LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY
AND RESISTIVITY ON DIFFERENT
SATURATED RESERVOIR ROCKS
Amir Mustaqim bin Majdi
Bachelor of Technology (Hons) Petroleum Geoscience
Universiti Teknologi Petronas
Tronoh, Perak Darul Ridzuan
Email: amir.mustaqim103@gmail.com
Abstract Understanding the basic rock elastic properties such
as porosity, density, P and S wave propagation, reflectivity,
acoustic impedance and electric property such as resistivity are
very important in hydrocarbon exploration. To be precise, these
properties have relationship which can help in doing reservoir
interpretation. The main purpose of this project is to understand
the behavior of wave velocity and resistivity for different type of
fluid filling the reservoir rock. In this project, Berea Sandstone
core sample is used which represent the reservoir rock.
Laboratory measurements of velocity and resistivity were taken
for the core in dry, saturated with brine, saturated with fresh
water and partially saturated. Velocity measurement is done by
using OYO SonicViewer- SX meanwhile resistivity is done using
SCIP (Sample Core I.P.) tester. The findings shows that wave
travel faster through denser material such as fluid saturated core
sample compared to dry or gas saturated core sample. Meanwhile,
material which have higher electrical conductivity such as brine
solution will enhance the movement of electrical current hence
reducing the electrical resistivity value. Pure electrical insulator
material such as silica minerals did not support the movement of
electrical current, hence increase the electrical resistivity value of
the material.
Keywords- Rock elastic properties, Vp, Vs, resistivity.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Understanding the basic rock properties are very important
in hydrocarbon exploration. Some examples of the rock
properties that can be measured are the porosity, density, P and
S wave propagation, reflectivity, acoustic impedance and also
resistivity. All of these elastic properties are related to each
other and they can be helpful in doing reservoir interpretation
especially in identifying the type of reservoir rock and fluid that
saturated within them. The understanding of these properties
also can be done through different data scales such as
mesoscopic of seismic image, megascopic of well data and as
well as macroscopic of core sample. However, different data
scale has differences in term of resolution or data quality.
Seismic image covers the vertical and horizontal resolution of
larger area but the data is low in resolution. Meanwhile, well
data has better horizontal resolution but the data only limited to
the particular drilled well hole only. Core sample has finer data
resolution than well data and will give better understanding on
the reservoir properties. This project will focus on determining
the behavior of wave velocity and resistivity responses of
different type of saturated reservoir rock for the macroscopic
scale. A laboratory test will be conducted using a sandstone
core sample which representing the reservoir rock. The results
obtained from the laboratory measurement can help people such
as geoscientists and engineers to understand the velocity and
resistivity readings especially in reservoir monitoring.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Understanding the velocity and resistivity properties of rock
through large data scale such as seismic image is very difficult
and complex. This is because the data obtained is low in
resolution as the image is captured by the low frequency waves
and includes anisotropy and heterogeneity. Furthermore, the
processes for obtaining the data will cost a lot of money. For
example, in order to obtain the seismic and well data, seismic
survey and well drilling need to be done. This matter become a
limitation and lead to lack of proper understanding upon
velocity and resistivity. However, the understanding by core
sample measurement is more advantage and can be done as it is
much cheaper. In addition, we able to control the parameters
that affect the responses of wave velocity and resistivity such
as type of fluid, fluid concentration, clay content, porosity,
pressure and others.
1.3 OBJECTIVE
 The objective of this project is to study the wave
velocity and electrical resistivity for different type of fluid
saturated of reservoir rock which represented by Berea
Sandstone core sample.
1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY
The study includes a laboratory measurement of the velocity
and resistivity responses for different condition of a sandstone
core sample. The core sample will be prepared into different
condition such as below:
i. Dry (gas saturated)
ii. Fully saturated with brine
iii. Fully saturated with fresh water
iv. Partially saturated
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 RESERVOIR ROCK
Society of Petroleum Engineers Glossary has defined the
reservoir rock as a type of rock that contains porosity,
permeability, sealing mechanism and also sufficient amount of
hydrocarbon accumulation (Ishimwe, 2014). Furthermore, all
hydrocarbon created by the source rock will not be economical
and useful to be extract unless it being stored in a container
which known as reservoir rock. Normally, the type of reservoir
rock is influenced by their contents, composition, morphology
and also sedimentology. The most common type of rock
associated with hydrocarbon are sedimentary rocks which
includes sandstone and carbonate mud or dolomite. Sandstone
has numerous pore spaces that provide spaces for trapping the
hydrocarbon. This is the reason why sandstone being classified
as the most common reservoir rock.
It takes millions of years for the decaying organic matter
such as algae and planktons to be converted into hydrocarbon.
This process occurs within the source rock. They were buried
by the sedimentation process and being cook at certain
temperature. Lastly, they were converted into liquid
hydrocarbon which migrated upward, trapped by the seal of
reservoir rock.
Fluid that accumulated within the reservoir rock are
normally three phases, which is water, oil and gas. These three
fluid types are very important for the petroleum engineers to
identify the preferable method of extracting them. The fluid
content within the reservoir is estimated by studying the rock
properties itself either direct way or indirect. The direct way is
by doing field data acquisition through well logging.
Meanwhile, the indirect way can be done by conducting
laboratory measurement on core samples of the reservoir rock
which what will be done for this project.
2.2 ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF ROCK
Elastic property can be describe as the measurement of the
propensity of a rock to deform non-permanently when stress is
applied in various direction. There are three main elastic moduli
which related to each type of deformation which is Young
Modulus (E), Bulk Modulus (K) and also Shear Modulus ().
Youngs Modulus (E) can be defined as the ratio of extensional
stress to extensional strain in uniaxial stress state. Simple
example for this modulus is the change of length of a rubber rod
when it being pull apart the ends of the rod. Bulk Modulus (K)
can be defined as the incompressibility of a medium. When a
small cube of material is being squeezed on all side, the volume
will change. Large value of K indicates the volume did not
change much and compression cannot being done very much as
the medium is very stiff. Meanwhile, if the value of K is small,
the material can be compress a lot such as gas. Lastly, the Shear
Modulus () tell the difficulty to deform a cube of material
when shearing force being applied. Large value of indicates
the shape of the material cannot be changed easily. Gas and
liquid do not support shear forces which means the value of
will be zero. In addition, Poissons Ratio () is an additional
parameter which related to stress and strain of a material.
Poissons Ratio is the ratio of transverse contraction strain to
longitudinal extension strain in the direction of stretching force
(Lakes, 2016). Furthermore, Yun-ping (2007) also explained
that the elastic constant such as elastic modulus and the
Poissons ratio are the basic mechanical properties that is
necessary to be considered in rock engineering project analysis
and design.
In interpretation of seismic data, the wave velocity are one
of the great interest to the geoscientist. There are two type of
wave velocities which are P-wave and S-wave. As being
explained by Fjr et al., (2008), the velocity of the propagation
wave depends mainly on the elastic stiffness and the density of
the rock. The E, K, and density of a material will affect the
velocity of wave that propagate through it. The equations below
shows how the properties related to compressional velocity, Vp
and shear velocity, Vs.
+
4
= 3
= (1)
K is the bulk modulus, is shear modulus and is the
density. In relation with that, this project will able to explain
the behavior of velocities responses when wave propagate
through different density of sandstone core sample which
represented by different type of fluid saturation. As mentioned
by Dvorkin & Nur (1998), the interpretation which relate the
velocity and to pore-fluid compressibility are among most
important deliverable of rock physic. In addition, there are
many factors which can affect the density. One of them is the
fluid type that filling the pore spaces. The following equation
can be used to determine the bulk density by assuming the rock
having both single type of mineral and fluid filling the pores.
= (1 ) + (2)
 b is the bulk density of rock, is the porosity, m is bulk
density of rock matrix and f is the bulk density of fluid. In this
project, the fluid involved are gas, freshwater and also brine
solution.
Furthermore, Hamada (2004) also discussed that the use of
ratio of compressional wave velocity to shear wave velocity,
Vp/Vs, is a good tool in identifying the fluid type in the
reservoir rock. In fact, as the light hydrocarbon saturation
increase, the compressional wave decrease and shear wave
velocity increase. This makes the Vp/Vs ratio more sensitive
toward the changes of fluid type comparing by using Vp or Vs
separately. The denser rock tend to have high velocity, which is
rock saturated with water compared to dry rock or gas-
saturated. Moreover, Vp is always higher than Vs for any type
of rocks (Yilmaz, 2015).
2.3 FLUID SUBSTITUTION MODELLING
According to He, T., & Schmitt, D. (2006), fluid
substitution modelling is a method which able to explain the
behavior of the rock properties with the changes of fluid
saturation within the reservoir. Besides, this technique can be
used also for evaluating the changes of wave velocity when
there is increase or decrease of pore fluid saturation as well as
the type. In addition, this technique normally associated with
the application of Gassmanns equation (1951) which have
been rearranged by Mavko et al as shown below;
seismic data and 4D seismic also works better in soft
= +
( ) unconsolidated sands than the carbonate reservoir.
(2) (2) (1) (1)
= during hydrocarbon production in order to improve the
(2) ( (2)) (1) ( (1))
The application of Gassmanns is based on certain assumptions
such as the rock sample is homogenous and isotropic, complete
connection of the rocks pore spaces, low elastic stiffness and
lastly low seismic frequency. Smith, T. M., Sondergeld, C. H.,
& Rai, C. S. (2003) stated that the shear modulus of an isotropic
material is not depend on pore fluid, hence remain at constant
during fluid substitution process.
2.4 ELECTRICAL RESISITIVITY OF WATER-
BEARING ROCKS
Hersir and rnason, (2009) stated that the conductivity of
rock near the earths surface is dominated by the electrolytic
conduction in aqueous solution of common salts distributed
through the pores of the rock. The rock matrix itself is actually
the insulator and examples of the parameters which influence
the electrical resistivity of the rocks are the porosity, amount of
water, salinity of water and also the temperature (Hersir and
rnason, 2009). In addition, Parkhomenko, (1967) also
explained that although solid minerals are the main constituent
of a rock, the other properties such as dielectric permeability
and electrical conductivity are determined mostly by the water
content. Benjamin and Paul (2013) mentioned that correlating
resistivity measurements with geophysical resistivity models
helps constrain these models to the geology and lithology of an
area. Generally, the higher the conductivity of a medium, the
lower the resistivity. Crain, (n.d.) describe that the pure water
is a very poor conductor and if an amount of salt is added to the
water, the solution become more conductive. This is because
higher quantity of charged ions enhance the conductivity of the
fluid. The reservoir rock saturated with gas, oil and also fresh
water will show high resistivity value. Meanwhile, for rock
saturated with brine will showing low resistivity value as it is a
good conductor.
2.5 RESERVOIR MONITORING
Time-lapse seismic reservoir monitoring which known as
4D seismic is the comparison of the 3D seismic surveys in the
same geographic location at different times (Fanchi et al.,
1999). This powerful technique able to monitor changes which
happens within the reservoir during production in the
dimension of x,y,z and time. In addition, Fanchi et al. (1999)
also explained that the analysis of 4D seismic enhance the
ability to image fluid movement hence improving the quality of
reservoir characterization, identification of fluid movement
interfaces and also helping operators locating bypassed
reserves. Anderson et al. (1996) stated that 4D seismic is most
effective in offshore fields due to its higher quality of 3D
(3)
Besides, injections of water or gas normally being done
recovery. At the same time, 4D seismic technology can be used
(4) to monitor the variation of changes from it. The changes of
subsurfaces elasticity can be monitored by comparing the
differences in some properties measurement such as travel
times, reflection amplitude and also seismic velocities. Fig. 1
below shows the 4D seismic acquisition of Gullfaks field. As
the time changes from 1985 to 1999, the oil is being replaced
by water. The seismic amplitude changed and this information
able to tell location and how much oil is present there at a time.
Figure 1 4D seismic acquisition, example form Gullfaks field (Eltvik, P.,
2010)
 Statoil petrophysicists have compared sonic logs responses
from the Gullfaks field in order to to monitor the oil-water-
contact (OWC). Higher velocities readings were obtained in
the water-filled zones than in those zones filled with oil.
Furthermore, when periodic logging being done at the same
well using Reservoir Saturation Tool (RST), the OWC was
rising 13 m per year. At above OWC, the sonic logs readings
were same from one year to another but at below OWC, sonic
velocities increased due to the replacement of oil by water.
Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is another technology
which involve in reservoir monitoring. CCS is an initiative for
reducing greenhouse gas emission that increase earth
temperature nowadays. It is able to capture carbon dioxide
(CO2) and stored them deep inside the depleted oil and gas field
or saline formation. Huppert and Neufeld (2014) explained that
for efficient injection and storage, CO2 should be pumped into
the storage reservoir at depth greater than 800 m. These depths
ensures the CO2 is stored in supercritical conditions which in
denser than gaseous, hence more CO2 per volume is stored
(Bachu et al., 1994). In addition, the viscosity of CO2 is lower
than formation water. This condition caused CO2 injected to
spread and accumulate above the formation water phase
(Suekane et al., 2005). A study has been done by Lamech
Omondi regarding acoustic velocity and electrical resistivity
responses in sandstone reservoir when injection of CO2 is done.
The results showing that, in the CO2 injection process, Vp
decrease drastically while Vs changes slightly and the
resistivity increase monotonously.
METHODOLOGY
A Berea Sandstone core sample is used for the lab
measurement. The dimension of the core is measured precisely
using the electronic caliper. The porosity and grain density are
measurement directly using the PoroPerm instrument porosity,
grain density, bulk density, permeability (air) and other
perimeters.
3.1 SATURATING CORE SAMPLE
Core sample saturation being done before velocity and
resistivity measurement. The core sample need to be prepared
in dry (gas saturated), fully saturated with brine, fully saturated
with fresh water and also partially saturated. The equipment
used are oven, desiccator with pump, beakers and electronic
balance. 30 000 ppm brine solution is prepared why dissolving
30 grams of sodium chloride, NaCl into 1 liter of distilled water.
Dry (gas saturate) core sample is prepared by drying it in
the oven for 2 days and mass is measured using electric balance
and recorded. Full freshwater and brine saturated is prepared by
saturating the core using glass desiccator which air have been
pumped out for a day. Partially saturated is done by saturating
them for half day. Sw is checked by the calculation using
equation (5) below;
b = (1 )m + [Sww + (1 Sw)g] (5)
3.2 VELOCITY AND RESISTIVITY TEST
The velocity measurement will be conducted by using the
OYO SonicViewer-SX and resistivity will be measured using
SCIP (Sample Core I.P.) tester in the laboratory.
OYO SonicViewer-SX is an instrument which produce
compressional and shear waves velocities readings upon the
measurement of ultrasonic waves travel time through a core
sample. During measurement, the core sample will be placed in
between two transducers as shown in Photo 1. Wax is wiped on
the surface contact of the core with the transducer in order to
provide a good reading. One of the transducer will generate the
ultrasonic wave and the other one will receive the propagated
wave. Average readings of Vp and Vs are calculated and
recorded.
SCIP (Sample Core I.P.) tester is an instrument which
measure the apparent resistivity and time domain induced
polarization (IP) of core sample. During the measurements,
core sample is placed into the core holders as shown in Photo 2
below. The readings are taken when the contact resistance
become stable. Average reading of the resistivity is calculated
and recorded.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 VELOCITY
The mass of the gas filling or dry core sample increase as
being saturated with freshwater and also brine solution. As fluid
replacing the pore spaces, the core sample gain more mass. In
addition, each fluid has their own density. The density of gas is
0.0098 g/cm3, freshwater is 1 g/cm3 and 30 000 ppm brine is
1.02 g/cm3. According to the equation (5), bulk density (b) is
directly proportional to the fluid density (f). Density of
freshwater and brine are greater than gas, causing the higher
bulk density. Meanwhile, brine is denser than freshwater,
causing higher bulk density for it. Increase of fluid saturation
(Sw) also lead to the increase of bulk density (b) as shown in
Fig. 2 below.
Figure 2 Graph of bulk density vs fluid saturation
In this project, the results in Fig. 2 shows that Vp is reduced
significantly for the core sample which in partially saturated
condition and increase as the core sample being fully saturated
(Fig. 3). Moreover, Vp for fully brine saturated core sample is
greater compared to fully freshwater saturated and dry core is
the lowest.
Figure 3 Graph of Vp vs fluid saturation
Besides, different trend occurred to the measurement of Vs.
Vs significantly increase as core sample being saturated by the
brine. However for freshwater saturated, Vs increase in partial
saturated condition and decrease at full saturation. Both Vs for
fully freshwater saturated is still higher than Vs for dry core
(Fig. 4).
Figure 4 Graph of Vs vs fluid saturation
Density of medium and fluid saturation have great impact
on the behavior of the Vp and Vs. The density factor which
influences the changes of Vp and Vs for this project is similarly
discussed by Han, D. H., & Batzle, M. L. (2004).
Based on the velocity equations (1), density () is
inversely proportional to the velocity which means velocity
decrease as density increase. In addition, bulk modulus (K) and
shear modulus () modulus are also considered along with
density As the rock being saturate by freshwater and brine, the
rock become stiffer and greatly lead to the increase of the
compressibility (K increase). Yilmaz . (2015) also explained
that there is slow change of Vp for fluid saturated sample
compared to dry sample. As great change of K is directly
proportional to Vp, it cause the Vp to increase as the density
and K increase. Since density of brine is higher than freshwater,
the Vp of brine saturated core is bigger (Figure 7). is not
supported by gas or liquid and the value is considered zero.
Wang et. al. (1990) also mentioned that Vs have very small
sensitivity toward fluids. Meanwhile, as the is zero,
theoretical value of Vs should decrease as density increase.
However, this project shows that Vs increase from dry to fully
saturated for both freshwater and brine. This happens due to the
low effective stress upon the core sample as the measurement
is taken at normal atmospheric condition. This results is similar
to the experiment conducted by Tao, G., King, M. S., & Nabi-
Bidhendi, M. (1995). They observed that Vs is higher for brine
saturated sandstone compared to dry sandstone at low effective
pressure. Meanwhile, for high effective pressure, the S-wave
velocities for the brine saturated sample are lower than the dry
sample. The sudden increase of Vs for partially freshwater
saturated core sample can be related to some errors. The human
error can be the unparalleled positioning of core sample to the
both transducers and also the wax put to the core is not spread
evenly. In addition, the significant decrease of Vp for partially
fluid saturated core also can be related to the presence of gas in
the rock sample. Ali, T., Din, Z. U., Khalid, P., & Ahmed, N.
(2013) explained that the increase of gas saturation will
decrease the bulk modulus as well as density and Vp. For
partially saturated condition, small amount of gas saturation
able to reduce the Vp.
4.2 RESISTIVITY
The resistivity readings of dry core is much greater compare
to the wet core (Fig. 5).
Figure 5 Graph of resistivity vs fluid saturation
CONCLUSION
Based on this project, the density of fluid which filling the
pore spaces of the Berea Sandstone core sample is greatly affect
the rocks elastic properties such as bulk modulus (K) and shear
modulus (). Bulk density is greater for denser type of fluid
saturated the sandstone. The consequent of the change of these
elastic properties influence the change of velocity of wave. The
velocity of wave especially Vp for the denser, stiff material will
be higher compared to the less dense, less stiff material. Vp is
better in analyzing the fluid type compared to Vs which is less
sensitive to gas and fluid. In reservoir monitoring, the velocity
and density of gas sand will be much lower than oil sand,
freshwater sand will be higher than oil sand and brine sand will
be the highest. In term of seismic amplitude, the highest
negative reflection coefficient will be the changing of denser
rock to gas sand, followed by oil sand, freshwater sand and
brine sand. The resistivity measurement will be highest for the
material that have less electrical conductivity such gas sand,
followed freshwater and the lowest which is brine water.
FURTHER STUDY
This project can be improved by using more type of core
samples from many area in order to observe their velocity and
resistivity response. Furthermore, in order to provide a core
sample which fully saturated with fluid such as brine and fresh
water, longer duration of immersion is preferable. In addition,
mineralogy need to be identify under thin section since Berea
Sandstone is not a clean sandstone. Since there are many
parameters that affect the velocity of wave through the rock,
comparison between two or three sample that having different
value of parameters such as porosity, clay content, density and
also pressure condition is better way to improve the
understanding.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to thank my supervisor, Mr. Luluan Almanna
Lubis for the opportunity given to conduct this project and also
guidance provided throughout my final year project course. My
sincere appreciation also goes to the laboratory technologists
for their help in completing the laboratory works. Lastly,
special thanks to my family and fellow colleague for their moral
support.
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