Laura Ramirez

03/11/2017
RTE 142
Professor Yost

Notebook# 8
Detail:

Recorded detail is one of the two geometric properties of image quality. Unlike the photographic
properties of density/ image receptor (IR) exposure and contrast, which control the visibility of
detail, the geometric properties control detail itself. Recorded detail is also referred to as
definition, sharpness, spatial resolution, or simply as detail.

A resolution tool is read discerning the point at which the finest lines are still visible as separated
from one another. The point is then compared to the scale to determine the lp/mm reading. High
special resolution represents a high-frequency signal that is capable of imaging smaller objects.
Low special resolution represents a lower-frequency signal that can only image larger object.

Resolution tool
Digital imaging recorded detail (or spatial resolution, as it is more commonly called) is
determined primarily by matrix size, pixel size, and grayscale bit depth. Digital imaging recorded
detail is most commonly described in terms of special frequency. Spatial frequency is usually
discussed as high or low. Point spread function (PSF) measures penumbra and is used to
quantify digital system special resolution. Digital imaging requires a more specific term for
resolution. Spatial resolution describes the ability of an imaging system to accurately display
objects in to dimensions. Spatial resolution for digital images can be expressed in terms of three
dimensions of the image. These are known as the x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis.

All radiographic images have less recorded detail than the object itself. In other words, the
radiographic image exhibits some, but never all, of the detail of the anatomical part. The art of
radiography involves controlling degree of unsharpness so that it does not interfere with image
diagnosis. Point spread function (PSF), line spread function (LSF), and edge spread function
(ESF) all express the boundaries of an image. In conventional radiography this aspect was
penumbra or blur. Modulation transfer function (MTF) measures the accuracy of an image
compared to the original object on a scale of 0 to 1. Imaging noise is simply background
information that the image receptor receives. Quantum noise refers to a lack of sufficient
incoming data from processing. The word quantum means counted or measured, and the term
has been in radiography to indicate an insufficient number of incoming x-ray photons reaching
the image receptor. For this reason, the phenomenon is also called quantum mottle.

Digital systems are susceptible to a few imaging problems that are unique to the way they collect
information. Digital imaging requires that the special resolution frequency signal be sampled
twice from each cycle; this is known as the Nyquist criterion or limit. Aliasing occurs when
Nyquist criterion is violated. This occurs when the spatial frequency exceeds the Nyquist
frequency and the incoming data are sampled less than twice per cycle. Resolution affects the
image appearance by demonstrating fine structures, often very close to the size limits of the
naked eye.

Resolution problems should be approached in this order:

1. Eliminate motion
2. Reduce OID
3. Reduce focal spot size
4. Reduce intensifying-screen phosphor size and concentration
5. Increase SID
 Image analysis: factors affecting recorded detail

Recorded
Detail

Geometry Image Motion

receptor

Film/screen Digital
Focal spot Distance Voluntary Involuntary Equipment
systems systems

OID SID

The geometry of the beam is the most important

factor in establishing the level of resolution
desired for recorded detail. The distance between
the source and the focal spot (S), object or part
(O), and image receptor (I) are critical in
establishing sufficient recorded detail. These
distances are shown on the figure to the right.

SOD x OID= SID.

Focal spot size is controlled by the line focus principle. The umbra is the distinctly sharp area of
a shadow or the region of complete shadow. The penumbra is the imperfect, unsharp shadow
surrounding the umbra. Penumbra is increased by another phenomenon known as attenuation or
absorption unsharpness. The attenuation of the objected density/IR exposure, when added to the
penumbra, causes structures in the human body to have gradual instead of sharp, abrupt edges.

The primary film/screen unit of resolution is line pairs per millimeter (lp/mm) or cycle per mm.
A radiographic resolution tool is composed of pairs of lines a set distance from one another.
Unfortunately, most radiographic imaging systems do not provide this level of resolution.
Film/screen combinations are most commonly classified by speed. A slow film/screen
combination will demonstrate better resolution than a fast one. Once the geometrical
considerations of recorded detail have been maximized, the most common source of better
resolution is film/screen combination.

Although various types of film have a wide variety of resolving capabilities, in radiography the
intensifying screen always has a poorer resolution than the film. The resolving power of an
intensifying screen depends on three factors: phosphor size, phosphor layer thickness, and
phosphor concentration.
 Effect of Changing Factors on Recorded Detail

Increases recorded detail Decreases recorded detail

(resolution)(+) (resolution)(-)

Increasing SID Decreasing SID

Decreasing OID Increasing OID

Geometry
Decreasing patient thickness Increasing patient thickness

Decreasing focal spot size Increasing focal spot size

Film/Screen Decreasing film/screen speed Increasing film/screen speed

Combination Good film/screen contact Poor film/screen contact

Motion Decreasing motion Increasing motion

 Image Analysis: factors affecting distortion

Distortion

Size Shape

OID SID Alignment Angulation

Image
Central ray Part Direction Degree
receptor
Distortion:
Distortion is the second of the two geometric properties affecting radiographic image quality.
Unlike the photographic properties of density/image receptor (IR) exposure and contrast, which
control the visibility of detail, the geometric properties control detail itself. Distortion is a
misrepresentation of the size and shape of the structures being examined. Distortion, like detail,
exists even when it cannot be seen due to poor visibility or, when the density/IR exposure and/or
contrast are poor. It can be difficult to determine even when normal sizes and shapes are known.
Because the objective of radiography is to provide accurate images of structures, methods of
minimizing distortion are important to diagnosis.

Factors affecting size distortion:

Magnification is the only possible size distortion in radiography. During acquisition of the
image, minification is impossible, due to the divergent property of x-ray photons. In all
instances, reduced magnification size distortion increases the resolution of recorded detail.
Magnification size distortion is controlled by positioning the body part and tube to maximize
SID while minimizing OID.

Source-to-Image-Receptor Distance
The SID has a major effect on magnification. The greater the SID, the smaller the magnification,
because as SID increases, the percentage of the total distance that make up OID decreases. The
OID is critical distance for magnification and resolution. The SID must be maximized to
decrease magnification. Examinations of body parts with large inherent OID, such as the lateral
cervical vertebra and the chest, use large SID whenever possible.

Object-to-Image Receptor Distance

The OID is also a critical distance in both magnification and resolution. The radiographer should
develop a stereoscopic perception of the radiographic perceptions are in reverse of the normal
information the eye is accustomed to processing. This is because objects that are further from the
image receptor will be magnified. OID varies with the part size and position of the patient, it
accounts for the increased exposure that is part of many examinations. Consequently, larger
patients receive a greater exposure simply because their entrance skin surface is closer to the
source, making their SOD much less. The increase mAs that is often used to provide sufficient
image receptor exposure then increases the patient entrance skin exposure even more. The OID
must be minimized to decrease magnification.

Calculating size distortion

Size distortion is present in any radiographic image and can be measured very accurately by
simple geometry. The magnification factor is the degree of magnification and is calculated by:
M=SID/SOD

Factors Affecting Shape Distortion

Shape distortion is misrepresentation by unequal magnification of the actual shape of the
structure being examined. Shape distortion displaces the projected image of an object from its
actual position and can be described as either elongation or foreshortening. Elongation projects
the object so it appears to be longer than it really is, whereas foreshortening projects it so it
appears shorter than it really is. Elongation occurs when the tube or the image receptor is
improperly aligned. Foreshortening occurs only when then part is improperly aligned. Changes
in the tube cause elongation, never foreshortening. Shape distortion often results because
structures lie normally at different levels within the body. Shape distortion also occurs because
of the divergence of the x-ray beam.

Alignment
Shape distortion can be caused or avoided by careful alignment of the central ray with the
anatomical part and the image receptor. Proper positioning is achieved when the central ray is at
right angles to the anatomical part and to the image receptor. Alignment adjustments involve
bringing the tube central ray, the part, and the image receptor back into their correct relationship-
part and image receptor parallel to one another with the central ray perpendicular to both.
Incorrect centering may occur from off-centering the tube (misalignment of the central ray),
incorrectly positioning the part, or off-centering the image receptor.
-The central ray is the theoretical photon that exits from the exact center of the focal spot. Ideally
the central ray is intended to be projected perpendicular to both the anatomical part and the
image receptor. Whenever the central ray is not perpendicular, some degree of shape distortion
will result. Long bone length studies are an example of procedure developed to ensure accurate
central ray centering.
-The long axis of the anatomical part, or object, is intended to be positioned perpendicular to the
central ray and parallel to the image receptor. When these positions are incorrect, distortion may
occur. Elongation occurs when there is poor alignment of the tube and/or image receptor.
-The image receptor is intended to be positioned perpendicular to the central ray and parallel to
the anatomical part. As long as the image receptor plane is parallel to the object, the only result
of off-centering of the image receptor is the clipping of a portion of the area of interest.

Angulation
Angulation refers to the direction and degree the tube is moved from its normal position
perpendicular to the image receptor. Numerous radiographic projections utilize angulation to
avoid superimposition of parts. The angulation of the tube is designed to cause a controlled or
expected amount of shape distortion to avoid superimposition. Angulation of the tube changes
SID, which, unless compensated for by a new SID, will produce a decrease in image receptor
exposure.

Direction
The most common direction of tube angle is longitudinal. Longitudinal angulations are usually
cephalad when the tube is angled toward the head of the patient, and caudad when it is angled
toward the patient's feet.
-Degree is simply a method of describing the exact amount of angulation and is usually stated as
the angle between the central ray and the image receptor plane from the standard reference point
of perpendicularity.

Evaluating Shape Distortion

Shape distortion is a more subjective evaluation than size. It is much more difficult to assess
because there is no effect that can be calculated, as in the magnification factor for size
distortion.
Effect on Image Appearance

Size
Size distortion is generally a matter of magnification. All magnification involves a degree of loss
of resolution, even when special systems are designed to minimize the loss.

Shape
Shape distortion involves both elongation and foreshortening. There are situations where shape
distortion can be used to advantage, as in a tangential calcaneus.