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FOOD ECONOMY
IN

WAR TIME
BY
T. B. WOOD, M.A.
Drapers Professor of Agriculture

AND

F. G. HOPKINS, M.A., F.R.C.P., F.R.S.

Professor of Biochemistry

Cambridge :

at the University Press

London: Cambridge University Press, Fetter Lane, B.C.

Edinburgh: 100 Princes Street

I9l6

Price Sixpence net

 INTRODUCTORY

It is well understood by the public that at the present time

a rigorous economy in food is not only desirable on general
grounds, but absolutely necessary to the success of this country
in the task before it.
While all may have the wish to economise, many will feel
the need of some guidance with regard to the lines upon which
economy may be practised without injury to health. Some
such guidance this pamphlet intended to supply.
is

A general economy in the use of food is clearly called for,

since its practice will lead to what is now so greatly desirable,
an appreciable increase in the current national savings. The
1
country spends some 600,000,000 a year upon its food and
a saving of one-tenth of this would be no mean item. But,
further, since there is likely to be a serious shortage in particular
foodstuffs, and especially in meat, a wise course of economy
will include a serious endeavour to substitute the more plentiful
for the less plentiful foods. There exists, it is true, a considera-
tion of importance which somewhat complicates the course of

simple retrenchment; the necessity, namely, of giving first

choice when possible to the foodstuffs which are produced at
home, so that our indebtedness to other countries may grow
no faster than is necessary during the war. On this point the
Government must give the public guidance from time to time.
Subject to the qualification just mentioned economy is
clearly possible upon each of two lines. Less may be eaten,
and foods which cost less may be substituted for those which
x Calculated at retail prices.

333933 i
2
-
INTRODUCTORY
'
cost more. Bu't to-e&ck of- titese possible courses certain con-
siderations must be applied. It must be recognised, for example,
that the first course, that of eating less, is notopen to the whole
nation. A proportion of the population, probably not less than
a quarter of the whole, is already limited by the smallness
of its earnings to the consumption of a minimum. But for a

great number a lessened consumption of food (and especially of

meat) is possible, and that without any danger to health. This

applies in particular, as will be later pointed out, to those who
in the present crisis are not called upon to do strenuous physical

work, be it in the field or in the factory. For those to whom

such work is allotted, and for growing children, the nation must
endeavour at whatever cost to maintain a generous food supply.
To the application of the second method of economy that of
consuming the cheaper rather than the dearer foodstuffs there
are of course certain limitations. It is clear, for instance, that
ifthere were a greatly increased consumption of some one

cheap foodstuff say oatmeal for example an increase in the

price would check the economy attached to its use. On the
other hand the dearer forms of food were too rigidly avoided
if

by those accustomed to consume them there would be a disloca-

tion of the market which (for a period at any rate) might lead
to wastage rather than to economy. A
careful consideration
of the domestic budgets of different classes of the community
would suggest the following possibilities. While the very poor
cannot be expected to practise any appreciable economy at all,
families in which the earning power reaches from 40s. to 50s.
a week can economise by more careful marketing, and by the
replacement of a certain proportion of dear foodstuffs by an
equivalent quantity of cheaper forms. The well-paid artisan
class and the lower middle classes can save by a similar replace-
ment carried out to a greater degree (and especially by lessening
to some extent their consumption of meat), but also by an

appreciable reduction in the total amount of food eaten. The

well-to-do, without perhaps greatly altering the nature of what
eat, can increase their savings for national investment
and
they
conserve the supply of available foodstuffs by consuming con
siderably less.
 THE USES OF FOOD 3

But to all classes, even to the wealthy, it is now more

important than would be under ordinary circumstances to

it

watch the markets. If an article of food of which the price is

but slowly) be purchased rather than a similar
falling (or rising
or comparable article of which the price is quickly rising, the

supply and consumption of our various foodstuffs will be more

equably adjusted, and this circumstance will in itself make for
national economy.
But as we have said those who are prepared to make altera-
tions in their consumption of food in order to conform with the
urgent national needs of the moment may require information
as to how far such alterations, whether of degree or of kind,
can be made without danger to health and efficiency. Before
presenting tables which are intended to show the relative cost
of equivalent nutritive values when purchased in the form of
different foods, we give therefore a brief account of the function
of food in general and of the special importance of its individual
constituents.

II

THE USES OF FOOD

THE TWO DISTINCT FUNCTIONS OF FOOD: (1) AS A SOURCE
OF POWER, AND (2) AS MATERIAL FOR KEPAIR

The human body, though doubtless, in many of its aspects,

something more than a mere machine, resembles the steam-
engine in two respects. It calls for a constant supply of fuel,
and, as a result of doing work, it suffers wear and tear. The
body must burn fuel in order that the heat which it is always
giving off may be continuously replaced; and it must burn
still more fuel whenever it does work. From this necessity
there is no escape. The body must also undergo repair, and
if it is to remain healthy, its repair must keep pace with the

wear and tear which it daily suffers.

12
 FUEL KEQUIREMENTS OF THE BODY
It is of course the food eaten which provides each of these
fundamental needs of the body, and, if we are to understand
properly the nutrition of mankind, we must bear in mind the
two distinct functions of food: its function as fuel and its
function as repair material. Obviously, when we are considering
the nutrition, not of the adult but of the young, we must
remember that something more is required of the food ; it must
supply material for growth and increase.

Measurement of Requirements in Respect of Fuel.

If information is available as to how much fuel and how

much flesh-forming material are really necessary for the body
under various conditions, it cannot fail to be a guide for economy
in the use of foodstuffs.
Some people may vaguely feel that the nutrition of complex
living creatures must involve factors which are too subtle for
measurement. They may cherish a doubt whether the needs of
the human body can be definitely expressed in pounds and
ounces or other such units.
But there is no vagueness about our knowledge of the
requirements of the body in respect of fuel. With suitable
apparatus it is possible to measure with accuracy the total
heat lost by the body of any individual in a given time. If the
individual is doing work we can also measure, or calculate, the

equivalent of that work in the form of extra heat lost by the

body. Such measurements have been repeatedly made, with
upon individuals who during the investigation
consistent results,
were resting, working moderately, or doing heavy work. It
is clear that the least quantity of food which will serve the

body under these various circumstances is that which will

supply fuel to cover the loss of heat and the work-power
expended. If less is supplied, the body burns its own tissues
and suffers loss of weight. How exactly are we to decide on
accurate lines how much and what kind of food will contain
the requisite value as fuel to prevent such loss?
In the first place, we can burn the foodstuffs outside the body,
treating them thus as actual fuel, and with proper apparatus
 FUEL REQUIREMENTS OF THE BODY 5

determine exactly how much heat each kind of food will

give out when completely burnt. This, of course, is a perfectly
constant quantity for a given food, but varies greatly with
A given weight of fat, for instance, gives
different foodstuffs.
out more than twice the heat yielded by the same weight of
sugar or starch.
Now when, in carefully conducted experiments, we are
measuring the total heat lost by the body, and the heat value of
the work it is doing, we can, at the same time, exactly determine
the amount and kind of material which is being burnt in the
body. On these lines we have arrived at the very important
knowledge that food material burnt in the body produces just
that amount of heat which it yields when burnt as actual fuel
in a fire-grate or boiler furnace. The human body with all its
subtleties has no power of extracting more than this. This is
the justification and it is a complete justification for the
quantitative statements concerning fuel values which occur in
what follows, and whiclji appear in the tables. But statements
concerning quantities cannot be made without the use of some
unit. The unit of fuel value usually chosen is known as a
calorie.It represents the amount of heat which will raise the

temperature of a kilogramme (about 2J Ibs.) of water one degree

centigrade. The layman from lack of familiarity can hardly
grasp what this amounts to, in the sense that he can grasp the
meaning of, say, a pound weight; but in comparing the fuel
value of one foodstuff with that of another, there is no need to
form a mental picture of the absolute value. When we are
told that a pound of steak yields 1270 calories and a pound
of oatmeal 1860 calories we understand that the latter yields

nearly half as much again as the former. This kind of com-

parison is all that is necessary.

All the natural foods are in the main made up of four

constituents, namely: fat, carbohydrate (starch or sugar),
protein, and mineral salts. Of these the first three all have
value as fuel. The mineral salts have no such value, though
they must be eaten in order to maintain a proper store of
mineral constituents in the body. Knowing as we do the
exact fuel value of pure fat, starch, sugar, and protein, we might,
 PEOTEIN KEQUIREMENTS
after chemical analysis, calculate the value of any given food-
stuff, meat, or flour, or vegetable, but it is more satisfactory to
determine it directly. All the values in the tables which follow
have been so determined.
We may now make a statement as to the actual requirements
of individuals in respect of the fuel value of their food. It is
clear that these will vary with the nature of the employment.
They will also vary to some extent with the weight of the body.
With regard to the latter factor we shall be content to give
figures for average individuals with a body-weight of about
11 stone. In speaking of light muscular work we mean such
as that done, for instance, by clerks, tailors, shopmen, and most
professional men. Medium work is that done, for instance, by
mechanics, porters, joiners or ordinary farm labourers. Heavy
work would be represented by that of blacksmiths, dock
labourers, soldiers in the field, etc.
Fuel value required in
calories per diem

Sedentary occupations 2500

Light muscular work 3000
Medium muscular work 3500
Heavy muscular work 4000 or more

Exceptional employments, especially those which involve

heavy work done rapidly, may call for quantities considerably
in excess of the above. Women require on the average about
four-fifths of the requirements of a man doing moderate work ;
a child of ten years wants from half to three-fifths, and a girl
or boy of sixteen about seven-tenths of a man's ration.
Growing children require always proportionately more than
an adult.

The Average Requirement for Flesh-forming Food.

When we come to deal with the growth and repair of the

body one particular constituent of foods becomes of special

importance. Nine-tenths of the solid matter of our flesh
consist of protein, and in order to make flesh we must eat
protein. This does not mean that we must obtain all we need
 PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS 7

in the form of animal flesh, for vegetables also contain this

important material. While everybody is perfectly familiar in

a general way with the nature of the other chief foodstuffs
fats and starches familiarity with the nature of proteins is
perhaps less general. It will be sufficient to remember that
they are the most prominent constituents of our muscles and
our blood, and are contained in all tissues, animal or vegetable,
that are living or have lived. What should at any rate be
clearly understood is that they form highly necessary consti-
tuents of our diet. It is not enough, as has already been pointed
out, to supply the body with fuel; the diet must at the same
time contain enough protein for maintaining the repair of the
working organs.
It is usually taught that a man not engaged in heavy work

requires about four ounces of protein in his daily food. Now

this amount is contained in about 18 ounces of lean beefsteak,
while to obtain the same amount wholly form of white
in the
bread we should have to eat 2-f Ibs. we were depending
If

upon potatoes alone nearly 9 Ibs. would have to be eaten.

Such figures illustrate the value of mixed dietaries. Potatoes
alone would clearly be an unpleasantly bulky food, and so
would many other vegetable foods if we had to rely upon them
singly. On the other hand, lean meat alone would be equally
unsatisfactory, for though the 18 ounces mentioned would
supply the necessary flesh-forming material, something like
5 Ibs. would have to be eaten to supply the necessary fuel
value. By combining foods rich in flesh-forming material with
others proportionately rich in fuel value we can supply both
needs of the body without eating undue amounts. There has
been a tendency during recent years on the part of some
authorities to claim that 4 ounces of protein is too much for ideal
conditions of nutrition, and to suggest that a reduction would
make for economy. If, however, any rational combination of

ordinary natural foodstuffs is eaten, the consumption of enough

material to supply the requisite fuel value will, because of the
constitution of such foodstuffs, actually involve the simultaneous
consumption of a quantity of protein which is never very much
below the standard 4 ounces. An economical diet may indeed
8 REQUIREMENTS FOR HEAVY WORK
contain as little as 3J to 3| ounces, butany attempt to reduce
the protein much below this, and yet keep up a proper standard
matter of fact for the addition of materials
of fuel value, calls as a
which are not economical. An individual duly provided with
a supply of the commoner natural foodstuffs sufficient to main-
tain his body temperature, and to enable him to work, is at

any rate secure from the risk of a serious deficiency in flesh-

forming material.
The protein of vegetable foods is not so completely digested
as that contained in animal foods, nor does it seem to be quite
so suitable for repairing the working parts of the body. For
these reasons the daily requirements of protein are somewhat

higher than those stated above in cases where a large proportion

of the protein eaten is in the form of vegetable foods.

Special Properties of Meat Foods. The Requirements

for Heavy Work.

We have hitherto been thinking of the average conditions

of life in this country. The existence of other conditions may
considerably modify the desirable standard of protein con-
sumption. Protein, in addition to its special flesh-forming
powers, has one other property as a food which is scarcely
shared by fats or starches. It directly increases the processes
of combustion in the body, not so much because it is itself a
fuel (it has indeed a fuel value no higher than that of starch
and much less than that of fat) but because it directly stimulates
combustion in the body. It makes so to speak the fires burn
more brightly.
It is thus desirable that protein, as well as the total fuel

value, should be increased in the diet of those who have to

suffer cold or exposure, and of those who have to do heavy
work under stress. We have already pointed out, and it will
be readily understood, that with increase of work there must
be proportionate increase in the food consumed. But there
is a further point which needs emphasis in this connection.

A man taking only so much food as will just cover the work
he has to do must perform the work slowly. He must be, as it
 REQUIREMENTS FOR SEDENTARY LIFE 9

were, economical in his movements. Such, for example, is the

usual condition of ill-paid labourers whose food amounts to the
bare minimum. The man who has to work rapidly and be
prepared for sudden and severe calls upon his energy needs a

larger margin in his food supply. He should be always like

a steam-engine with full steam up. To such a condition of the
body a good sufficiency of protein undoubtedly contributes.
Other foods may be, and are, good fuel for the muscles, but a
generous consumption of protein secures that the maximum
muscular power shall be always and quickly available. Such
protein is most readily obtained in the concentrated form of

meat. During exposure to cold protein has again a special

function because of its power to quicken combustion in the
body. The Eskimo eats much fat as a source of body-heat;
but only when he has eaten, as he usually does, a large amount
of protein also, can he perform such a feat as sleeping without
cover in spite of the rigor of his climate. This he frequently
does with impunity when well stuffed with seal flesh. In
winter especially desirable that troops in the field shall
it is

receive a good supply of meat as well as abundance of other

foods.

The Requirements of a Sedentary Life.

The moral of what has been said in the last section is that
during such a crisis as is involved in war the civil
population,
and especially that part of it which leads a sedentary life, or
follows pursuits which do not necessarily call for physical

activity, should, if there be any danger of shortage, eat meat

sparingly in order that soldiers in the field and workmen en-
gaged in strenuous physical labour for national ends should be
in no danger of a deficiency. Meat certainly has, as we have
already stated, special stimulating properties which, in its
absence, are missed by those accustomed to it. But in so far
as these properties are valuable to health their effect can be

sufficiently obtained with a comparatively small daily con-

sumption, while the main supply of protein as well as of fuel
food can be eaten in cheaper forms. The necessary minimum
15
10 REQUIREMENTS FOR SEDENTARY LI]

of protein may be obtained, as the tables in this pamphlet

abundantly show, at a startlingly less cost in foodstuffs other
than meat. Thus while one pound of protein costs five or six
shillings in the form of beef, it costs only 5Jd. when purchased
in bread, 3d. in oatmeal, and 6d. in such vegetables as peas.
If it be true that individual vegetable proteins are somewhat
less valuable to the body than meat proteins, the difference
largely disappears when the vegetable foods are eaten in com-
binations, and in sufficient variety.
Apart from saving in meat it is easy and safe for those who
have no special calls for physical endeavour, and they still
form a large proportion of the population, to eat less altogether.
Many people in making a substantial reduction in their food
will only be bringing their consumption down to a normal and

healthy level. But should unforeseen difficulties arise in

connection with the national food supply it is possible for
individuals to go further than this without actual danger to
themselves. Many modern investigators have shown indeed
that the consumption of protein may, at least for several
months, be reduced from the normal 4 ounces to 2 ounces, and
the total consumption of food reduced by a third or more
without any obvious effect upon the health. Such facts are
not to be applied to the fighter or the strenuous worker, and
the need for such a reduction as this is not likely to arise for
anybody in this country. But those of whom a much smaller

economy asked at the present juncture may well bear these

is

facts in mind. Normal food consumption in this country, if

that of the poorest classes be excepted, leaves a good margin
to draw upon before the limits of safety are reached. Even
if abstinence calls for some effort, and causes some discomfort,

the effort will be for a period only, and the discomfort is after
all soon forgotten. Intellectual activity, it should be under-

stood, makes very small demands upon food.

Those who reduce their consumption of food should perhaps
be advised to lessen the amount of exercise taken for pleasure.
This is a suggestion which will not be welcomed by the
majority, but it should be understood that, with many, the
need felt for constant exercise is in part due to the fact that the
 NEED FOR NATURAL FOODSTUFFS 11

food eaten in excess of what, without the exercise,

is would
cover the needs of the body.

The Need for Natural Foodstuffs.

One further point must be touched upon. A healthy

dietary, whether for workers or non-workers, should contain

always a fair proportion of natural foodstuffs which have

undergone no artificial treatment. White bread, polished rice,
condensed milk, and "separated" patent foods may be quite
satisfactory sources of protein and energy. They are perfectly
wholesome if they do not form too large a proportion of the
total food eaten ;
but the treatment they have received results
in a deficiency in certain essential properties, and they must
be supplemented by other foodstuffs if not by meat, then by
;

fresh vegetables, whole grain foods, fresh milk, eggs, etc.

Lastly, the occasional consumption of uncooked foods is
important for health, and in times of scarcity it is better to
sacrifice something in the total quantity eaten rather than to

dispense altogether with such accessories as fresh fruit and

salads.

Ill

TABLE OF FOOD VALUES AND THEIR COST AS

BOUGHT IN DIFFERENT FOODSTUFFS

In the preceding pages it has been shown that the food

must supply every day a certain amount of protein, about
4 oz. per day for a full grown man. In these times of war when
economy is so desirable it is important to know the cost of
everything we buy, so we will calculate the cost of protein in
several common articles of food. The calculation is not quite
a simple matter for no common feeding stuff owes its value to

protein alone. How this difficulty can be surmounted a few

examples will show.
16
12 COMPOSITION AND COST OF FOODS

The cheapest cuts of beef nowadays cost Wd. per Ib. From
the average of published analyses it appears that they contain
as purchased about 15 per cent, of waste and 50 per cent, of
water. Neither of these constituents has any definite value
though a careful housekeeper will probably utilize the waste
for making soup or gravy. The two constituents for which we
buy the beef are protein of which there is present on the average
15 per cent., and fat of which the beef contains on the average
14 per cent.
To find the cost of the protein we must subtract from the
whole cost of the meat the value of the fat, which we can find
from the price of suet and lard which contain practically fat
and nothing else of value. Suet containing 80 per cent, of fat
costs 8d. per Ib. and lard containing 95 per cent, of fat costs
about lOd. per Ib. Fat therefore costs about one-tenth of a
penny per one -hundredth of a pound. A pound of the beef
we are dealing with contains fourteen-hundredths of a pound
of fat which is worth fourteen-tenths of a penny or almost

exactly l^d. Subtracting this sum from 10d., the cost of the

pound of beef, we get 8%d. as the cost of the 15 per cent, of

protein, from which it appears that 1 Ib. of beef protein costs
4s. 9d.

In the case of milk the calculation is still more complicated

for milk contains sugar as well as protein and fat. It is quite

easy however to allow for the value of the sugar, for we know
that ordinary sugar at the present time costs 3d. per Ib. which
makes the price of one-hundredth of a pound three-hundredths
of a penny. The
retail price of milk as the housekeeper buys
it is 2d. per pint which is almost exactly IJdL per Ib. Milk
contains on the average 87J per cent, of water, 3J per cent, of
protein, 3| per cent, of fat and 4 per cent, of sugar. The fat
and the sugar together are worth 47 hundredths of a penny or
almost exactly JdL, which leaves Id. as the cost of the 3J per
cent, of protein. Milk protein therefore costs per Ib. 25. 4=%d.
or exactly half as much as beef protein.
These calculations serve to show how we have arrived at
the cost of a pound of protein in all the common foodstuffs.
The results are given in the third column of the following table.
 COMPOSITION AND COST OF FOODS 13

The fourth column shows the value of 1 Ib. of each foodstuff

considered as fuel. It illustrates the relative ability of different
foods to yield heat and work in the body. The fifth column
shows the relative cost of such fuel as bought in different foods.
For convenience we have calculated this in terms of 1000
on which basis one food can be compared with another.
calories
This comparison of relative cheapness or dearness is the only
point that matters in practice.
It will be of course understood that in using the table
combinations have to be thought of. One food may be a cheap
source of protein, quite another a cheap source of fuel. It
must be remembered that each adult requires every day about
3000 calories, and the supply of this must be so selected as to

give him at the same time from 3J to 4 ounces of protein.

One more point in explanation of the tables. The figures
to the foods as purchased.
all refer For instance potatoes are
bought at \&. per pound. Before they are cooked they are
usually peeled and the eyes and other defects are removed.
This causes some waste. But as one intention of this little
book is to help people to buy, the amount of protein and the
number of calories are given in the potato in the condition in
which it is bought and not in the potato peeled ready for
cooking.
In the case of articles which are sold at per head and not
per Ib., we have bought several and weighed them, working
out from the weight and price per head the price per Ib.
We have taken some trouble to ascertain the latest average
war mentioned in the tables.
prices per Ib. of all the articles
We do not fail to recognize that some may be open to
criticism. Prices vary rapidly in these times, from day to

day and from place to place. The differences in price per Ib.
of protein and per 1000 calories are however so great that con-
siderable variations of price do not affect the lessons shown by
the tables. Also where the local price varies from that stated,
the price per 1000 calories can be calculated at once by multi-
plying the price per Ib. by 1000 and dividing the product by
the number of calories per Ib. as stated in column 4
The prices given are as a rule the average prices at which
14 FOOD TABLES
small quantities can be bought in Cambridge. The keen
marketer or the contractor for large quantities may be able to
buy to greater advantage.
FOOD TABLES 15

Price
 FOOD TABLES

Name of food
 DISCUSSION OF TABLES 17

No one can look through the above table without admitting

at once that it contains much useful information. It is of
course impossible to mention in detail every food given in the
table. Nor is this necessary, for the foods fall naturally into
classes. In the form of fresh butcher's meat 1 Ib. of protein
costs from 5 to 8 shillings. There are a few exceptions.
Chicken is a very expensive source of protein. The cheapest
source of fresh meat protein is beef's heart or liver. Neither
of these can however be bought in considerable
articles

quantities, nor are they likely to be very desirable as staple

articles of diet. They are to be regarded as economical sources
of fresh animal protein for occasional use as a change.

Among preserved meats corned beef is a cheap source of

animal protein but in using it the housekeeper must not forget
that preserved foods lack something which fresh foods contain.
It is likely to be quite satisfactory if used in conjunction with
fresh vegetables or salads.
New milk and cheese are very cheap sources of animal
protein. Their protein costs only about 2s. 6d. per pound or
about half as much as the protein of fresh butcher's meat, and
as far aswe know milk protein is as good as the protein of fresh
beef, mutton or any other form of fresh meat. The use of
milk and its products is to be recommended, but it must not
be forgotten that butter contains practically no protein. The
protein of fresh eggs costs about as much as the protein of
fresh meat.
There can be no doubt that vegetable foods are far the
cheapest source of protein. In such common foods as bread,
oatmeal, and dried peas and beans the protein costs only from
3d. to 9d per pound, which is only about as many pence per
pound as fresh meat protein costs shillings. In other words
a penny buj^s as much protein in the form of oatmeal or dried

peas as a shilling buys in beef or mutton. It would probably

be inadvisable for people who are accustomed to a diet con-
taining a great deal of meat to take all their protein in the form
of vegetables, but there is no doubt that a considerable part of
the meat usually eaten could be replaced by beans, peas, lentils,
oatmeal and such vegetable foods rich in protein without risk
19
18 PRICE AND VALUE

to health and with very considerable economy. For instance,

an ordinary man, as we have seen, eats about 4 oz. of protein
per day. In the form of fresh meat this costs at present prices
about Is. 3d. to Is. $d., say Is. 6d. A heavy meat diet might
very well be replaced by one in which 1 oz. of protein was taken
as fresh meat, 1 oz. of protein as milk and 2 oz. as oatmeal,
beans or peas. This would cost at present prices 4|(Z. + 2d. -f %d.
or 7Jd., a very great saving on the cost of a diet in which nearly
all the protein is supplied as meat.
The purchaser may at times be glad to know whether in
buying a more costly rather than a cheaper variety of a given
foodstuff he is obtaining a proportionate increase in actual food
value.
Groceries, for instance, are usually offered for sale in various
qualities, the prices of which differ considerably. In order to
find out the quality depended on real food value or on appear-
if

ance we have analysed a number of samples with the following

results :

Price Per cent, Calories Cost of

Article per Ib. protein per Ib. 1000 calories

8. d. d.
Rice 2 7-4 1664 1J
3 6-0 1665 If
5 8-0 1702 3

Oatmeal
Aberdeen .
2f
Midlothian
Proprietary

Tapioca
 PRICE AND VALUE 19

the fuel value per Ib. In working out the cost of 1000 calories
in each of the three samples from the price and the fuel
value per Ib., the figures in the last column are obtained from
which it appears that the cost of 1000 calories varies from l^d.
to 3d. For actual value obtained therefore the rice at 5d. per Ib.
is more than three times as expensive as the sample at 2d.
per Ib.

On trial the three samples were found to differ very slightly

in ease of cooking. Their only real difference is in appearance.
There can be no manner of doubt that the cheapest rice is the
most economical.
In the case of the oatmeals the results are not so striking.
The figures show practically no variation in composition, though
the price varies from 2fdL to 3^d. and the cost of 1000 calories
from \\d. to l|d. Again the cheaper oatmeal is the more
economical.
The two samples of tapioca show exactly the same results.
The dearer sample was certainly whiter in appearance, but the
composition is practically identical. The extra Id. per Ib. is
charged for appearance only.
The two samples of cornflour are also instructive. The
proprietary preparation costs an extra 2d. per Ib., in this case
for the name only, for both appearance and composition are
almost identical.
Altogether the results teach a very clear lesson, that the
great variation in price of many articles of food is due rather
to appearance or reputation than to variation in actual food

value,and that it is therefore in most cases the cheaper article

which gives the better value for the money expended.
A
word may be added about the various prepared "cereal
breakfast foods" as they are called. Two different kinds have
been analysed, both giving practically the same results, which
work out at l\d. per 1000 calories. This is five times as dear
as oatmeal and more than twice as dear as other foods of the
same class. A point in their favour is their convenience. They
are ready cooked and can be used without further preparation,
but this can hardly be regarded as an adequate set off against
so great a disparity in price.
20 BUTCHER'S MEAT

Finally we give the figures for home-made oatcake which

can be made at 3d. per Ib,
In the next section we discuss in more detail the nutritive
value and the cost of certain of the more important individual
foods.

IV
NOTES ON INDIVIDUAL FOODSTUFFS

Butcher's Meat.

Thecost of a given quantity of protein, though it differs

greatly when prime

joints or cuts are compared with cheaper
cuts, does not vary very much on the average with the nature
of the animal from which it is derived. Economy does not at
present limit our choice as between beef, mutton, pork, etc.
Whether or not it is desirable for a community wishing to
economise to purchase the meat of 'immature animals to eat,
for instance, lamb or veal instead of mutton or beef is a
somewhat complicated question depending upon the current
cost of fodder and other factors; the assumption that it is

necessarily undesirable is by no means justified. We may

assume that all meats will tend to rise in price so long as the
war lasts but the rise may not be uniform. Perhaps the best
;

guide for the consumer who wishes at the present time to put
economy before the satisfaction of personal taste is to buy
whatever variety of meat is at the moment rising most slowly
in price; and this not so much on account of the immediate
and direct saving involved, which may be small, but because
of the assistance which such a course, if widely adopted, would

give to the adjustment between supply and demand. On the

other hand it is undesirable that the well-to-do should economise
too freely by the unaccustomed purchase of what are held to
be inferior parts of the animal otherwise the poor may suffer
;

by a rise in their price. Apart from the less prized "cuts"

reference to the tables will show that protein is particularly
 FISH 21

cheap when purchased in such forms as liver, sheeps' or beef's

hearts; in sheeps' heads, tripe, black puddings, etc.

A
word may be said as to the economic difference between
fat and lean meats. amount of fat proportion-
Increase in the

ately reduces, of course, the amount of protein purchased in

a pound of meat, but the fuel value rises rapidly with the richness
in fat. As a matter of fact reasonably fat meat is a more
economical purchase than lean meat, because fat replaces
water. Lean flesh with 1-5 per cent, fat contains no less than
76 per cent, of water meat with 29 per cent, fat contains only
;

53 per cent. So long as the fat is not left upon the family
plates, but is actually eaten, whether with the meat itself or
later in the form of dripping, etc., more total food value is
obtained for a shilling in fat meat than in lean. Moreover the
net cost of the protein in the former is not increased proportion-
ately with its degree of replacement by fat. It should be
remembered however that in most households there is a tendency
to waste fat. It is clear that very fat meat should be supple-
mented by foods rich in protein, and lean meat with others

proportionately rich in fuel value. Beans and bacon; leg of

mutton and potatoes; these are time-honoured and justifiable
combinations.

Fish.

Fresh fish, largely owing to cost of transport, is never a

cheap source either of protein or fuel, as a glance at the tables
will show. Even the less expensive forms, sometimes as in
the case of hake because of the large proportion of water
contained in the flesh, do not compare favourably with meat
in this respect. Fish as a whole is chiefly valuable in adding

variety to a dietary.
Dried or smoked fish are of course much cheaper foodstuffs
but it is doubtful if they should contribute more than a small
quota to any dietary. Tinned salmon and lobster, though
largely bought by the poor, are extravagant foods.
22 DAIRY PRODUCTS

Dairy Products.

A study of the tables will show that among animal foods

milk isan exceptionally cheap source both of protein and of
fuel. A of protein in meat costs five or six shillings
pound
while the same amount in milk at twopence a pint costs only
two shillings and fourpence. One thousand calories cost on
the average about one shilling in meat but only fourpence
three-farthings in milk. So great a disproportion is a somewhat
surprising circumstance of no small economic interest. The
protein in skim milk costs only sevenpence a pound. It is
extremely unfortunate that this is not more readily obtainable
by the public. While whole milk is essential for infants, skim
milk is a most useful food for growing children who are getting

a supply of fat from other sources. It is especially desirable as

a food for the children of the poor who else depend far too
much upon bread and margarine. The extreme cheapness of
skim milk protein has led to its appearance in the market,
under various names, as a dry powder. But in these proprietary
articles its cost is greatly increased, and its digestibility is
lessened. It is cost of transport which results in skim milk

being left to the pigs, and it seems highly desirable that during
the present crisis at any rate some effort should be made to
cheapen its distribution. The public should certainly purchase,
and encourage the manufacture in this country of, the simple
curd cheeses which are made from skim milk they are whole-
;

some and cheap sources of protein.

Condensed milk because of its great convenience is always
likely to be freely consumed; but it should be understood that
the cost of the protein obtained in it is more than double that
of the same quantity purchased in new milk. The calories
contained in are relatively cheap, but this is because they are
it

largely due to the added sugar. Condensed milk does not

represent an economical food. It should never replace new
milk in the diet of infants or young children.
 EGGS, BREAD AND FLOUR 23

Eggs.

Eggs form a source of convenient and agreeable food, but

itshould be remembered that at the price usually paid for them
in this country they are a somewhat extravagant food. New
milk yields corresponding food value at less than one-third the
cost.

Bread and Flour.

Itneed hardly be said that those who are able to bake at

home can obtain similar food values at a lower cost in the
form of flour than in that of bread. But from this saving the
cost of baking has of course to be deducted, and home baking,

though adoption may in individual cases help to conserve

its

a diminishing income, cannot be universally recommended.

The baker can make bread more economically and efficiently
than private individuals and his activities represent a division
of labour which, on the balance, is of advantage to the com-

munity under any circumstances.

A decrease in the consumption of meat almost necessarily
involves an increase in the consumption of wheat bread, so
that the properties of the latter as a foodstuff have an increasing
interest at the present time. When a given amount of fuel is
consumed in bread the amount of protein received will very

nearly reach what is a desirable ratio, and from this standpoint

bread is a satisfactory basal foodstuff. But it is deficient in
fat; a circumstance which accounts for the universal and
instinctive use of fat asan adjunct to bread. In the diet of
the labouring classes, both in town and country, nearly two-
thirds of the whole fuel value and one-half of the protein is

supplied in bread. With increase of earning power the relative

amount of bread eaten almost always diminishes, and in middle
class dietaries it usually supplies no more than one-fourth of
the calories and one-fifth of the protein. It is clear that no
serious harm could accrue to the latter classes if, as a temporary

measure, a part of their meat consumption were replaced by

bread. When bread comes to form a relatively large portion
of the total food eaten, it* is desirabio that a part at least should
24 OATMEAL
be made from whole meal. Not enough advantage is taken
thiscountry of the fact that bread may be eaten in a variety
of forms with varying flavours. To vary the source, colour
and size of the loaf adds to the enjoyment with which bread
may be eaten.

Oatmeal.

Oatmeal contains more protein and more fat than wheat

flour,and should be recognised as being at once one of the
cheapest and most valuable of foodstuffs. Although it appears
in the food budgets of most families, the quantity consumed

per head in South Britain is relatively very small. Among the

working classes the expenditure upon it does not amount to
one-twentieth of that upon bread. This proportion might
under any circumstances be increased with definite advantage,
especially to the children. Oatmeal porridge is, of course, a
common breakfast dish among the wealthier classes, but the
actual amount eaten in this form is but small, not more than
perhaps 1 ounce per head per day of the dry meal. This in
fuel value would represent less than one- twentieth of the

day's consumption.
During a period of meat shortage it is necessary that the
consumption of cereal foods should increase. It is highly
desirable that this increase should not be too exclusively in the
form of bread. There is a real advantage in eating a variety
than one only, and oatmeal represents perhaps
of cereals rather
the best variant from wheat bread. It can be obtained in
more than one form, and may be prepared in various ways, so
that monotony can be easily avoided if some trouble be taken.
Oatcake for instance forms a pleasant and valuable variation
from porridge. It is readily made by melting an ounce of
margarine in rather more than J pint of hot water and mixing
with J Ib. of oatmeal. The dough is well worked, and rolled
into a flat cake and baked. Thus prepared it costs just over
which works out at about l%d. per 1000 calories.
3d. per Ib.,
We
have been told officially that a reduction in the amount
of meat eaten to the extent of some 2 Ibs. per head per month
will cover the probable shortage of the current year. Supposing
 PULSES AND BICE 25

this sacrifice to be made it is somewhat striking to realise that

the whole of the flesh-forming material involved could be re-
placed by the consumption of a small plate of oatmeal porridge
extra each day, and the exchange would increase the yield of
energy from the food. If the individual takes a gill of milk with
this daily extra ration of oatmeal he will get altogether twice
as much protein as he is asked to give up, and a considerable
increase in total food values. The meat sacrificed would have
cost at least 2s., while the oatmeal costs 5d. or 6d., and the
oatmeal and milk Is. Sd. to Is. $d.

Beans, Peas and Lentils.

These foods differ from the cereals in that they contain

far moreprotein, in fact they actually contain more protein
weight for weight than butcher's meat. They also contain
large quantities of starch and their price being low they are
among the cheapest sources of both protein and energy.

Unfortunately they are inclined to be difficult of digestion

unless very thoroughly cooked. Soaking over night in cold
water shortens the time of boiling. Being rich in protein and
starch and deficient in fat they go well with fat meats such as

pork or bacon. They may be curried along with enough fat

meat to give a flavour.

Rice.

As is well known
forms the chief food of whole popula-
rice
tions in the East. Of late years evidence has accumulated to
show that the process of "polishing" removes certain essential
properties from the grain, so that polished rice is not a good
basal foodstuff. But although the grain as sold in this country
is almost always polished, the deficiency is quite unimportant

when the rice forms only a small part of the whole diet. Kice
yields a very economical supply of protein and of calories.

Like oatmeal it provides an opportunity of increasing variety

in our consumption of grain foods, and at the present time

decidedly more should be eaten. Its use should be less confined

26 STARCHES. VEGETABLES
to the preparation of sweet puddings, and boiled rice should be
served more freely with meat and fish. Cooked with cheese
like macaroni, it makes a very cheap and nutritious dish, which
is also extremely palatable.

Tapioca, Arrowroot, Cornflour.

It should be understood that foods of this class, thoug

they possess high fuel value, supply scarcely any protein.

They are often given to invalids under the impression that they

possess high restorative power, but they possess no flesh-

forming properties and they should never form a large pro-

portion of the day's food.

Fresh Vegetables.

When bought in small quantities fresh vegetables are not

tot
economical as a source of protein and energy. This applies to
green vegetables especially, the reason being that they contain
about nine-tenths of their weight of water which of course
makes the cost of transport to the market come out high per
pound of protein and per 1000 calories. For the same reason
they are very bulky and on this account it would be difficult
to take any very large proportion of one's protein and energy
in this form. For instance, it would be necessary to eat more
than one stone of most green vegetables in order to get the
4 oz. of protein which is required for the daily ration of an
average man.
Potatoes however are an exception. They contain much less
water, and much more dry matter than green vegetables, and
cost lessmoney per pound. They are in fact one of the cheapest-
sources of energy and at the present time their consumption
in this country should be increased. The proportion of protein
which they contain however is small, and they should be eaten
with meat, milk, cheese or some other article containing protein
in reasonable proportions. Artichokes are also a fairly cheap
source of energy, and so are carrots, turnips and onions.
 FOOD BUDGETS 27

These remarks must not be taken as a warning against the

purchase of fresh vegetables. It is in fact desirable that every
one should eat green vegetables from time to time, not as a
source of protein or energy, but to ensure health. For the
same reason every one should occasionally eat salad or uncooked
fruit. Such materials do not provide cheap protein or energy,
but they do undoubtedly help to keep the body in a healthy
condition.

FOOD BUDGETS
We propose in this section to illustrate certain aspects of
the subject by a reference to the expenditure of typical families
upon their food as observed in actual practice. The careful
studies of Mr S. B. Kowntree supply statistical material of a
kind suitable for our purpose.
In 1912-13 Mr Rowntree obtained accurate information
concerning the food budgets of 42 families of rural workers in
five English counties. They comprised in all 85 adults and
194 children, the average number of children in a family being
therefore between fourand five.
show that the food consumed by these
Suitable calculations
families corresponded with what would be an allowance of
3400 calories and 95 grammes (3-4 ounces) of protein for a
man 1 These figures are strikingly close to those calculated
.

by one of us from the results of a Board of Trade return made

in 1902 which dealt with the food of agricultural labourers in
all namely 3357 calories and 97 grammes
parts of England,
(3-5 ounces) of protein per man. Such figures show a fairly
adequate, though by no means generous, allowance of fuel
1
See page 6. Since the number and age of the members vary it is

necessary in comparing the expenditure of one family with that of another to

reduce them to some common standard. This is usually done by counting a
woman's needs as eight-tenths of a man's, and by assigning a definite fractional
value to the needs of each child according to its age. Thus a family with
father, mother, and six children might work out as equal, say, to four and
three-quarter men. The total food consumed divided by 4J would then give
the consumption "per man."
28 FOOD BUDGETS
value, but an amount of protein which, for conditions of life
in this country, is too small.
We have calculated from Mr Rowntree's data that the
average earning power of the families studied was sixteen
shillings and sixpence per household weekly. The average
weekly expenditure upon food was twelve shillings. This sum
did not quite suffice to purchase the food values mentioned, as
in nearly all cases the food bought was supplemented by a
certain amount (never large) of home-raised garden produce,
and, to a small extent, by charitable gifts. In the case of
agricultural labourers it is at any rate clear that an expenditure
of more than seventy per cent, of the total cash income upon
food did not, even before the war, suffice to buy more than at
most the bare necessary minimum. The Board of Trade returns
of 1904 gave for town workers in all parts of the country a

consumption of 3291 calories and 102 grammes (3-6 ounces) of

protein per man. But the poorer elements in a town population
may show conditions of nutrition considerably less satisfactory
than those of the agricultural labourer. Thus Mr Rowntree
found that fourteen families in York of which the average
income was less than 26s. per week showed an average con-
sumption of 2685 calories and 89 grammes (3-15 ounces) of
protein.
These figures were all obtained before the war. We cannot
put the current increase in the cost of the food of the poorer
classes at less than 20 per cent, and it is probably more. Bread,
as was shown in a previous section, forms more than 60 per cent,
of their food and bread has risen 40 per cent.

Returning then to the case of families which before the war

spent 125. weekly upon food we have to realise that they must
now be spending at the very least 14s. 6d. for a bare minimum of
nutriment. Since their average income was 16s. 6d. it is clear
that there must now be, without rise of wage, a wholly inadequate
margin for other expenditure. Doubtless wages will in many
cases be raised, and war allowances will ease certain families;
but it is evident that no saving whatever can be expected in
the food expenditure of households depending upon a wage of
25s. or less.War bonuses will, in the case of the labouring
 FOOD BUDGETS 29

classes as a whole, at most compensate for the rise in food

prices.
We will now consider the case of a family with an appreciably
higher income, that namely of a foreman earning 385. weekly.
We give in the first place the complete budget for a week's
expenditure upon food together with the price of the articles
as purchased inYork before the war and the cost of similar
articles when bought at current prices.

Food Budget of a Family consisting of Father, Mother, and Six

Children aged from 4 to 13 years. Expenditure for one week
in the month of September.

Cost in York
 FOOD BUDGETS
well chosen in respect of variety and other factors. But
whereas before the war the expenditure involved was only
24s. for the week a reasonable if somewhat large propor-
tion of the total income with current prices the cost of
the food would have been 37s. 0|d., showing an increase
sufficient to swamp nearly the whole income of the family.
This budget is instructive, as we have reason to believe that it

represents fairly well the average expenditure of a large class

of artisan families, though, as already suggested, the marketing
was probably better than the average. The only economy to
be suggested would consist in an all round reduction in the
quantity of food purchased. A few luxuries appear : the grapes,
mushrooms and sardines for instance. Upon these the sum of
Is. Qd. was spent. Such a sum might well have been spent upon
cheaper materials, but the outlay was no great extravagance.
The bread which was all made at home supplied no less than
56 per cent, of the whole fuel value of the diet. The meat
purchased was wholly in the form of the cheaper cuts, such
items as the sheep's head and sheep's reeds (a variety of tripe)
yielding protein in a particularly cheap form. The protein in
the animal food amounted to considerably less than one-third
of the whole protein eaten, a very economical proportion.
The supply of fat bore a satisfactory relation to the starchy
foods, and this moreover with a very small expenditure upon
butter the most expensive of fats. Altogether this budget is
extremely difficult to criticise from the standpoint of economy
and wisdom It represents however
in the choice of foodstuffs.
a supply of nutriment in excess of actual needs, and in times of
financial stress the principal items purchased could be reduced

by a fifth without danger to health or efficiency.

The following budget illustrates the expenditure upon food
when the income is of the order of 150 to 200 per annum.
It that of a clerk's family in Cambridge. It represents a
is

week's expenditure as observed in actual practice, the week

chosen showing figures which agree closely in every respect
with the average calculated from several consecutive weeks.
 FOOD BUDGETS 31

Food Budget of a Family consisting of Father, Mother and one

Daughter aged 14. Expenditure for one week in the month
of April.

Food bought
32 FOOD BUDGETS

adequate supply of nutriment. Since families of this class are

likely to be considerably incommoded by war prices, the facts
contained in this pamphlet would seem to be of special value to
them.
We give finally, in a somewhat different form, the budget of
a middle class family keeping three servants.
This budget shows the weekly expenditure of a family which
in respect of its food appears to be of economical habits.

Although meat is consumed three times a day, the meals taken

are of a comparatively simple nature; only one flesh course

being eaten at dinner. But whereas in the budget first quoted

meat supplied less than 30 per cent, of the total protein, in this
it provides 60 per cent. Bread is responsible for only one-
fourth of the total fuel value instead of yielding considerably
more than half. Calculated in the usual way to man value the
cost of the food amounts to eleven shillings per head per week,
instead of five shillings and eightpence as in the artisan budget.
The protein works out at 143 grammes and the calories are 4379.
Considerable economies are possible in such a budget. The
total food purchased might be safely reduced by about one-
sixth, and about one-fourth of the meat could be replaced by
bread, oatmeal, or other cheap vegetable foods. The figures of
the budget just discussed may be taken as fairly representative
of middle class expenditure before the war, though in many

districts, andespecially in the London area, they would be

decidedly below the average. We are of opinion that as a
rough indication of economies which are possible and perfectly
safe for families with average middle class incomes and habits
the changes suggested above may serve; namely a reduction
of about one-sixth in the total food purchased, and a replace-
ment of one-fourth of the meat by cheaper foodstuffs.
Those whose income has so far shrunk as to call for more
rigorous economies may profit by a study of the tables in this

pamphlet, purchasing, so far as is consistent with obtaining a

reasonable variety, only such foodstuffs as show a good pro-
portionate yield in protein or calories for a given expenditure.
Not every one realises how greatly the kind of food bought may
affect the amount of nutriment obtained for a given sum of
 FOOD BUDGETS 33

'-*! ii-HC<l

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II
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-^-^flS^i ^ci 'C^wScS

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.s

00 -^ 00 00 T I-H TH <* 00

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34 VARIATION IN THE PURCHASING POWER
*
T- _1_
money. Necessity teaches the poor to buy the foodstuffs which
are relatively the most profitable in this respect, even though
their choice may be more or less unconscious. The effect of
increase in income always results in a less economical choice,

though this again may be to some degree unconscious. To

please the palate money must be spent over and above that
which provide the necessary nutriment. Within reason
will
such extra expenditure is justifiable, because the better we
enjoy our food the better it is for our health. But very often
the more dainty dish is necessary to stimulate appetite only
because too much food as a whole is being eaten. Remember-
ing that it is, after all, the amount of nutriment that really
matters (the actual weight of protein and the number of
calories eaten) the following comparison is striking enough.
It gives the amount of nutriment obtained for one shilling by
" "
the labouring class, the artisan class, and the servant keeping
middle class respectively. The figures represent averages
obtained from the data of Mr Rowntree's studies and other
sources.

Amount of Nutrients obtained by the Expenditure of

One Shilling (at prices before the war)
Labourers' families Artisans' families Middle class families

Protein . . . . 179 grams 140 grams 92 grams

Calories .. .. 6500 4250 2850

Comparing the expenditure of the poor with that of the

well-to-do find that the former get nearly twice as much
we
for their money. Otherwise, under their economical conditions,
they could not live.

The facts hitherto discussed in this section bear scarcely

any relation to the expenditure upon food of the more luxurious

classes. Only those who have consciously thought about the
matter fully realise how greatly the element of pure luxury

may increase the cost of maintaining a human being. We have

seen that many thousands of families, averaging (with the
children) six or seven individuals each, were fed before the war
upon a weekly outlay of some 12s. It is therefore no mere
 CONCLUSION 35

fashion of speech, but literally true, to say that one man's

expenditure upon his dinner may keep another man's family
for a week.

Allowing, as seems certain from the facts we have discussed,

that the poorer classes are unable to make any retrenchment
at all in their food expenditure, there is no doubt that the

wealthy classes, assisted to no small extent by the middle and

lower middle classes, could effect such a saving as would average
10 per cent, of the whole national expenditure upon food.
This would amount to 60,000,000, and probably to more.
It would be a saving won at the expense of some discomfort
but one with no danger to health. If a course of economy in
food involves effort and discomfort it should be the more
welcome to those who do not otherwise share the much greater
discomforts of active service, and the money saved in such a
way might well be specially ear-marked for
providing the
sinews of war.
PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, MJ
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
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