (5.35)

H
Pi h (5.35)
g
The Actual Indicator Diagram
The main difference between the actual and theoretical indicator diagrams lies in the
pressure fluctuations in the beginning of suction and discharge strokes, and the effect of
the acceleration head which varies with crank angle. These fluctuations are caused by the
effect inertia of the valve and the striking of the valves to their seats because of the
intimate meeting of ground-in surfaces. Therefore when the discharge valve is being
seated, the pressure in the valve chest must be raised to a level high enough to produce a
force capable of taking the valve off its seat and overcoming its inertia.

3 1
P Patm

A(Vpist)
Figure 5.5 Actual indicator diagram of a piston pump

As soon as the valve opens, the pressure in the valve chest falls off abruptly and the valve
bobs rapidly up and down several times in the liquid flow, thus throttling the flow and
causing the pressure in the valve chest to fluctuate, which accordingly affects the
discharge line of the indicator diagram. The actual indicator diagrams are drawn using
readings of indicators connected to pumps.
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 163

5.1.7 Cavitation in Reciprocating Pumps

The theory concerning caviation is just as it is discussed in Chapter 4. However the
calculation of the NPSHA should involve the acceleration head incase of reciprocating
pumps.
Hence,
PA P
NPSHA h fs es T ha (5.36)
g g
Where ha is the acceleration head
As it is already discussed the acceleration head is mostly much larger than the friction
head, hence the cavitation condition is usually considered, for =0, when the acceleration
head at the suction side is maximum, i.e. has=has,max. At this condition, hfs=0, and
NPSHR=0, since the velocity of the flow medium at that instant is zero. Therefore to
avoid cavitation,
NPSHA NPSHR
Since NPSHR=0, no flow
NPSHR 0 (5.37)
Using (5.36) in (5.37)
PA P
es T has,max 0 (5.38)
g g
Using (5.17a) for =0 in (5.38)

PA P Ap R 2 Ls
es T 0
g g As

AS Ls PA P
2 es T
RLsAp g g

AS Ls PA P
es T
RLsAp g g

Since 2n

1 AS Ls PA P
n es T (5.39)
2 RLsAp g g

Note: Ls is the length of the suction pipe through which there is pulsation.
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 164

5.1.8 Methods of Reducing Pulsation

Reducing the suction and discharge pulsation is crucial in installation and operation of
reciprocating pumps. By reducing the pulsation in the suction pipe we increase the
NPSHA available and consequently the rpm of the pump can be increased significantly
without fear of cavitation. In addition to this, significant reduction in the power
requirement of the pump and mechanical stability of the pipe line can be achieved by
reducing the pulsation.

In a process where uniform discharge is required, either the discharge pulsation should be
reduced or eliminated somehow or other type of pumps should be used. The other major
problem related to discharge pulsation is mechanical instability. Due to the non-
uniformity of velocity of the liquid in the cylinder and the discharge pipe the liquid will
decelerate. This deceleration causes pressure pulsation, which in some cases cause
serious mechanical instability. The following section discusses the methods for reducing
pulsation in reciprocating pumps.

a. Using multiplex pumps

Using multiplex pumps with the cylinder connected in parallel and the piston actuated by
common crankshaft reduces pulsation significantly.

Figure 5.6 A multiplex (triplex) reciprocating pump

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5 0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Figure 5.7 Reduction of pulsations due to multiple cylinders

Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 165

Table 5.2 Effect of number of piston/cylinder on variation in capacity

Type Number of % Above %Below Piston phase
pistons mean mean
Duplex 2 24 22 1800
Triplex 3 6 17 1200
Quadraplex 4 11 22 900
Quintaplex 5 1 5 720
Sextplex 6 5 9 600
Septuplex 7 1 3 51.50

% above mean vmax vmean 100%
vmean

% below mean vmin vmean 100%
vmean
b. Air Chambers in the suction and Discharge lines
Air vessels are closed cylindrical vessels for storing excess flow. Towards the middle of
the stroke, when the velocity of the flow is greater than the average, the excess flow gets
into the air vessel and compresses the air in the cylinder, building up a pressure higher
than the atmospheric pressure.

Air chambers

Air

Liquid

Figure 5.8 Air chambers in reciprocating pumps

Towards the end and the beginning of the next stroke, when the velocity is low, the liquid
under pressure in the air vessel is pushed back to the delivery or suction line depending
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 166

on whether the stroke is delivery or suction stroke, thus increasing the velocity there to
the average value. The only liquid which is accelerated is that between the air vessel and
the cylinder.

When the volume of air in the chamber is large enough, the flow velocity in the suction
pipe is nearly constant. The suction pulsation in the valve chest is offset by the variable
rate of liquid flow from the air chamber.

The Average Volume of Air in The Chamber

The amount of air in the air chamber is an important parameter that determines the
uniformity of the flow in the pipe line section above which it is installed. While the pump
is working the air in chamber gets compressed and expanded and occupies corresponding
volumes, indicated as Vmin and Vmax respectively (Figure 5.9). When the volume of the
air is minimum its pressure is maximum and vice versa. When the pump is not working it
takes the middle position as indicated in Figure 5.9.

Air
Vmin
Top level
Vmax
Middle level

Bottom level

Figure 5.9 Air vessel

The calculation of the average volume of air is based on the excess volume of liquid that
should be handled by the air chamber and the, and isothermal expansion and compression
of the air in the chamber. As can be seen from Figure 5.9 , the excess volume of liquid
that should be drawing into the chamber and delivered during each cycle is the difference
between Vmax and Vmin. Therefore,
Vexcess Vmax Vmin (5.40)
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 167

Determining the Excess Volume

It is already shown that the capacity of a reciprocating pump depends on the crank angle.
The relation between the crank angle and the capacity for harmonic motion is equal to the
product of the area of the piston head and the velocity of the piston head. The velocity of
the piston head is given by Equation 5.8b for harmonic motion.
Q Ap R sin (5.41)

The average capacity does not depend on the crank angle and is given by Equation 5.1 for
a single acting single cylinder reciprocating pumps. Figure 5.10 is a typical representation
of the actual and average volume flow rates as function of time for one complete rotation,
i.e. between 00and 3600. The area under each of the curves represents the total volume
to be delivered by the pump in one complete rotation of the crank (one suction and one
discharge stroke). The two areas should be equal, since whether the flow is uniform or
not the same amount of liquid is drawn into the pump and is discharged out in every
rotation.

Excess volume
Actual capacity (function of
the crank angle)
Q
Average capacity

00 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008

900 t[min] 00
Figure 5.10 Excess volume

The shaded area above the average volume flow rate represents the volume of the liquid
which has a flow rate in excess of the average volume flow rate. The volume of liquid
represented by that area should be stored and delivered by the air chamber.

Therefore,
Vexcess Vmax Vmin Area of Shaded Region (5.42)
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 168

Hence the volume of the liquid to be stored in the chamber can be computed by drawing
the actual and average volume flow rates on the same scale for a time of one complete
rotation, and determining graphically the area above the average volume flow rate line
(shaded area).

Calculating the Average Volume of Air in the Chamber

This calculation is based on the assumption that the compression and expansion in the air
chamber takes place at isothermal condition. Hence,
PV Const
When the air is compressed the pressure is maximum and the volume is minimum and it
is vice versa for expansion. Applying the above equation,
Pmax Vmin PminVmax (5.43)
The performance of the air chamber is characterized by the degree of irregularity which is
defined by Equation 5.44.
P max P min
(5.44)
Pav
Where Pav is the average air pressure in the chamber, given by (5.45)
Pmax Pmin
Pav (5.45)
2
Therefore from (5.44) and (5.45)
Pmax Pmin
(5.46)
( Pmax Pmin ) / 2
Rearranging (5.43),
Pmax Vmin
Pmin (5.47)
Vmax
Using (5.47) in (5.46)
Vmin V
Pmax Pmax 1 min
Vmax Vmax
,
Vmin Vmin
Pmax Pmax 2 1 2
Vmax Vmax
Simplifying the above equation we get,
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 169

Vmax Vmin V
excess
Vmax Vmin 2 Vaverage
Vexcess
Vaverage (5.48)

The average volume of air in the chamber can be determined using (5.48) for a
predetermined degree of irregularity. Note it is earlier discussed how to determine the
excess volume graphically. This procedure is used both for suction and discharge air
chambers.The commonly accepted degrees of irregularity are
For Suction Air Chambers 0.02
For Discharge Air Chambers 0.04 0.05
A calculation based on the above procedure gives the average volume of air in the
chamber in terms of the area of the piston and stroke length as given in the table below.
Table 5.3 Average Air Volume in Air Chambers
Type of Pump Vaverage
Single Acting Single Cylinder 27.5 ApistS
Double Acting Single Cylinder 10.5 ApistS
Single Acting Triplex pump 0.45 ApistS

5.1.9 Performance Characteristics of Reciprocating Pumps

The performance characteristic of reciprocating pumps is quite different from centrifugal
pumps. As in the case of centrifugal pumps, the performance characteristics is commonly
described as a graph. In such cases it is called characteristic curve.

Theoretical Performance Characteristics

For a given reciprocating pump with a given geometry and speed the head does not
depend on the theoretical capacity and vice versa. The theoretical capacity, for a single
acting single cylinder-reciprocating pump is given by (5.49).

Q' 2
D Sn (5.49)
4
Hence the theoretical H-Q curves for various conditions are as given below:
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 170

H-Q curves
a. Constant diameter (D) and stroke length (S), different speeds
This curve is especially important in flow rate regulation by varying speed. As can be
seen from (5.49) the mean volume flow rate is directly proportional to the speed.
Therefore for three speeds n1<n2<n3, the flow rate becomes:

Q1 D Sn1 Q2 D Sn2 Q3
' 2 ' 2 ' 2
D Sn3
4 4 4
The theoretical performance characteristic curves are as given in Figure 5.11

H
n1 n2 n3

Q1 Q2 Q3

Q
Figure 5.11 Theoretical Characteristic Curve of a Reciprocating Pump for different speeds

b. Constant Diameter (D) and speed (n) and various strokes (S)
The theoretical performance characteristics for different stroke lengths are derived in
similar fashion and the curves are similar to those in Figure 5.11.

Actual Performance Characteristics

The difference between the actual and theoretical performance characteristic curves is
caused by the dependence of the slip on head. The slip of a reciprocating pump increases
with the head against which it operates. Figure 5.12 shows typical actual and the
corresponding theoretical characteristic curves.

H Actual Theoretical

Q
Figure 5.12 Theoretical and Actual Characteristic Curve of a Reciprocating Pump
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 171

5.2 THEORY OF ROTARY PUMPS

Rotary pumps are positive displacement pumps in which energy is transferred to the flow
medium by direct application of force on the boundary of the fluid, which is defined by
the rotating and stationary elements of the pump. Like reciprocating pumps the amount
of fluid displaced by each revolution is independent of speed. The inlet and outlet ports
of rotary fluid machines are separated by the action and position of the pumping elements
and the close running clearance of the fluid machine. Hence, unlike reciprocating
machines rotary machines do not need suction and discharge valves.

5.2.1 Operating Principle of Rotary Pumps

There are three distinct parts in the any rotary pump that is in operation. These parts are
defined by the rotating and stationary parts of the pump and determine the amount of the
displaced volume. The first part is defined by the part that is open to the inlet and is
sealed from the outlet. The second is the part that is sealed from both the inlet and outlet.
The third is the part is the part that is sealed from the inlet but open to the outlet.

CTIO

OTO
OTI

Figure 5.13 Parts of Operating Rotary Pumps

The three parts are designated as OTI (Open to inlet), CTIO (Closed to inlet and outlet)
and OTO (Open to outlet). Figure 5.13 shows these parts in a gear pump. For a good
pumping action the open-to-inlet (OTI)volume should grow smoothly and continuously
with pump rotation while the open-to-outlet volume (OTO)should reduce smoothly and
continuously. The closed to-inlet and-outlet volume should remain constant with pump
rotation.
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 172

5.2.2 Displacement of Common Rotary Pumps

The displacement D of a rotary pump is the total net volume transferred from the OTI to
the OTO volume during one complete revolution of the driving rotor. For any given
pump, the displacement depends only upon the physical dimensions of the pump
elements and the pump geometry and is independent of other operating conditions.

Displacement of External Gear Pumps

Figure 5.14 shows the schematic diagram of a gear pump. The detailed operating
principle of gear pumps is discussed in Chapter 2. The displacement D of an external gear
pump, with identical gears is given by Equation 5.50.

Figure 5.14 External Gear Pump

The displacement D of a gear pump is given by

D 2 A lz (5.50)
Where
D= Displacement, A=cross-sectional area of tooth space
l=length of gear teeth, z=number of teeth

Displacement of Vane Pumps

Figure 5.15 shows section of a vane pump. It is used for the determination of the
displacement of vane pumps.

R1
Suction Discharge

R2

Figure 5.15 Vane pump Minimum and Maximum Radii

Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 173

D l ( R22 R12) (5.51)

l=Total axial length of the rotor
R1=Minimum radial dimension of the rotor elements (Figure 5.15)
R2=Maximum radial dimension of the rotor elements (Figure 5.15)

5.2.3 Capacity of Rotary Pumps

In general the capacity of any rotary pump is the product of its displacement (D), speed
of rotation of the drive (n) and the volumetric efficiency (v).
Q Dn v (5.52)
It is also commonly given as
Q Dn(1 s) (5.53)
Where s = slip of the pump =1-v

5.2.4 Pressure (Head) of Rotary Pumps

Rotary pumps unlike centrifugal pumps can deliver whatever head is required by the
system. The only limitations are the power of the drive and the strength of the pump. If
the drive can deliver sufficient power, yet if the strength of the pump is low the pump
will be damaged. Hence all positive displacement pumps are commonly, fit with relief
valves that limits the maximum pressure inside the pump. Another limiting factor for the
maximum pressure is the pump slip. The pump slip (leakage) in rotary pumps generally
increases with pressure hence running at very high pressure may result in very low
efficiency.

Note that the total head of the pump is given by

Pt
H (5.54)
g
Where Pt is the total pressure developed by the pump

5.2.5 Power of Rotary Pumps

The useful and brake power of a rotary pump are calculated from the total pressure to be
transferred to the flow medium, the volume flow rate and overall efficiency of the pump.
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 174

Useful Power
The useful power of a rotary pump is the product of the flow rate and total pressure of the
pump (Useful), and is given by,
N QPt (5.55)

Brake Power
The brake power is calculated from the useful power and the overall efficiency using
Equation 5.56.
QPt
Nb (5.56)

The overall efficiency of rotary pumps is determined by test.

5.2.6 Performance Characteristic of Rotary Pumps

The performance characteristics of all positive displacement pumps are similar and
Figure 5.11 and 5.12 can be applied to rotary pumps also. For rotary it is also common to
present the curves as functions of the total pressure also, i.e., Q f (P) , N b f (P) ,

f (P) . Accordingly the characteristic curve becomes as shown in Figure 5.16.

n[rpm]=constant
Viscosity= Constant
Q

P Plim
Figure 5.16 Performance characteristic of rotary pumps

Note that the capacity curve decreases with pressure. This is due to the fact that the
volumetric efficiency of rotary pumps in general decreases with the pressure against
which the pump is working. The limiting pressure Plim represents the pressure above
which there will be rapid wear of the pump. The pump efficiency drops rapidly and hence
the power consumption ( brake power) of the pump also grows quickly. The value of the
limiting pressure is adjusted by the setting point (limiting pressure) of the relief valve.
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 175

REVIEW EXCREISE
1. A single acting, single cylinder-reciprocating pump having a stroke length of
45 cm and bore diameter of 20cm makes 40 double strokes per minute.
Assuming the slip of the pump to be 10% calculate the volume flow rate of
the pump and the volumetric efficiency.

2. A double acting single cylinder-reciprocating pump has a bore diameter of

120mm and a stroke length of 400mm the diameter of the connecting rod is
40mm. If the number of double strokes per minute is 60 determine the
capacity of the pump. The volumetric efficiency of the pump 87%.

3. The static pressure at the suction and discharge strokes of a single acting
single cylinder-reciprocating pump running at 50 double-strokes per minute
are 0.85 bar and 6.5 bar respectively. The bore diameter is 25cm and the
stroke length is 60cm respectively. The density of the flow medium is
1200kg/m3. Assuming a hydraulic, volumetric mechanical efficiency of 0.85,
0.86 and 0.93 respectively determine.
i. Actual volume flow rate
ii. Brake power
iii. Useful Head of the pump.
4. For the pump in Question 1 draw the pulsation, i.e., the volume flow rate of
the pump with the crank angle . The radius of the crank is 10cm.
2
R
Assume <<1
L
5. Repeat Q4 for a case of triplex pump.

6. For the pump in Question 3 draw the performance characteristic curves (head
capacity curve and Power-curve) and the theoretical indicator diagram for the
numbers of double strokes 30, 40 and 60. Assume a mechanical efficiency of
0.93% in each case.
Chapter 5 Theory of Reciprocating Pumps 176

7. The bore diameter and stroke length of a double acting reciprocating pump are
20cm and the stroke length is 60cm respectively. Draw the theoretical, and
actual head capacity curves of the pump for n=, 30, 40, 50 and 60 rpm. The
slip of the pump at different heads are given below.
Table 5.1 Dependence of slip on head
H[m] 5 20 40 60 80
Slip % 2 2.5 3 5 10

8. A single acting, single-cylinder reciprocating pump has the dimensions given

below. The suction pipe is 3-Schedule No. 40 and has a length of 3.5 m. The
pump is 2.5 m above the liquid level and the head loss due to friction is 0.5m
The static pressure at the surface of the liquid at suction level is 1atm (1.013
bar). The vapor pressure of the liquid at the suction temperature is 0.131 bar.
Determine the maximum speed with which the pump can run without
cavitation if it does not have air chamber.

9. For question 7 if air chamber is installed on the suction line at 0.3m below the
suction end of the pump, what will be the maximum speed with which the
pump can run without cavitation?

10. For Q7 if the discharge pipe is 3-Schedule No. 40 and 20m length what will
be the maximum head loss due to acceleration without air chamber? If air
chamber is installed 0.3m above the discharge end of the pump what will be
the maximum head loss due to acceleration.

REFERENCES
[5.1] Matley,J., Fluid Movers: Pumps, Compressors, Fans and Blowers, McGraw-Hill, 1979.
[5.2] Karassik, I.J., Krutzsch,W.C., (etal ), Pump Handbook, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill,1986.
[5.3] Cherkassky: Pumps, Fans and Compressors, Mir Publisher,1977.
[5.4] Banga,T.R., Sharma,S.C., Hydraulic Machines, Khanna, Publishers, 1972.
[5.5] Rao,N.S.G., Fluid Flow Machines, Tata McGraw-Hill, 9183.