Chapter 6: Admixtures

Classification of Admixtures
1) Surface Active Chemicals
- Also known as surfactants
- Consists of long-chain organic molecules
o Hydrophilic
o Hydrophobic
- Generally used for
o Air Entrainment Air Entraining Surfactants
Composed of
salts of wood resins
proteinacious materials
petroleum acids
synthetic detergents
Consists of nonpolar hydrocarbon chain with an ionic group
Air water interface promotes bubble formation due to lowered surface tension
Solid water interface makes the cement surface hydrophobic
Applications
Resist freezing and thawing cycles
Improved workability of fresh concrete
Making mass concrete and lightweight concrete mixtures
However, any overdose can cause an excessive delay in cement hydration and
strength loss
o Reduction of Water Water Reducing Admixtures
Anionic polar group is joined to a hydrocarbon chain
Surfactant itself is polar or hydrophilic
Applications
Decrease cement content
Increase mix consistency
Achieve higher compressive strength

Before
A well dispersed system between the water and
cement is not attained due to
- High surface tension of water
- Formation of flocks of cement
After
Layers of water dipoles surround the hydrophilic
cement particles and flocculation is prevented thus, a
well dispersed system is obtained

2) Set Controlling Chemicals

- These are soluble chemicals that can influence the rate of ionization of cement compounds or the rate of
crystallization of the hydration products
- Consists of
o Acceleration admixtures
Applications
For cold weather
Reduce curing period requirement
Increase rate of early strength development
o Retarding Admixtures
Applications
Hot weather concreting
Longer workability period
 Eliminates cold joints and discontinuities in large structures
- Can be attributed mainly to dissolving of the anhydrous constituents rather than to the crystallization of
the hydrates
- Alteration of type and concentration of the ionic constituents in the cement paste and thus, influencing the
dissolution of cement compounds according to the following
o Accelerators promote the dissolution of cement constituents which has the lowest dissolving rate
during the early stage of the hydration process
o Retarders impede dissolution of cement ions which has the highest dissolving rate during the
early stage of the hydration process
o Monovalent cations reduce solubility of calcium ions but increases solubility of silicate and
aluminate ions
o Cl-, NO3- reduces solubility of silicates and aluminates but promotes solubility of calcium ions

3) Mineral Admixtures
- Also known as Supplementary Cementing Materials (SCM)
- These are siliceous materials added to concrete in relatively large amount (20 -70% by mass)
- Contributes to the properties of hardened concrete through
o Hydraulic activity
o Pozzolanic activity
o Both
- Materials can be divided into two groups
o Natural Pozzolanic Materials materials that are processed for pozzolans
Four groups
Volcanic glasses unaltered aluminosilicate glass
Volcanic tuffs hydrothermal alteration of volcanic glass
Calcined Clays/Shales amorphous aluminosilicate structure of clay
Diatomaceous earths hydrated amorphous silica from cell walls of aquatic algae
o By-Product Materials
Common by-product materials
Fly Ash powdered coal from thermal power plants which contains silica, alumina,
and calcium
Iron Blast Furnace Slag granulated pelletized slag from cast iron production
Silica Fume induction of silicon metal and ferrosilicon alloy
Rice Husk Ash combustion of rice hulls
Applications
Workability improvement
Improved durability to thermal cracking
Improved durability to chemical attack
High Strength and High Performance Concrete
 Chapter 7: Dimensional Stability
Introduction
Deformation
Is a result of material response to
external load
environment
in concrete include
thermal shrinkage
drying shrinkage
creep
Concrete shows elastic and inelastic strains due to
Loading
temperature conditions
Stress strain relationship in concrete is complex because
Concrete is an inelastic material
Strains are not uniform throughout a concrete member
Elastic Behavior
Measure of materials stiffness or determining stresses induced by strains
Nonlinearity of stress strain relationship n concrete is due to progressive microcracking of concrete
Stress level and microcracking in concrete can be divided into four stages
30% of ultimate stress
Linear stress strain relationship
Microcracks remain stable
Microcracks exists in ITZ due to bleeding characteristics and curing history of concrete
50% of ultimate stress
Propagation of microcracks
A stable system of microcracks appears at ITZ
Cracks begin to form in the cement matrix
75% of ultimate stress
Rate of strain energy reach the critical level needed for crack growth
Cracks in the ITZ become more unstable
Increasing propagation of cracks causes bending of curve toward the horizon
Failure stress
Bridging of cracks in the ITZ and cement matrix
Failure of material

Elastic Modulus

Static Modulus of Elasticity given by the slope of stress strain curve under uniaxial loading
Tangent Modulus slope of the line tangent to the stress strain curve at any point of the curve
Secant Modulus slope of the line drawn from the origin to a point on the point corresponding to 40%
fc
Chord Modulus slope of the line drawn between two points of the stress strain curve
Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity corresponding to a very small instantaneous strain given by initial tangent
modulus
Flexural Modulus of Elasticity determined from deflection test

Factors Affecting Modulus of Elasticity

 Aggregate Porosity Determines Stiffness
larger amount of coarse aggregates with high elastic modulus, the greater the modulus of elasticity of
concrete
size, shape, surface texture, and mineralogical composition affects ITZ thus, affect the stress strain
curve
Hydrated Cement Paste Matrix
Determined by its porosity which is controlled by w/c, air content, mineral admixtures, and degree of
cement hydration
Transition Zone
Stress strain relations in concrete is determined by capillary voids, microcracks, and calcium
hydroxide crystals
Testing Parameters
Specimens tested in wet conditions have higher elastic modulus

Poissons Ratio
The ratio of lateral strain to axial strain within the elastic limit for a material subjected to axial load
Concretes Poissons ratio varies from 0.15 to 1.20
Value is lower for high strength concrete, for saturated concrete, and for dynamically loaded concrete

Drying Shrinkage and Creep

- Originate from hydrated cement paste
- Both have similar strain time curve
- Both are influenced by the same factors
- Microstrain for both is large
- Both are partially reversible

Factors affecting Drying Shrinkage and Creep

Materials and Mix Proportions
Cement
Fineness and composition have negligible effect on concrete
Strength of concrete at the time of load application affects creep
Cement content and w/c ratio affects aggregate fraction and moisture dependent
Strength and permeability of the system
Admixture
Affects volume of fine pores in the hydrated products
Water reducing and set retarding admixtures causes pore refinement show higher drying
shrinkage and creep
Time and Humidity
Diffusion of adsorbed water and water held by capillary tension is a time dependent process
Atmospheric humidity affects rate of moisture flow
Temperature has two counteracting effects
Higher temperature during curing before load application decreases creep
Higher temperature during curing under applied load increases creep
Geometry of Concrete
Controlled by length of path travelled by the water
Expressed in terms of theoretical thickness
Ratio of the area of the section the semiperimeter in contact with the atmosphere
Inverse relationship with creep and shrinkage
 Curing History
Alternation environmental humidity results to higher creep due to increase in microcracks n the ITZ
Intensity of Applied Stress
Creep is directly proportional to the magnitude of the applied stress

Thermal Shrinkage
Generally, solids expands and contracts
Strain depends on the coefficient of thermal expansion
Control temperature
Selection of proper materials
Mix proportions
Curing conditions
Construction practice
Shrinkage strain is more important than expansion strain
Degree of strain and stress relaxation results to large amount of tensile stress that causes cracks
Factors Affecting Thermal Shrinkage
Degree of Restraint
Externally by rock foundation
Internally by differential due to temperature gradient
Temperature Change
Difference between peak temperature of concrete and service of the structure
Placement temperature of concrete and pre cooling of fresh concrete
Adiabatic temperature rise is affected by amount, composition, and fineness of cement and
hydration temperature
Heat Loss depends on thermal property of concrete and construction methodology
 Chapter 8: Soil and its Properties
SOIL
Layers of unconsolidated materials extending from solid rock to surface
Formed by weathering and disintegration of rocks
Mode of origin is divided into three basic types
Igneous rock solidified molten magma
Sedimentary rock deposits formed by weathering
Metamorphic rock rock alteration due to heat/temperature
Divided into Four Sizes
Gravel pieces of rocks with occasional particles of quartz, feldspar, and other minerals
Sand mostly quartz and feldspar
Silt microscopic soil fractions that consists of fine quartz particles
Clay flake shaped microscopic particles of mica, clay minerals, and other minerals
Mechanical analysis to determine the size range of particles present in soil
Sieve Analysis
Shaking of soil sample through a set of sieves
Uses loose oven dried soil samples
Percent finer is calculated and plotted in particle size distribution curve
Hydrometer analysis
Uses principle of sedimentation
Different particles settle at different velocities expressed by Stokes law

Particle Size Distribution Curve

- Determines the proportions of soil particles present
- Also shows the type of distribution of various size particle

used to determine four parameters for a given soil:

Effective size (D10)
Diameter of particle size that corresponds to 10% finer
Estimates hydraulic conductivity and drainage of soil

Uniformity Coefficient (Cu)

60
=
10
Coefficient of Gradation (Cc)
302
=
60 10
Sorting Coefficient (So) measure of uniformity

75
=
25
WEIGHT VOLUME RELATIONSHIP
Volume of soil sample is the total volume of solids and voids (water and/or air) present
Volume relationship for the three phases are
Void ratio ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids

=

Porosity ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume

=

Degree of saturation ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids

=

Weight of soil sample is the total weight of solids and water present
Weight relationship for the three phases are
Moisture content (water content) ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids

=

Unit weight (Weight of soil per unit volume or Moist unit weight) can be expressed in terms of moisture
content
(1 + )
= =

PLASTICITY STRUCTURE OF SOIL

Soil can be divided into four basic states depending on moisture content
Solid
Semi solid
Plastic
Liquid
The limits of these moisture content are defined in Atterberg Limit
Shrinkage Limit (SL)
Moisture content, in percen, at which volume of sand changes
Oven drying of soil specimen
Plastic Limit (PL)
Moisture content, in percent, at which soil crumbles when rolled into threads
Lower limit of the plastic stage
Methods for determination
Fall Cone Method
Rolling of Soil Thread
Liquid Limit (LL)
Moisture content, %
From plastic state to liquid state
Methods for determination
Cassagrande Cup
 Plasticity Chart
Upper limit of plasticity index liquid limit relationship
Plasticity Index, PI
Measure of plasticity of soil
Range of moisture content when soil exhibits plastic properties
=
Liquidity Index, LI
Scaling the natural water content of soil sample to the limits

=

Consistency Index, CI
Indicates the consistency of soil

=

Activity Index, LI
For clays, signifies volume change under several water content conditions

=
%
Separates inorganic clay from inorganic silts
CLASSIFICATION of SOIL
Textural Classification
Soil texture is influenced by individual particles present
Soils are named after their principal component
USDA developed textural classification systems for soil that is based on soil fraction that passes through
sieve no. 10 (2mm)
Note: if a certain percentage of soil particle is larger than 2mm in diameter, a correction is necessary
(%) 100
% =
100 %
AASHTO Classification
Soil is classified as A 1 to A 7 which are based on the following assumptions:
Grain Size
Gravel - passing 75mm sieve and retained in sieve no. 10
Sand passing sieve no. 10 and retained in sieve no. 200
Silt and Clay passing sieve no. 200
Plasticity
Silty PI 10
Clayey PI 11
Cobbles and Boulders
Size larger than 75 mm which are excluded but is recorded
 Unified Soil Classification
Originally proposed by Casagrande in 1942 for airfield construction
Classified soils into two broad categories:
Coarse grained soils
Gravelly (G) and Sandy (S)
<50% passing through sieve no. 200
Fine grained soils
Inorganic Silts (M), inorganic clay (C), and organic silts and clays (O)
50% passing through sieve no. 200
SOIL COMPACTION
Densification of soil using mechanical means
Degree of compaction of soil is measured in terms of dry unit weight
Water is added to the soil during compaction so that soil particles slip over each other
Dry unit weight after compaction increases as the moisture content increases but at a certain , any increase
tends to reduce the dry unit weight

() =
1+
Optimum Moisture Content refers to moisture content at maximum dry unit weight
Proctor Compaction Test determines the maximum dry unit weight of compaction and optimum moisture
content
Factors Affecting Soil Compaction
Soil Type
Grain size distribution, grain shape, solids specific gravity, amount and type of clay minerals
Compaction Effort
Compaction energy per unit volume
Increase inn compaction effort increases the maximum dry unit weight but decreases the optimum
moisture content
Effect on Cohesive Soil Properties
Hydraulic conductivity measure how easily water flows through soil and decreases with increase in
moisture content
Strength decreases with molding moisture
Compressibility shows two trends
Under lower pressure: soil compacted on the wet side of optimum is more compressible
Pressure reduces the space between clay particles
Under high pressure: soil compacted on the dry side of the optimum is less compressible
Pressure orient the particles normal to its direction of application
Field Unit Weight of Compaction
Standard Procedures include
Sand Cone Method
Consists of glass or plastic jar with metal cone attached at its top
Sand is allowed to flow out of the jar to fill the hole and the cone
Rubber Balloon Method
Same with sand cone method but the volume is determined by filling up the balloon with water
Nuclear Method
Density meters operate either in drilled holes or from ground surface
Uses radioactive isotope source which gives off gamma rays that radiates back to the meter
detector
Dense soil absorbs more radiation than loose soil
PERMEABILITY
Solids are permeable due to interconnected voids through which water can flow from points of high energy to
points of low energy
Importance involves
Pumping of water for underground construction
Stability of earth dams
Stability of earth retaining structures
Uses concepts of Bernoullis principle and Darcys Law
Bernoullis Principle total head at a point can be given by the sum of pressure head, velocity head, and
elevation head
2
= + +
2
Darcys Law discharge velocity of water through saturated soils
=
Measured using hydraulic conductivity
Depends o the following
Fluid Viscosity
Pore size distribution
Grain Size Distribution
Void ratio
Roughness of mineral particles
Degree of soil saturation

Laboratory Hydraulic Conductivity

Constant Head Test
Constant head difference between the inlet and the outlet while water is being collected
Water flows from standpipe through soil
In Situ k of compacted clay soils
Boutwell permeameter
Hole is drilled and casing is placed in it then filled with water and falling head test is conducted
Constant head borehole permeameter
Constant head is maintained by supplying water and the rate of flow is measured
Porous Probes
Pushed/driven into soil then constant/falling head test is performed
Seepage
Seepage is the flow of water in the soil
Critical in building foundations, earth dams, reservoirs, roadbeds, and filtration beds
Uses the concept of Darcys law
Flow net is a graph used to determine the ground water flow and is based on Laplaces equation of
continuity
Flow nets can be used to determine the uplift pressure at the base of a hydraulic structure
 Chapter 9: Soil Strength
SHEAR STRENGTH
Safety of geotechnical structures are dependent on soil strength
Soil failure causes structures founded on it to collapse
Net increase in soil stresses are caused by foundation construction
Net increase is used to calculate settlements in soil
Concrete: Steel: Soil = Compressive Strength: Tensile Strength: Shear Strength
Significance to analyze soil stability problems such as
Bearing capacity
Slope stability
Lateral earth pressures
Pavements
Soils resistance to shearing stress
Depends primarily on interactions between particles
Shear failure occurs when soil particles slide past each other due to stresses
Two sources of shear strength:
Cohesion
Stress independent component
Electrostatic attraction between clay particles
Frictional resistance
Stress dependent component
Internal friction angle measures shear strength of soil due to friction
MOHR COULOMB FAILURE CRITERION
Soil fails due to critical combination of normal stress and shear stress and is given by the equation:
Inclination of the failure plane is shown by the figure below and is given by the equation:

DIRECT SHEAR STRENGTH

ASTM D3030 to determine shear strength of both cohesive and non cohesive soils
Shear force is applied by moving half of the box relative to the other to cause failure of soil
TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST
Developed by Casagrande to overcome disadvantage of the direct shear strength
Advantages are:
More versatile
Controlled drainage
No rotation of the principal axis
Failure plane can occur anywhere
Triaxial three principal stresses are assumed to be known and are controlled
Soil specimen is subjected to a confining fluid pressure then loaded axially to failure
Four types of test:
Unconsolidated Undrained (UU or Q)
Quick Test
Drained valves are closed for all phases of the test
Stimulates short term strength for cohesive soil
Consolidated Undrained (CU or R)
Application of third principal stress
Drainage valve is open during consolidation but closed on shearing phase

Stimulate long term and short term shear strength for cohesive soils if pore water is measured during
shearing phase
Total stress is not equal with effective stress
Consolidated Drained (CD or S)
Slow test, stimulates long term shear for cohesive soil
Drainage valve is open throughout the test
Complete sample drainage before the application of vertical load
No excess pore pressure therefore, total stresses is equal to effective stresses
Unconfined Compression (UC)
Used for clay soils
No confining stresses (ASTM D 2166)
CONSOLIDATION TEST
Consolidation
Compression or settlement of soil due to placing of loads onto the ground which increases the vertical
effective stress
Caused by
Deformation of soil particles
Relocations of soil particles
Expulsion of water or air from void spaces
Most settlement of structure on clay us due to
Volumetric change
Rarely due to shear strain
Significance
Volume change of soil is the governing design criteria of a project
Settlement is not tolerated due to the reduction of structures service life
Rate of consolidation is also important to determine the expected total consolidated soil
Consolidation vs. Compaction

Compaction Consolidation
- Instantaneous process - Time dependent process
- Applicable to all soil - Applicable to clayey soil
- Unsaturated soils - Saturated soils
- Decrease in air voids - Decrease in water voids
- Dry density increases - Dry density increases
- Water content does not change - Water content decreases

Two types of consolidometers (oedometers)

Floating Ring
Fixed Ring