AASHTO LRFD 2014 Pag 1041-1087

8-10 SECTION 8: WOOD STRUCTURES
AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS, SEVENTH EDITION,

8-9
2014
Table 8.4.1.1.4-1
Table 8.4.1.1.4-1 (continued)Reference
(continued)Reference DesignDesign
Vales Vales for Visually
for Visually GradedGraded
Sawn Sawn
LumberLumber
Species and Size Design Vales (ksi) Gradi
Commercial Classificat Bendi Tensin Shcar Compressio Compression Modulus ng
Grade ion ng parallel parallel n parallel to of
to grain to grain perpendicul grain Elasticity
ar to grain
Fb Ft F F F E
o vo co
i i
CDO i
Mixed Southern Pine
(continued)
Species and Design Vales (ksi)
Commercial Size Bcndi Tensin Shear Parallel Compressio Compressi Modulu Gradi
Grade Classificati ng Parallel to to Grain n on s ng
on Grain Perpendicul Parallel of Rule
Fio F, F F F E0 s
Agen
Southern Pine
8-12 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS, SEVENTH EDITION,
2014SECTION 8: WOOD STRUCTURES
Table 8.4.1.1.4-3Reference
Table 8.4.1.1.4-2ReferenceDesign
Design Vales of Specific
Vales Gravity, G,
for Mechanically Shear,
Graded Fv, Lumber
Dimensin
and Compression Perpendicular to Grain, Fcpm for Mechanically Graded Dimensin
Lumber Design Vales (ksi)
Size Bendi Tensin Compressio Modulus
Classicatio ng Parallel n Parallel of
n to Grain to Grain Elasticity
Commercial
Grade
Fb F, F E Grading Rules Agency
Machine Stress Rated (MSR) Lumber o i
co
8.4.1.2Structural Glued
Laminated Timber
(Glulam) C8.4.1.2.1
8.4.1.2.1General When wet-use adhesives are used,
Structural glued laminated timber the bond between the laminations,
shall be manufacturad using wet-use which is stronger than the wood, will
adhesives and shall comply with the be maintained under all exposure
requirements of ANSI/AITC A190.1- conditions. Dry-use adhesives will
2002. Glued laminated timber may be deterirate under wet conditions. For
manufacturadModulus
fromofany lumber species, bridge applications, it is notpossible to
provided that it meets
Specific
E (ksi) the
ensure
Design Vales (ksi)
requirements
Gravity that all areas ofthe components
Grading Rules Agency
Elasticity Shear
of ANSI/AITC Al 90.1 and is Parallel to Perpendicular will remain dry. ANSI/AITC Al 90.1-
Compression
treatable with wood preservativesGrain in to Grain

accordance with the requirements G of
F F
Article 8.4.3. 1
vo
1
cpo
The contract documents shall
require that each piece of glued
laminated timber be distinctively
marked and provided with a Certifcate
of Conformance by an accredited
inspection and testing agency,
Hem-Fir
Southern Pine
Spruce-Pine-Fir
Spruce-Pine-Fir
(S)
Western Species Southern Pine
Width Sof
ECTION 8: WOOD SNet Finished
TRUCTURES Net Finished 8-13
Laminations Dimensin Dimensin
(in.) Industrial appearance(in.)grade, as (in.) glued laminated timber is
Structural
defined in AITC 110-2001, Standard available in four standard appearance
Appearance Grades for Structural grades: framing,
Glued Laminated Timber, shall be industrial,
used, unless otherwise specified. architectural, and premium.
Architectural and premium grades are
typically planed or sanded, and
exposed irregularities are filled with a
wood filler that may crack and
dislodge under exterior exposure
conditions. Framing grade is surfaced
hit-or-miss to produce a timber with
the same net width as standard lumber
for concealed applications where
matching the width of framing lumber
is important. Framing grade is not
8.4.1.2.2Dimensions typically used for bridge applications.
In addition to the four standard
Dimensions stated for glued appearance grades, certain
laminated timber shall be taken as the manufacturers will use special
actual net dimensions. surfacing techniques to achieve a
In design, structural calculations desired look, such as a rough sawn
shall be based on the actual net look. Individual manufacturers should
dimensions. Net width of structural be contacted for details.
glued laminated timber shall be as
C8.4.1.2.2
Structural glued laminated timber
can be manufactured to virtually any
shape or size. The most efficient and
economical design generally results
when standard sizes are used.
Acceptable manufacturing tolerances
are given in ANSI/AITC A190.1-
2002.
The use of standard sizes
Table 8.4.1.2.2-1Net Dimensions of Glued Laminated Timber
8-14 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS, SEVENTH EDITION, 2014
8.4.1.2.3 Reference Design Vales C8.4.1.2.3

Grade combinations for structural The combinations in Table
glued laminated timber shall be as 8.4.1.2.3-1 are applicable to members
provided in AITC 117-2004, Standard consisting of four or more laminations
Specifications for Structural Glued and are intended primarily for
Laminated Timber oj Softwood members stressed in bending due to
Species, or AITC 119-96, Standard loads applied perpendicular to the wide
Specifications for Structural Glued faces of the laminations. However,
Laminated Timber oj Hardwood design vales are tabulated for loading
Species. both perpendicular and parallel to the
Reference Design Vales for wide faces of the laminations. The
structural glued laminated timber shall combinations and design vales
be as specified in Tables 8.4.1.2.3-1 applicable to members loaded
and 8.4.1.2.3-2:
Table 8.4.1.2.3-1 contains
design vales for timbers with
layups optimized to resist
bending loads applied
perpendicular to the wide face
of the laminations (bending
about the x-x axis). Design
vales are also included,
however, for axial loads and
bending loads applied parallel to
the wide faces of the
laminations. The design vales
in Table 8.4.1.2.3-1 are
applicable to timbers with four
or more laminations.
Table 8.4.1.2.3-2 contains
design vales for timbers with
uniform-grade layups. These
layups are intended primarily for
timbers loaded axially or in
bending due to loads applied
parallel to the wide faces of the
laminations (bending about the
y-y axis). Design vales are also
included, however, for bending
due to loads applied
perpendicular to the wide faces
of the laminations. The design
vales in Table 8.4.1.2.3-2 are
applicable to timbers with two
or more laminations.
In Table 8.4.1.2.3-1, the tabulated
design vales, Fbx, for bending about
the x-x axis (Fbx), require the use o
special tensin laminations. If these
special tensin
The laminations
total are depth
glulambynet omitted,
valu shall
taken be
as multiplied
the product 0.75
of the for shall be
thickness
members greater
of the than or and
laminations equalthetonumber
15 of
in. in depth or by
laminations. 0.85 for members
SECTION 8: WOOD STRUCTURES 8-15
SECTION 8: WOOD STRUCTUKES AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE D ESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE , SEVENTH
DESIGN ESDITION ,
PECIFICATIONS
2014 EDITION, 2014
8.4.1.3 If Tension-Reinforced
combination 24F-V4 contain
Glulams
Table lumber
8.4.1.2.3-1Reference Design
wilh wane, then, inDesign Vales,
Vales, ksi, Structural
addition, ksi, for GluedGlued
for Structural Laminated Softwood
Laminated Timber
Softwood
(Members
8.4.1.3.1 stressed primarily
TimbertheCombinations
design valu in axial
for shear
(Members tensintoprimarily
parallel
stressed andGeneral
compression)
C8.4.1.3.1
in bending)
grain, Fm shall be multiplied by 0.67 if
wane is allowedglulams
Tension-reinforced on both shall
sides. If
wane is limited to
incorprate a continuous reinforcementone side, Fm shall
be multiplied by 0.83.
material placed on the tensin side of a
In Table
flexural member to 8.4.1.2.3-2, for members
increase its flexural
with two or three
bending strength and stifness. laminations, the
shear design
Reinforcement may valu
be anyfor transverse
material that loads
is not aparallel to the wide
conventional lamstockfaceswhose
of the
laminations,
mean longitudinal unit F ,
vy strength exceeds by
shall be reduced
20 ksi for tensin and acompression
multiplying by factor of 0.84 or
0.95, respectively.
mean ultmate strength, and Forwhose
members with
mean tensin and compression modulusin
five, seven, or nine laminations,
addition,
of elasticity Fvy, shall
exceeds 3,000beksi, multiplied
when by
0.4 for members manufactured
placed into a glulam timber. Acceptable from
multiple-piece
reinforcing laminations
materials inelude but are(across
not
restrictedwidth) that are not edgePolymer
to: Fiber-Reinforced bonded. The
shear design valu,
(FRP) plates and bars using E-glass Fyy, shall be
multiplied by 0.5 for
fibers (GFRP) or carbn fibers (CFRP), all other
members manufactured
and metallic plates and bars. from multiple-
piece laminations
The reinforced ratio, p, shall bewith unbonded edge
joints.
determined as the cross-sectional area
of tensin In Table 8.4.1.2.3-2,
reinforcement dividedthe bydesign
valu for shear, Fm shall be decreased
Table 8.4.1.3.1-1Typical
by multiplying by a factor Reinforcement
of 0.72 Ratios
for
nonprismatic members, notched
members, and for all members subject
to impact or cyclic loading. The
reduced design valu shall be used for
design of members at connections that
transfer shear by mechanical fasteners.
The reduced design valu shall also be
used for determination of design
vales for radial tensin and torsin.
In Table 8.4.1.2.3-2, the tabulated
Conibinat Species Bending About X-X Axis (Loaded Bending About Y-Y Axially Loaded
ion
Symbol Outer/ Perpendicular to Wide Faces of Laminations) Axis (Loaded Parallel to Wide
Core Faces of Laminations)
Extreme Fiber in Compression Shear Modul Extrem Compressio Shear Modul Tensi Compressi Mod
Bending Perpendicular to Parallel to us e n Parallel to us n on Parallel us
Grain Grain of Fiber Perpendicul Grain of Paralle to Grain of
Tensin Compress Tensi Compressi (Horizontal Elastici in ar to Grain (Horizontal) Elastici l to Elas
Zone ion n on ) ty Bendin ty Grain ty
Stressed Zone Face Face g
in Stressed
Tensi in
n
F
Tensin
F x
+ b Fbxo A
cpo
Identificati Specie Gra All Loading Axially Loaded Bending about Y-Y Axis Loaded Bendi
on s de
Modul Compressio Tensin Compression Parallel to Wide Faces of Laminations X
Number us n Parallel to Parallel to
of Perpendicul Grain Grain Bending Shear Bendin
Elastici ar to Grain Parallel to
ty F 2 or More 4 or 2 or 4 or 3 2 F 2 Lami
A
E cpo Lami- More 3 More Lami Lami vyo nations to
___(o!)__ nations Lami Latni Lami- nations natio in. Dee
F.o - - nation f byo ns Fbxo
natio natio s
Fbyo
f byo
ns ns F
1
Visually Graded Western Species F cpo
Reinforcement Material
E- Ara Car Ste
Glas mid bn el
SECTIONAASHTO
8: WOODLRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS, SEVENTH EDITION, 2014
STRUCTURES
thickness
given of the
in Article tensin
8.4.4.3 andreinforcement
shall be accounted for when developing axial
usedlamination(s).
in the same The grossas section
manner compression design
properties glulam
conventional shall bedesign
calculatedvales using the vales. Bending properties about the
net depth
except and thein net
as specified width.
Article 8.4.I.3. y-y axis may be
These design vales shall be used with conservatively
8.4.1.3.3 TheC8.4.1.3.3 taken asofthose
determination of the
reinforcement
the overall grossFatigue
section properties of wood-portion
ratio, p, is analogous of the to that used for
beam,
reinforcedThe research
neglecting
concrete. thethat was performed
reinforcement.
Except as noted herein, tensin utilized
Analysis confnement
has shown
The scope of ASTM D7199 achieved
that with the by end-
reinforcement shall extend the MI bearing
level of FRP support.
extreme Confnement proposed
length of the beam or girder and be pertains bytensin
fiber
in bending.
to the analysis of FRP-glulams
altemative methodsofmay
reinforcement
The addition FRPrequire
typically
confined by the supports. Ml-scale(up
envisioned
reinforcement testing.
intothe tensin regin of
For E-glass FRP reinforcement three
the Underdoes
percent
glulam the
GFRP specified
not or one
require conditions,
percent
new test
produced using the pultrusion process, CFRP), or testing
analyticalthehas shown that
mximum
methods to the fatigue
determine the
beams which satisfy the requirements resistance
secondary of tension-reinforced
design properties (shear, glulam
for Laminated
design for static loads Design
specified Vales for Tension-Reinforced Structural
Glued beams
compression
1 is similar to that to
perpendicular of grain,
herein may beDouglas Fir Combinations
considered to have (ksi)
conventional glulam beams. These tests
adequate fatigue design capacity. For tensin have
parallel to grain, compression
included both fatigue and
reinforcements other than pultruded E- parallel are
to grain, etc.). These properties
hygrothermal
determined cyclic
for glulamtestslayups
(Davids et
glass reinforcements, coupon level al., 2005
following ASTM and 2008).
D3737.
fatigue testing of the reinforcing For pultruded E-glass
Tension-reinforced glulamFRP beams
material per ASTM D3479 or a reinforcement,
subject to axial Ml-scale
compression tension-
loads are
similar procedure shall be required to outside reinforced
the glulam
scope of beam
this flexural fatigue
Specification.
develop the strength-load cycle Thistests, where thedoes
Specification reinforcement
not cover extends
relationship for the reinforcing unbonded reinforcement beam,
the Ml-length of the have
(i.e. material
material. A mnimum of three shown that the reinforced beams
representative FRP samples shall be not continuously bonded to the beam),
properly reinforcement
prestressed designed for static loads will
(i.e. material
tested to establish the strength-load have fatigue
pretensioned design
before beingcapacity
bonded in or
excess
cycle relationship. This strength-load anchored of two tomillion the constant-amplitude
beam), or shear
cycle relationship shall be the basis forreinforcement sinusoidal cycles. Each ofintended
(i.e. material these cycles
to
checking fatigue capacity of the FRP increase applied the an extreme
shear fiber
strength stress
of the range
under specific end- use environment. beam). starting ffom the dead load bending
Full-scale fatigue testing shall be stress to a bending stress equivalent to
required where partial-length the MI allowable design stress. Under
reinforcement is used to evalate the these
ASTMconditions,
D7199 also no provides
degradation a in
effectiveness ofreinforcementend- bending strength
mechanics-based or stiffhess
approach for has been
confinementdetail. The reinforcement predicting observed. the mechanical properties of
Tension-reinforced
termination glued laminated
for partial-length FRP Full-scale fatigue
tension-reinforced glulams, testing
and hasmaybeen be
timber shall be manufactured
reinforcement shall be confined using over
wet- used performed
by on FRP-
engineers who reinforced
have glulam
use the
adhesives
length atin least
accordance
equal to withthe width applicatons
beams, considering
with unique both Ml-length and
reinforcement
applicable
of the provisions of
reinforcing ANSI/AITC
material. Unconfined, partial-length
requirements. ASTM reinforced
D7199 glulams.
addresses These
Combin
190.1, Species
and shall comply with the Bending about x-x Axis
tests were conducted for tension-
ationrequirements
(Outer/C listedExtreme
in Article 8.4.1.2, Compression
Fiber reinforced beams Shewhere Modulu
the allowable
except as described in detail
in Bending in ASTM Perpendicular to ar s toof 75
Symbol ore) design stresses were up Elasti percent
D7199. The additional Tensirequirements
Compres TensiGrain Compres
greater than the F
i conventional
cited in ASTM D7199 n to sion
be n sion
unreinforced glulam.
vxo This testing has
investigated shall ineludeZone bond Zone strength F shown F that prematuro failure due to
8.4.1.3.2 Dimensions Stresse Stressed i
cpo fatigue

cpo in FRP-glulams is not a
d in in concern if (1) the FRP reinforcement
Dimensions stated Tensi Tensin
for tension- has been fatigue-tested at the coupon
reinforced glued laminated n timber
Fbxo~ shall
level and (2) the FRP tensin
be taken as the actual Reference
8.4.1.3.4 net dimensions. Design reinforcement runs for the MI length
In design,
Vales for structural calculations
Tension- Reinforced of the glulam over the supports. For
shall beGlulams
based on the actual net
dimensions. Net width of tension- Axial compression is outside the
reinforcedReference design
structural gluedvales
laminatedfor scope of this Specification. For
tension-reinforced
timber glulams
shall be as specified in shall
Tablebe tensin- reinforced glulam subjected to
taken as or
8.4.1.2.2-1 specified in Table 8.4.1.3.4-1
other dimensions as axial compression, ASTM D3737
for beams
agreed upon bywith no and
buyer bumper-lams.
seller. TheFor provides a method to account for the
totalthe beam lay-ups
reinforced glulamgiven in Table
net depth shall Neutral Axis (NA) change in
Species
Pacific Coast Douglas-Fir
1 model that predicts the volume factor
Red Oak 3
2 for reinforced glulams for any layup
Red Pine and type of reinforcement is available
4 (Lindyberg, 2000).
Southern Pine 8.4.1.3.6Preservative Treatment
C8.4.1.3.6
Designers shall specify that the
effect of preservative treatment on the CCA preservative has been shown
properties of the FRP reinforcement to cause severe cracking in the E-glass
and on the strength and durability of
the FRP-wood bond shall be evaluated
as described in ASTM D7199.
Preservative treatment shall be applied
after bonding of the reinforcement.
GFRP reinforced beams shall not be C8.4.1.4
post- treated with CCA preservatives.
8.4.1.4Piles The reference design vales for
wood piles are based on wet-use
Wood piles shall comply with the conditions.
requirements of AASHTO M 168.
Reference design vales for round
wood piles shall be as specified in
Species other than Douglas Fir may be used if evaluated in accordance with ASTM D7199.
8.4.1.3.5Volume Effect C8.4.1.3.5
Volume factors for the tension- The addition of tensin
reinforced glulams listed in Table reinforcement diminishes the
8.4.1.3.4-1 shall be taken equal to one volume effect in glulams, and with
except where the unreinforced enough reinforcement
compression zone is stressed in in tensin, the volume effect
tensin. In this latter case, the volume disappears (Lindyberg, 2000).
factor used in conventional glulams The tensin reinforcement that is
shall apply for the dtermination of necessary to
elimnate the volume effect vares with
the wood species
and grade, as well as the type of
reinforcement
used (e.g. E-glass, carbn, or Aramid
FRP). For example,
western species glulam reinforced with
E-glass FRP in
tensin, approximately 1.53
2014
8.4.2.2.2 Prestressing Bars
Prestressing bars shall comply with
the requirements of AASHTO M
275M/M 275 (ASTM A722/A722M)
and the applicable provisions of
Section 5.
8.4.2.2.3 Split Ring Connectors
Split ring connectors shall be
manufactured from hot-rolled carbn
Steel complying with the requirements
o Society of Automotive Engineers
Specification SAE-1010. Each circular
ring shall be cut through in one place
in its circumference to form a tongue
and slot.
8.4.2.2.4 Shear Pate Connectors
Shear pate connectors shall be
manufactured from pressed Steel, light
gage Steel, or malleable iron. Pressed
Steel connectors shall be manufactured
from hot-rolled carbn Steel meeting
Society of Automotive Engineers
Specification SAE-1010. Malleable
iron connectors shall be manufactured
in accordance with ASTM
For connection A47,use
design, Grade
Douglas Fir-Larch reference design vales.
32510.
Each shear pate shall be a circle apply to Northern and Southern Red Oak.
Red Oak reference strengths
2
Red Pine
with 4a flange
2
reference
aroundstrengths
the edge, apply to Red Pine grown in the U.S. For connection design,
Southern Pine reference
extending at right angles to the strengths
pate apply to Loblolly, Longleaf, Shortleaf, and Slash
Pine.
face from one face only.
8.4.2.2.5
8.4.2 Nails MetalandFasteners
Spikes and Hardware
8.4.2.1
Nails and spikesGeneral
shall be manufactured
from common Steel wire including
Structural metal, or high- shapes,
carbon Steel wire that is heat-treated
plates, bars, and welded assemblies,
and tempered.
shall comply Whenwithused
the in
applicable
withdrawal-type
material connections,
requirements of the shank6.
Section
of the nail or spike shall be annularly
or8.4.2.2
helically threaded.
Mnimum Requirements
8.4.2.2.6
8.4.2.2.1 Drift Pins and Bolts
Fasteners
DriftBolts
pins and
and lagdriftscrews
bolts shall
shall have
comply
a mnimum
with theflexural
dimensionalyield strength of
and material
30.0 quality
ksi. requirements of ANSI/ASME
B18.2.1, Square and Hex Bolts and
ScrewsInch
8.4.2.2.7 Spike Grids Series. Strengths for
low-carbon Steel bolts,
Gradegrids
Spike 1 through Grade 8,toshall
shall conform the be as specified in
YieldSociety of Automotive Engineers Specification SAE-429,
Point...............................
Mechanical
Ultmate and Material Requirements
Strength.....................
for Externally Threaded Fasteners. Bolt
Elongation in 2.0 in.................
SECTION 8: WOOD STRUCTURES
8.4.2.3 Corrosin Protecton
8.4.2.3.1 Metallic Coating C8.4.2.3.1
Except as permitted by this Galvanized nuts should be retapped
Section, all Steel hardware to allow for the increased diameter of
for wood components shall be the bolt due to galvanizing.
galvanized in accordance Protection for the high-strength bars
with AASHTO M 232M/M 232 used in stress-laminated decks should
(ASTM Al 53/A153M) or be clearly specified. Standard hot-dip
cadmium plated in accordance with galvanizing can adversely affect the
AASHTO M 299 properties of high-strength post-
(ASTM B696). tensioning materials. A lower
Except as otherwise permitted, all temperature galvanizing is possible
Steel components,
timber connectors, and castings other
than malleable iron
shall be galvanized in accordance with
AASHTO
M 111M/M 111 (ASTM
A123/A123M).
8.4.2.3.2 Altemative Coating
Altemative corrosin protection
coatings may be
used when the demonstrated
performance of the coating
is sufficient to provide adequate
protection for the
intended exposure condition during the
design life of
the bridge. When epoxy coatings are
used, mnimum
coating requirements shall comply
with AASHTO
M 284M/M 284.
Heat-treated alloy components and
fastenings shall
be protected by an approved
altemative protective
treatment that does not adversely affect
the mechanical
properties of the material.
8.4.3Preservative Treatment C8.4.3.2
8.4.3.1 Requirement for Treatment The oil-bome preservative
treatments have proven to provide
All wood used for permanent adequate protection against wood
applications shall be attacking organisms. In addition, the
pressure impregnated with wood oil provides a water repellant coating
preservative in that reduces surface effects caused by
accordance with the requirements of cyclic moisture conditions. Water-bome
AASHTO M 133. preservative treatments do not provide
the water repellency of the oil-bome
treatment, and components frequently
split and check, leading to poor field
performance and reduced Service life.
2014
Treating of glued laminated timbers
with water-borne preservatives after
gluing is not recommended. Use of
water-borne treatments for glued
laminated timber after gluing may
result in excessive warping, checking,
8.4.3.3 Inspection and Marking
Preservative treated wood shall be
tested and
inspected in accordance with the
requirements of
AASHTO M 133. Where size permits,
each piece of
treated wood that meets treatment
requirements shall be
legibly stamped, branded, or tagged to
indicate the ame of
the treater and the specification symbol C8.4.3.4
or specifcation
requirements to which the treatment Use of fire retardant treatments is
conforms. not recommended because the large
When requested, a certification sizes of timber components
indicating test results and typicallyused in bridge construction
the identification of the inspection have inherent fire resistance
agency shall be provided. characteristics. The pressure
impregnation of wood products with
fire retardant Chemicals is known to
cause certain resistance and stifhess
losses in the wood. These resistance
and stifhess losses vary wifti specific
8.4.4 Adjustment Factors for
Reference Design Vales
8.4.4.1General
Adjusted design vales shall be
obtained by adjusting reference design
vales by applicable adjustment factors
in accordance with the following
reference design vales Fh, Fva,

Flo, Fco, or Fcpo
specified in Article 8.4 (ksi)
adjusted modulus of elasticity (ksi)
reference modulus of elasticity
specified in
Article 8.4. (ksi)
format conversin factor
specified in
Article 8.4.4.2
wet service factor specified in Article 8.4.4.3
size factor for visually-graded
dimensin lumber
and sawn timbers specified in
Article 8.4.4.4
volume factor for structural
glued laminated
timber specified in Article
8.4.4.5
flat-use factor specified in Article 8.4.4.
incising factor specified
8.4.4.2Format in Article 8.4.4.7
Conversin C8.4.4.2
Factor, CKF The conversin factors were
The reference design vales in derived so that LRFD design will
Tables 8.4.1.1.4-1, result in same size member as the
8.4.1.1.4- 2, 8.4.1.1.4-3, allowable stress design (ASD) specified
8.4.1.2.3-1, 8.4.1.2.3- in ADS. For example, a rectangular
2,
8.4.1.3.4-1, and 8.4.1.4-1 and reference
design vales specified in the ADS
shall be multiplied by a format or:
conversin factor, CKF, for use with
load and resistance factor design
where:
MDL = moment due to dead load
MIL = moment due to live load
Altematively, the allowable stress
design (ASD) has to satisfy:
Fbo F Fu, Feo F E0
vo cpo SPECIFICATIONS
A
0.80 0.875 0.80 0.73BRIDGE DESIGN
AASHTO LRFD 0.53 0.833 , SEVENTH EDITION, 2014
Therefore:
Nominal
Thick
<4 in.
>4.0 in.
The format conversin factor is

calculated assuming the ratio of MDL
and Mu is 1:10, <|> = 0.85, Q. = 0.8,
and CD= 1.15.
8.4.4.3 Wet Service Factor, CM C8.4.4.3
The reference design vales An analysis of in-service moisture
specified in content should be based on regional,
Tables 8.4.1.1.4-1, 8.4.1.1.4-2, geographic, and climatological
8.4.1.1.4-3, 8.4.1.2.3-1, conditions. In the absence of such
8.4.1.2.3- 2, 8.4.1.3.4-1, and analysis, wet-use conditions should be
8.4.1.4-1 are for dry use
conditions and shall be adjusted for
moisture content
using the wet Service factor, CM,
specified below:
For sawn lumber with an in-
service moisture
content of 19 percent or less,
CM shall be taken
as 1.0.
For glued laminated and tension-
reinforced glued
laminated (reinforced and
unreinforced) timber Reduction for wet-use is not
with an in-service moisture required for Southern Pine and Mixed
content of 16 percent Southern Pine sawn timbers 5 in. x 5
or less, CM shall be taken as in. and larger.
1.0.
Table 8.4.4.3-1Wet Service Factor
for Sawn Lumber, CM
Table 8.4.4.3-2Wet Service Factor for Glued Laminated Timber and Tension-Reinforced Glued
Laminated Timber, CM
8.4.4.4Size Factor, CF, for Sawn Lumber C8.4.4.4

The size factor, CF, shall be 1.0 CF does not apply to mechanically-
unless specified otherwise hcrcin. For graded lumber (MSR, MEL) or to
visually-graded dimensin lumber of structural glued laminated timber.
all species except Southern Pine and Tabulated design vales for
Mixed Southern Pine, CF shall be as visually-graded lumber of Southern
AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS, SEVENTH EDITION, 2014
Reference
Reference design
design vales
vales for
for Southern
flexure byPine and Mixed have already been
adjusted
of 8.4.4.5Volume
vertically for size. Further adjustment
Southern
applied Pinelaminated
parallel dimensin
to wide
glulam
Factor,
lumber
faces
C(loads
, (Glulam)
ofv have been size-adjusted; the size factor is not
permitted.
laminations) shall be multiplied by the
no
flat further
Foruse adjustment
horizontally
factors forinsize
laminated
specified shall
glulam,
Table be applied.
with For
8.4.4.6-2 Southern
loads applied
when Pine
the and Mixed
perpendicular
member to
dimensinthe
Southern
wide face Pine
of thedimensin lumber
laminations, Fbo shall
wider
beTable
than
reduced8.4.4.6-2Flat-Use
12.0 in., Cv, tabulated
by the Factor,
given below,bending,
whenCfu,
compression,
the
for depth, and tensin parallel
Glulamwidth, or length of a glued to
laminated timber exceeds
Table 8.4.4.4-1Size 12.0
Effect in., CF, for Sawn Dimensin Lumber
Factor,
where: Thickness (in.)

2 and 3 4
d = depth of the component (in.)
b = width of Incising
8.4.4.7 the component
Factor, (in.)
C For
layups with mltiple piece
laminations
Reference (across
design vales width) b
the for
dimensin= width lumberofwidest
shall piece.
be multiplied
by theTherefore:
incising factor b < 10.75
specifiedin. in
Table 8.4.4.7-1 when members are
Lincised
= length of thetograin
parallel componenta mximum
depth measured
of 0.4 in.,between
a mximum pointslength
of of
in.,contraflexure (ft)
3
/g For and
sawn
2 a density
beamsfactorsof incisions
and stringers up to
with
1100/ft
aloads
= 0.05 .
appliedIncising shall be
determined
posts and
species. bytoSouthern
for
timbers
theornarrow
test with
Pine
byloads face
and and
calculation0.10 for all other
applied
Table
to either8.4.4.7-1Incising
face, Fho shall be Factor adjustedforby
Dimensin
The volume Lumberfactor, CV, shall not
be applied simultaneously with the
beam stability factor, CL, therefore, the
lesser of these factors shall apply.
The conventional glulam volume
factor shall not be applied to tension-
reinforced glulams
8.4.4.8 Deck except
Factor, whenCd C8.4.4.8
unreinforced compression zone is
stressedUnless specified
in tensin otherwise
(see Article in this Mechanically laminated decks made
Member dimensin
Article, the deck CtU C, shall be
factor,Factor, Cfu of stressed
C8.4.4.6 wood, spike laminated, or
to8.4.4.6Flat-Use
parallelwhere:
equal wide
to 1.0.faces nail-laminated solid sawn lumber
of laminations
When (in.) wood,
For stressed
dimensin lumbernail-laminated,
graded8.3-1
as exhibit
Design anvales
increased resistance
for flexure of in
dand= netwidth
spike- as shown
laminated
S tructural Ligh Framing or Structural in
decks Figure
constructed bending.
dimensin The
lumberresistance
adjustedofby the size
of For
Joists solid
and sawn
beamsPlanks lumber
and is used2.0 in. to
flatwise
stringers by with 4.0 in.
(load factor,
loads (load C ,
mechanically are laminated
based on solid sawn
edgewise use
F
F
thick,
applied to may
the be
wide adjusted
face),
applied to the wide face, Fbo shall be
ho the Qas
bending lumber decks
applied to is
thecalculated
narrow by
face).
reference
adjusted design
by CF asvalu shall
specified be Table
in multiplying
When dimensin Fbo in Tableis8.4.1.1.4-1
lumber used by
Table
multiplied 8.4.4.8-1Deck
by theand Factor
fatLaminated
use factor for the deck
flatwise factor.
(load applied to the wide
8.4.4.4-2.
Stressed Wood face), the bending reference design
specified
Decks in Table 8.4.4.6-1. The flat-
Table 8.4.4.6-1Flat-Use
Table 8.4.4.4-2Size Factor, Factor,CF, for valu
fat use
should also be multiplied by the
factor specified in Table
Beams
Cy,, and Stringers with Loads
for Dimensin
Applied to the WideLumber Face 8.4.4.6-1.
Design Valu Q Design vales for dimensin
Deck Type Lumber

Stressed Select 1.30
Wood Structural
Spike- No. 1All
or 1.50
1.15
Laminated or
Nail-
Limit State
Strength I
Strength II AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS, SEVENTH EDITION, 2014
Strength III
Strength IV For planks 4x6 in., 4x8 in., 4 x The specified deck factors for
10 in.
Extreme Event I and 4 x 12 in., used in plank planks in plank decks are based test
decks with the load applied to the results comparing the modulus of
wide face of planks, Fbo may be rupture (MOR) for plank specimens
adjusted by Q as specified in Table with load applied in narrow face and
wide face (Stankiewicz andNowak,
Table 8.4.4.8-2Deck Factor for Plank Decks
1997). These deck factors can be
The deck factors for planks in

plank decks shall not be applied
cumulatively with the fat use factor,
Cju, specified in Article 8.4.4.6.
8.4.4.9 Time Effect Factor, C-K
The time effect factor, C\ shall be
chosen to correspond to the
appropriate strength limit state as
specified in Table 8.4.4.9-1.
Table 8.4.4.9-1Time Effect Factor
8.5.2.2 Resistance Factors C8.5.2.2

Resistance factors, (|), shall be In the case of timber pile
as given below: foundations, the resistance factor may
Flexure......................................... be raised to 1.0 when, in the judgment
Shear............................................ of the Engineer, a sufficient number of
Compression Parallel to Grain... piles is used in a foundation element
Compression Perpendicular to to consider it to be highly redundant.
Grain............................................ This is indicated to be a judgment
Tensin Parallel to Grain........... issue because there are no generally
accepted quantitative guidelines at this
Resistance During Pile Driving. writing.
Connections................................. For timber piles, the resistance
factor to be applied when determining
8.5.2.3 Stability
The structure as a whole or its
components shall be proportioned to
resist sliding, overtuming, uplift, and
buckling.
8.5.3 Extreme Event Limit State
C8.4.4.9
For extreme event limit state, the
NDS and AITC 117-2004

resistance factor shall be taken as 1.0.
reference design vales (based on 10-
8.6COMPONENTS IN FLEXURE yr loading) multiplied by the format
conversin factors specified in Article
8.6.1General 8.4.4.2, transform allowable stress
vales to strength level stress vales
based
The factored resistance, Mn shall be taken as: on 10-min. loading. It is
assumed that a cumulative duration of
bridge live load is two months and the
corresponding time effect factor for
where: Strength I is 0.8. A cumulative
duration of live load in Strength II is
M = nominal resistance specified shorter and the corresponding time
herein (kip-in.)
8.5 LIMIT STATES
(|) = resistance
8.5.1 Service factor specified in
Limit State C8.6.2
Article 8.5.2
The provisions of Article 2.5.2.6.2 shouldbeIfconsidered.
lateral support is provided to
prevent rotation at the points of
8.6.2Rectangular
8.5.2 Strength LimitSection
State bearing, but no other lateral support is
provided throughout the bending
8.5.2.1 General component length, the unsupported
in which:
Factored resistance shall be the length, Lu, is the distance between
product of nominal resistance such points of intermediate lateral
determined in accordance with Article support. The volume factor for the tension-
8.6, 8.7, 8.8, and 8.9 and the
resistance factor as specified in Article 8.4.1.3.4-1glulams
reinforced
is equal
listed in Table
to one; therefore,
8.5.2.2.
8.6.3Circular Section
The nominal resistance, M, of a
circular component in flexure shall be
taken as:
8.7 COMPONENTS UNDER C8.7

SHEAR
where: The critical section is between one
Shear shall be investigated at a and three depths from the support.
distance0.76
away forfrom
visually graded
the face lumber
of support The critical shear in flexural
equal to0.98
the for
depthMEL of the component.
lumber components is horizontal shear acting
When calculating the mximum design parallel to the grain of the component.
shear, the
1.06live
forload
MSR shall be placed so
lumber The resistance of bending components
as to produce the mximum shear at a in shear perpendicular to grain need
distance1.10
fromfortheglulam
supportandequal
tension-reinforced
to the glulam
not be investigated.
lesser of either three
adjusted designtimes
valuthein depth,
flexure Note that Eq. 4.6.2.2.2a-l requires
d, of the component
specified in or one-quarter of a special distribution factor in the
L. 8.4.4 (ksi)
the spanArticle
The factored shear resistance, Vr, of
adjusted modulus of elasticity
in which:specified in
Article 8.4.4 (ksi)
beam stability factor for both
conventional
glulam and tension-reinforced
where: glulam
net depth specified in Article
4> = resistance
8.4.1.1.1factor
(in.) specified in Article 8.5.2
Fv = adjusted design
net width, valu of in
as specified wood in 8.4.1.1.1 (in.)
Article
shear, specified in Article 8.4.1
effective
(ksi)
Where unbraced
the depth of a length
flexural(in.)
component does not exceed its width,
8.8 COMPONENTS
or where lateral movement IN COMPRESSION
of the
compression
8.8.1 General zone is prevented by
continuous support and where points of
The factored
bearing have lateralresistance
supportinto prevent
compression, Pr, shallfactor,
rotation, the stability be taken CL as:
= 1.0.
For other conditions, the beam stability
factor shall be determined in
accordance with the provisions specified
herein.
where:
The beam stability factor shall not
be applied
P = nominal simultaneous
resistance as with the
specified in
volumeArticle
factor 8.8.2
for structural glued
and 8.8.3 (kips)
laminated timber, therefore, the lesser
of these
<|) factors factor
= resistance shall apply.
specified in
C8.8.2
Article 8.5.2
The coefficient of variation of the
8.8.2 Compression Parallel to Grain bending Modulus of Rupture (MOR) of
where:
Where components are not tension-reinforced glulams has been
adequately braced, the nominal stress shown through extensive testing to be
distance between
shall be modified by the column point of lateral less than or equal to that of
stabilityand Cp. If the component is conventional unreinforced glulams.
rotational
factor,
support
adequately (in.) Cp shall be taken as Therefore, it is conservative to use KcE
braced,
net depth specified in Article 8.4.1.1.1 (in.)
When the bearing area is in a
location of high flexural stress or is
closer than 3.0 in. from the end of the
in which: Cb shall be taken as 1.0.
component,
In all other cases, Cb shall be as
Table 8.8.3-1Adjustment Factors for
Bearing
0.8 for sawn lumber

0.85 for round timber piles
0.9 for glulam
0.52 for visually graded lumber
0.67 for MEL lumber
0.73 for MSR lumber
0.76 for glulam, tension-
reinforced glulam, and
round piles
adjusted design valu in
compression parallel to
the grain specified in Article
8.4.4 (ksi)
effective length taken as KL (in.)
8.8.3Compression Perpendicular
gross cross-sectonal area of thetocomponent
Grain 2
(in. )
The nominal resistance, Pm of a
component in compression
perpendicular to the grain shall be
taken as:
where:
adjusted design valu in
compression
perpendicular to grain, as specified
in
Article 8.4.4
(ksi)
bearing
2 area
(in. )
factored flexural moment (kip-in.)
factored flexural resistance adjusted by all

applicable adjustment factors except Cr
8.10.2 Components in
Combined Flexure and
Compression Parallel to Grain
8.9 COMPONENTS
Components subjectedINtoTENSION
flexure
PARALLEL TOGRAIN
and compression parallel to grain shall
The factored resistance, Pr, of a component in tensin shall be taken as:
in which:
where:
factored compression load (kips)
where:
factored compressive resistance
adjusted as
calculated design valu of wood
in tensin
specified in Article 8.8 (kips)
specifed in Article 8.4.4 (ksi)
factored
smallestflexural moment (kip-in.)
net cross-sectional area
of the
factored flexural 2resistance
component
calculated as (in. )
specified in Article
resistance
8.10COMPONENTS 8.6
IN(kip-in.)
factor specifed in Article 8.5.2
COMBINED FLEXURE
Euler buckling stress AND AXIAL
as defined in Eq. 8.8.2-4
LOADING
gross cross-sectional
8.10.1Components in area
Combined C8.10.1
8.11BRACING REQUIREMENTS
Flexure and Tensin
8.11.1 Generalsubjected to flexure C8.11.1
Components Satisfying Eq. 8.10.1-1 ensures that
and tensin shall satisfy: stress interaction
In detailing of theon the tensin face
diaphragms, the of
Where bracing is required, it shall the bending
potential member and
for shrinkage doesexpansin
not cause
prevent both lateral and rotational of beam
the beam and M
rupture. r in
the this formula
diaphragm does
should
deformation. benot inelude modification
considered. Rigidly connectedby the Steel
beam
stability
angle framing mayCLcause
factor, . splitting of
the Eq. 8.10.1-2
beam and is applied
diaphragm as to wood
the ensure
and that thetobending/tension
attempts swell and shrink member does
under the
effects of cyclic moisture.
8.11.2 Sawn Wood Beams C8.11.2
Beams shall be transversely braced The effectiveness of the transverse
to prevent lateral displacement and bracing directly affects the long-term
where: of the beams and to transmit
rotation durability of the System. The bracing
lateral forces to the bearings. facilitates erection, improves load
Transversefactored
bracingtensile
shall load (kips)
be provided distribution, and reduces relative
at the supports for all span lengths and movements of the stringers and girders,
factoredlocations
at intermedate tensile resistance
for spans thereby reducing deck deformations.
longer than 20.0 ft.asThe spacing of
calculated Excessive deformation can lead to
specifed
intermedate in shall
bracing Articlebe8.9 (kips)
based on mechanical deterioration of the system.
lateral stability and load transfer Bracing should be accurately
requirements but shall not exceed 25.0 framed to provide full bearing against
SECTION 8: WOOD STRUCTURES
2014
8.14Transverse
REFERENCES bracing should consist
of solid wood blocking or fabricated
AF&PA. 2005.Wood
Steel shapes. National Design
blocking Specification
shall be (.NDS) for Wood Construction.
American
bolted to Forest
stringersandwith
Paper Association,
steel angles or Washington, DC.
suspended in Steel saddles that are
AITC. to the Standard
nailed 1996. blocks and Specifications
stringer sides.for Strucural Glued Laminated Timber of
Hardwood Species, AITC 119-96.
Blocking shall be positively connected American Institute of Timber Construction,
Centennial,
to the beams.CO. C8.11.3
AITC.Transverse
2001. bracing Appearance
Standard at supports Grades
may for Strucural Glued Laminated
be placed within a distance from the Bracing should be placed tight
Timber, AITC 110-2001. American
center of bearing equal to the stringer Institute of
against Timber Construction,
the girders Centennial,
and perpendicular
CO.
or girder depth. to the longitudinal girder axis.
AITC. 2002. Glued
8.11.3 Strucural Glued Laminated
Laminated Timber Timber, ANSI/AITC A190.1. American
Institute of Timber Construction, Centennial, CO.
Girders
AITC. 2004. Standard Specifications for Strucural C8.11.4 Glued Laminated Timber of
Transverse
Softwood Species,bracing
AITCshould consistAmerican
117-2004. Institute of Timber Construction,
of fabricated
Centennial, CO. Steel shapes or solid
wood diaphragms. Bracing is used to provide
Davids,
Girders
W. G.,
shallM.beRichie,
attachedandtoC. Gamache. resistance
2005.plumb to lateralofforces,
Fatigue Glulam toBeams
hold the
supports
with with steel shoes
Fiber-Reinforced or angles
Polymer Tensin trusses
thatReinforcing, and
Forest true,
Productsand to hold
Journal.
are bolted
Forest through
Products the girder
Society, Madison,and WI, compression
into Vol. 55, No. 1. elements in line.
or through the support.
Davids, W. G, E. Nagy, and M. Richie. 2008. Fatigue Behavior of Composite-
8.11.4 Bracing
Reinforced Glulam of Trusses
Bridge Girders, Journal of Bridge Engineering. American
Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA, March/April 2008.
Wood trusses shall be provided
ICC-ES. Acceptance
2005.system
with a rigid Criteria
of lateral for Fiber-Reinforced-Polymer Glue-
bracing
Laminated
in the plaeTimber
of theUsing
loadedMechanics
chord. Based Models, AC280. ICC Evaluation
Lateral Inc.,
Service, bracing in the CA.
Whittier, plae of the
unloaded chord and rigid portal and C8.12.1
Lindyberg,
sway bracing R. L. 2000.
shall ReLAM: inA all
be provided Nonlinear Probablistic Modelfor theAnalysis
ofReinforced
trusses having Glulam Beams
sufficient in Bending, Document
headroom. ID CIE2000-001.
The initial camber offsets the
Dissertation. University of
Outrigger bracing connected to Maine, Orono, ME.
effects of dead load deflection and
extensions of the floorbeams shall be long-term creep deflection.
Nowak,
used forA.bracing
S. 1997. Load Distribution
through-trusses havingfor PlankDecks, UMCEE 97-11. Report
submitted to headroom
insufficient U.S. Forest forService, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington,
a top chord
DC, April 1997.
lateral bracing system. C8.12.2
Nowak,CAMBER
8.12 A. S. 1999. Calibration ofLRFD Bridge
REQUIREMENTS Designshould
Camber Code,beNCHRP Report
determined by
368. Transportation Research Board, National Researchboth
considering Council,
elasticWashington,
deformations
DC.
8.12.1 Glued Laminated Timber due to applied loads and inelastic
Girders deformations such as those caused by
Nowak, A. S., C. Earnon, M. A. Ritter, andjoint J. Murphy. creep LRFD
slippage,2001. of the timber
Calibrationfor WoodBridges, UMCEE
Glued laminated timber girders shall 01-01. Report
components, submitted
or to
shrinkage U.S.
dueForest
to
Service, U.S. Department of
be cambered a mnimum of two times Agriculture, Washington, DC, April 2001.
the deadA.load
Nowak, S., deflection at the Service
P. R. Stankiewicz, and M. A. Ritter. 1999. Bending Tests of
limit State.
Bridge Deck Planks. Construction and Building Materials Journal, Vol. 13, No.
8.12.2 Trusses
Trusses shall be cambered to
sufficiently offset the deflection due to
dead load, shrinkage, and creep.
8.12.3 Stress Laminated Timber

SECTION 9: DECKS AND DECK SYSTEMS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
9.1 SCOPE....................................................................................................9-1
9.2 DEFINITIONS..........................................................................................9-1
9.3 NOTATION..............................................................................................9-4
9.4 GENERAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS........................................................9-4
9.4.1 Interface Action..............................................................................9-4
9.4.2 Deck Drainage................................................................................9-5
9.4.3 Concrete Appurtenances................................................................9-5
9.4.4 Edge Supports................................................................................9-5
9.4.5 Stay-in-Place Formwork for Overhangs...........................................9-5
9.5 LIMIT STATES..........................................................................................9-5
9.5.1 General...........................................................................................9-5
9.5.2 Service Limit States........................................................................9-5
9.5.3 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State..........................................................9-6
9.5.4 Strength Limit States......................................................................9-6
9.5.5 Extreme Event Limit States............................................................9-6
9.6 ANALYSIS...............................................................................................9-6
9.6.1 Methods of Analysis........................................................................9-6
9.6.2 Loading...........................................................................................9-7
9.7 CONCRETE DECK SLABS........................................................................9-7
9.7.1 General...........................................................................................9-7
9.7.1.1 Minimum Depth and Cover......................................................9-7
9.7.1.2 Composite Action.....................................................................9-7
9.7.1.3 Skewed Decks..........................................................................9-7
9.7.1.4 Edge Support...........................................................................9-8
9.7.1.5 Design of Cantilever Slabs.......................................................9-8
9.7.2 Empirical Design.............................................................................9-8
9.7.2.1 General....................................................................................9-8
9.7.2.2 Application......................................................................................9-9
9.7.2.3 Effective Length..............................................................................9-9
9.7.2.4 Design Conditions..................................................................9-10
9.7.2.5 Reinforcement Requirements................................................9-11
9.7.2.6 Deck with Stay-in-Place Formwork.........................................9-12
9.7.3 Traditional Design.........................................................................9-12
9.7.3.1 General..................................................................................9-12
9.7.3.2 Distribution Reinforcement....................................................9-12
9.7.4 Stay-in-Place Formwork................................................................9-13
9.7.4.1 General..................................................................................9-13
9.7.4.2 Steel Formwork......................................................................9-13
9.7.4.3 Concrete Formwork................................................................9-13
9-i
2014
9.7.4.3.1.............................................................................................Depth
9-13
9.7.4.3.2................................................................................Reinforcement
9-13
9.7.4.3.3.......................................................Creep and Shrinkage Control
9-14
9.7.4.3.4.........................................................................Bedding of Panels
9-14
9.7.5 Precast Deck Slabs on Girders...........................................................9-14
9.7.5.1 General..........................................................................................9-14
9.7.5.2 Transversely Joined Precast Decks..............................................9-14
9.7.5.3 Longitudinally Post-Tensioned Precast Decks............................9-15
9.7.6 Deck Slabs in Segmental Construction..............................................9-15
9.7.6.1 General..........................................................................................9-15
9.7.6.2 Joints in Decks.............................................................................9-15
9.8....................................................................................................METAL DECKS
...............................................................................................................................9-15
9.8.1 General..................................................................................................9-15
9.8.2 Metal Grid Decks................................................................................9-16
9.8.2.1 General..........................................................................................9-16
9.8.2.2 Open Grid Floors..........................................................................9-16
9.8.2.3 Filled and Partially Filled Grid Decks........................................9-17
9.8.2.3.1...........................................................................................General
9-17
9.8.2.3.2....................................................................Design Requirements
9-18
9.8.2.3.3................................................ Fatigue and Fracture Limit State
9-18
9.8.2.4 Unfilled Grid Decks Composite with Reinforced Concrete Slabs
9-18
9.8.2.4.1General...................................................................................9-18
9.8.2.4.2Design....................................................................................9-19
9.8.2.4.3.......................................................................Fatigue Limit State
9-19
9.8.3 Orthotropic Steel Decks.......................................................................9-20
9.8.3.1 General..........................................................................................9-20
9.8.3.2 Wheel Load Distribution..............................................................9-20
9.8.3.3 Wcaring Surface...........................................................................9-20
9.8.3.4 Analysis of Orthotropic Decks....................................................9-21
9.8.3.4.1...........................................................................................General
9-21
9.8.3.4.2..............................................................................Level 1 Design
9-23
9.8.3.4.3..............................................................................Level 2 Design
9-24
9.8.3.4.3aGeneral.......................................................................9-24
TABLE OF CONTENTS
9.8.3.6.2...................................................................................Closed Ribs
9-27
9.8.3.6.3.....................................................Welding to Orthotropic Decks
9-27
9.8.3.6.4...................................................................Deck and Rib Details
9-28
9.8.4 Orthotropic Aluminum Decks.............................................................9-28
9.8.4.1 General..................................................................................9-28
9.8.4.2 Approximate Analysis..................................................................9-29
9.8.4.3 Limit States...................................................................................9-29
9.8.5 Corrugated Metal Decks......................................................................9-29
9.8.5.1 General..........................................................................................9-29
9.8.5.2 Distribution of Wheel Loads.......................................................9-29
9.8.5.3 Composite Action.........................................................................9-30
9.9............................................................WOOD DECKS AND DECK SYSTEMS
...............................................................................................................................9-30
9.9.1 Scope....................................................................................................9-30
9.9.2 General.................................................................................................9-30
9.9.3 Design Requirements...........................................................................9-30
9.9.3.1 Load Distribution..........................................................................9-30
9.9.3.2 Shear Design.................................................................................9-31
9.9.3.3 Deformation..................................................................................9-31
9.9.3.4 Thcrmal Expansin.......................................................................9-31
9.9.3.5 Wearing Surfaces..........................................................................9-31
9.9.3.6 Skewed Decks...............................................................................9-31
9.9.4 Glued Laminated Decks......................................................................9-31
9.9.4.1 General..........................................................................................9-31
9.9.4.2 Deck Tie-Downs...........................................................................9-32
9.9.4.3 Interconnected Decks....................................................................9-32
9.9.4.3.1..............................................................Panels Parallel to Traffic
9-32
9.9.4.3.2....................................................Panels Perpendicular to Traffic
9-32
9.9.4.4 Noninterconnected Decks.............................................................9-32
9.9.5 Stress Laminated Decks......................................................................9-33
9.9.5.1 General..........................................................................................9-33
9.9.5.2 Nailing...........................................................................................9-33
9.9.5.3 Staggered Butt Joints...................................................................9-34
9.9.5.4 Holes in Laminations...................................................................9-34
9.9.5.5 Deck Tie-Downs...........................................................................9-34
9.9.5.6 Stressing........................................................................................9-34
9.9.5.6.1.......................................................................Prestressing System
9-34
9.9.5.6.2...................................................................Prestressing Materials
9-36
9.9.5.6.3....................................................................Design Requirements
2014
9.9.7.1 General..................................................................................9-40
9.9.7.2 Deck Tie-Downs...........................................................................9-40
9.9.8..............................................................Wearing Surfaces for Wood Decks
.........................................................................................................................9-40
9.9.8.1 General..................................................................................9-40
9.9.8.2 Plant Mix Asphalt........................................................................9-40
9.9.8.3 Chip Seal......................................................................................9-41
9-41
SECTION 9
DECKS AND DECK SYSTEMS
9.1SCOPE C9.1
This Section contains provisions for Implicit in this Section is a design
the analysis and design of bridge decks philosophy that prefers jointless,
and deck Systems of concrete, metal, continuous bridge decks and deck
and wood or combinations thereof Systems to improve the weather and
subjected to gravity loads. corrosion-resisting effects of the whole
For monolithic concrete bridge bridge, reduce inspection efforts and
decks satisfying specific conditions, an maintenance costs, and increase
empirical design, requiring no analysis,
is permitted.
Continuity in the deck and its
supporting components is encouraged.
Composite action between the deck
9.2DEFINITIONS
AppurtenanceCurbs, parapets, railings, barriers, dividers, and sign and lighting
posts attached to the deck.
Arching ActionA structural phenomenon in which wheel loads are transmitted
primarily by compressive struts formed in the slab.
BandA strip of laminated wood deck within which the pattem of butt joints is
not repeated.
BolsterA spacer between a metal deck and a beam.
BulkheadA steel element attached to the side of stress laminated timber decks
to distribute the prestressing forc and reduce the tendency to crush the wood.
Cellular DeckA concrete deck with void-ratio in excess of 40 percent.
Clear SpanThe face-to-face distance between supporting components.
Closed RibA rib in an orthotropic deck consisting of a pate forming a trough,
welded to the deck pate along both sides of the rib.
Closure JointA cast-in-place concrete fill between precast components to
provide continuity.
CompatibilityThe equality of deformation at the interface of elements and/or
components joined together.
ComponentA structural element or combination of elements requiring
individual design consideration.
Composite ActionA condition in which two or more elements or components
are made to act together by preventing relative movement at their interface.
Continuityn decks, both structural continuity and the ability to prevent water
penetration without the assistance of nonstructural elements.
Core DepthThe distance between the top of top reinforcement and the bottom
of bottom reinforcement in a concrete slab.
DeckA component, with or without 9-1 wearing surface, that supports wheel loads
2014
Deck SystemA superstructura, in which the deck is integral with its supporting
components, or in which the effects or deformation of supporting components on the
behavior of the deck is significant.
Design SpanFor decks, the center-to-center distance between the adjacent
supporting components, taken in the primary direction.
Effective LengthThe span length used in the empirical design of concrete slabs
defined in Article 9.7.2.3.
ElasticA structural response in which stress is directly proportional to strain
and no deformation remains upon removal of loading.
EquilibriumA state where the sum of forces parallel to any axis and the sum of
moments about any axis in space are 0.0.
Equivalent StripAn artificial linear element, isolated from a deck for the
purpose of analysis, in which extreme forc effects calculated for a fine of wheel
loads, transverse or longitudinal, will approximate those actually taking place in
the deck.
ExtremeMximum or mnimum.
Flexural ContinuityThe ability to transmit moment and rotation between components
or within a component. FloorbeamThe traditional ame for a cross-beam.
FootprintThe specified contact area between wheel and roadway surface.
Frame ActionTransverse continuity between the deck and the webs of
cellular cross-section or between the deck and primary components in large
bridges.
Glued Laminated Deck PanelA deck panel made ffom wood laminations connected
by adhesives.
Goveming PositionThe location and orientation of a transient load to cause extreme
forc effects.
lnelasticThe structural response in which stress is not directly proportional to
strain and deformation may remain upon removal of loading.
InterfaceThe location where two elements and/or components are in contact.
Intemal Composite ActionThe interaction between a deck and a structural overlay.
Isotropic PateA pate having essentially identical structural properties in the two
principal directions.
Isotropic ReinforcementTwo identical layers of reinforcement, perpendicular to and
in touch with each other.
LateralAny horizontal or cise to horizontal direction.
Laminated DeckA deck consisting of a series of laminated wood elements
that are tightly abutted along their edges to form a continuous surface.
Local AnalysisAn in-depth study of strains and stresses in or among
OrthotropicA pate having significantly different structural properties in the
two principal directions.
OvetfillThe concrete above the top of the steel grid of filled or partially filled
steel grid deck systems.
Partial Composite ActionA condition in which two or more elements or
components are made to act together by decreasing, but not eliminating, relative
movement at their interface, or where the connecting elements are too flexible to
fiilly develop the deck in composite action.
Primary DirectionIn isotropic decks: direction of the shorter span; in
orthotropic decks: direction of the main load- carrying elements.
Secondary DirectionThe direction normal to the primary direction.
Segmental ConstructionA method of building a bridge utilizing match-cast,
prefabricated, or cast-in-place concrete segments joined together by longitudinal
post-tensioning.
Shear ConnectorA mechanical device that prevens relative movements both
normal and parallel to an interface.
Shear ContinuityA condition where shear and displacement are transmitted
between components or within a component.
Shear KeyA preformed hollow in the side of a precast component filled with
grout or a system of match-cast depressions and protrusions in the face of
segments that is intended to provide shear continuity between components.
Skew AngleThe angle between the axis of support relative to a line normal
to the longitudinal axis of the bridge, i.e., a zero-degree skew denotes a
rectangular bridge.
SpacingCenter-to-center distance of elements or components, such as
reinforcing bars, girders, bearings, etc. Stay-in-Place FormworkPcrmancnt
metal or precast concrete forms that remain in place after construction is
finished. Stiffener BeamAn unsupported beam attached to the underside of a
wood deck to enhance lateral continuity.
Stress RangeThe algebraic difference between extreme stresses.
Structural OverlayAn overlay bonded to the deck that consists of concretes
other than asphaltic concretes.
TndemTwo closely spaced and mechanically interconnected axles of equal
weight.
Tie-DownA mechanical device that prevents relative movement normal to an
interface.
Yield Line MethodA 2014
method of analysis in which a number of possible
yield line pattems of concrete slabs are examined in order to determine
mnimum load-carrying capacity.
9.3NOTATION
2
efFective bearing area of anchorage bulkhead (in. ) (9.9.5.6.3)
area of Steel bar or strand (in. ) (9.9.5.6.3)
2
larger of the spacing of the rib webs (in.) (9.8.3.6.2)

deptb of the bottom cutout to accommodate a rib in an orthotropic deck
(in.) (9.8.3.6.4)
effective depth: distance between the outside compressive fiber and the
center of gravity of the tensile
reinforcement (in.) (C9.7.2.5)
clear spacing between closed ribs in orthotropic Steel decks (in.)
(9.8.3.6.4)
nominal bearing resistance of wood across the grain (ksi) (9.9.5.6.3)
the out-of-plane flexural stresses in rib webs (ksi) (C9.8.3.6.2)
the surface stress at a distance of 0.5 t forn the weld toe (ksi)
(9.8.3.4.4)
the surface stress at a distance of 1.5 t from the weld toe (ksi)
(9.8.3.4.4)
depth of deck (in.) (9.9.5.6.3)
length of the inclined portion of the rib web (in.) (9.8.3.6.2)
factor representing a distribution of bending moment along a rib
(C9.8.3.6.2)
span length from center-to-center of supports (9.5.2)
factored compressive resistance of the wood under the bulkhead (kip)
(9.9.5.6.3)
prestressing forc per prestressing element (kip) (9.9.5.6.3)
load intensity (ksi) (C9.8.3.6.2)
steel-wood ratio (9.9.5.6.3)
9.4 GENERAL DESIGN
REQUIREMENTS C9.4.1
9.4.1 Interface Action Composite action is recommended
Decks other than wood and open to enhance the stififiiess and economy
grid floors shall be made composite of structures.
Some decks without shear connectors
with their supporting components, have historically demonstrated a degree
unless there are compelling reasons to of composite action due to Chemical
the contrary. Noncomposite decks shall bond and/or friction that cannot be
be connectedto their supporting accounted for in structural design.
components to prevent vertical It is difficult to design and detail a
separation. tie-down device that does not attract
Shear connectors and other shear forces due to transient loads,
connections between decks, other than temperature changes, and fluctuation in
open grid floors and wood decks, and moisture content. These forces may
their supporting members shall be loosen and/or break such devices, and
designed for forc effects calculated on
the basis of full composite action,
whether or not that composite action is
considered in proportioning the
9.4.2 Deck Drainage

With the exception of unfilled Steel
grid decks, cross and longitudinal
slopes of the deck surface shall be
provided as specified in Article 2.6.6.
Structural effects of drainage
openings shall be considered in the
design of decks. C9.4.3
9.4.3 Concrete Appurtenances Experience indicates that the
Unless otherwise specified by the interruption of concrete appurtenances
Owner, concrete curbs, parapets, at locations other than deck joints does
barriers, and dividers should be made not serve the intended purpose of
structurally continuous. Consideration stress relief. Large cracks, only a foot
of their structural contribution to the or so away fom open joints, have
deck should be limited in accordance been observed in concrete parapets.
with the provisions of Article 9.5.1. The structural participation of these
components is usually but not always
benefcial. One possible negative aspect
of continuity is increased cracking in
the appurtenance.
9.4.4 Edge Supports
Unless the deck is designed to C9.4.4
support wheel loads in extreme If the deck joint hardware is
positions with respect to its edges, integrated with the deck, it may be
edge supports shall be provided. utilized as a structural element of the
Nonintegral edge beams shall conform edge beam.
to the provisions of Article 9.7.1.4.
9.4.5 Stay-in-Place Formwork for
Overhangs
Stay-in-place formwork, other than
that in filled Steel decks, shall not be
used in the overhang of concrete decks.
9.5 LIMIT STATES
C9.5.1
9.5.1 General
The structural contribution of a Exclusin of contribution of an
concrete appurtenance to the deck may appurtenance at strength limit State is
be considered for Service and fatigue but a safety measure in that advantage is
not for strength or extreme event limit not taken of a component that may be
States.
For other than the deck overhang,
where the conditions specified in Article
9.7.2 are met, a concrete deck may be
assumed to satisfy Service, fatigue, and
fracture and strength limit State
requirements and need not meet the Deck deformation refers to local
other provisions of Article 9.5. dishing at wheel loads, not to overall
superstructure deformation.
9.5.2 Service Limit States The primary objective of curtailing
At Service limit States, decks and excessive deck deformation is to
deck systems shall be analyzed as fully prevent breakup and loss of the
elastic structures and shall be designed wearing surface. No overall limit can
and detailed to satisfy the provisions of be specified because such limit is a
function of the composition of the
2014
Z,/1000 for decks with limited Substantial work has been done
relating accelerations to user comfort.
pedestrian traffic, and Acceleration is a function of the
Ll1200 for decks with significant fundamental frequency of vibration of
the deck on a particular span, and the
pedestrian traffic where: magnitude of dynamic deflection due
L = span length from center-to-center to live load. Dynamic deflections are
typically 15 percent to 20 percent of
static deflections. Analysis shows that
9.5.3 Fatigue and Fracture Limit static deflections serve well as a proxy
for acceleration levels for deck
State Systems.
Fatigue need not be investigated
C9.5.3
for: The provisions that do not require
Concrete decks, and fatigue investigation of certain types of
decks are based exclusively on
Wood decks as listed in Arricie 9.9. observed performance and laboratory
testing.
ppen grid, filled grid, partially filled A series of 35 pulsating load
grid, and unfilled grid Hecks composite fatigue tests of model slabs indcate
with reinforced concrete slabs shall that the fatigue limit for the slabs
comply with the provisions of Articles
4.6.2.1, 6.5.3, and 9.8.2.
Steel orthotropic decks shall
comply with the provisions of Arricie
6.5.3. Aluminum decks shall comply
with the provisions of Arricie 7.6.
Concrete decks, other than those in C9.5.4
multigirder application, shall be
investigated for the fatigue limit States These Specifications do not permit
as specified in Arricie 5.5.3. an unlimited application of inelastic
methods of analysis due to the lack of
9.5.4 Strength Limit States adequate background research. There
are, however, well-established inelastic
pate analyses whose use is allowed.
9.5.5 Extreme Event Limit States
Decks shall be designed for forc
effects transmitted
by traffic and combination railings
using loads, analysis
procedures, and limit States specified
in Section 13.
Acceptance testing, complying with
Section 13, may be
used to satisy this requirement.
C9.6.1
9.6ANALYSIS
Analytical methods presented herein
9.6.1 Methods of Analysis should not be construed as excluding
other analytical approaches, provided
Approximate elastic methods of that they are approved by the Owner.
analysis specified in Arricie 4.6.2.1,
refned methods specified in Arricie
SECHON 9: DECKS AND DECK SYSTEMS
9.6.2 Loading
Loads, load positions, tire contact
area, and load combinations shall be in
accordance with the provisions o
Section 3.
9.7CONCRETE
DECK SLABS 9.7.1
General C9.7.1.1
For slabs of depth less than 1/20
9.7.1.1 Mnimum Depth and Cover of the design span, consideration
Unless approved by the Owner, the should be given to prestressing in the
depth of a concrete deck, excluding direction of that span in order to
any provisin for grinding, grooving, control cracking.
and sacrificial surface, should not be Construction tolerances become a
less than 7.0 in. concern for thin decks.
Minimum cover requirements are
Mnimum cover shall be in based on traditional concrete mixes
accordance with the provisions of and on the absence of protective
Article 5.12.3. coating on either the concrete or the
Steel inside. A combination of special
mix design, protective coatings, dry or
modrate climate, and the absence of
corrosin Chemicals may justify a
reduction of these requirements
provided that the Owner approves.
9.7.1.2 Composite Action
Shear connectors shall be designed C9.7.1.2
in accordance with the provisions of Some research efforts have dealt
Section 5 for concrete beams and with wood beams composite with
Sections 6 and 7 for metal beams. concrete decks and Steel beams with
stressed wood decks, but progress is
not advanced to a point which permits
9.7.1.3 Skewed Decks codification.
If the skew angle of the deck does C9.7.1.3
not exceed 25 degrees, the primary
The intent of this provisin is to
prevent extensive cracking of the deck,
which may result from the absence of
appreciable reinforcement acting in the
direction of principal flexural stresses
due to a heavily skewed reinforcement,
as shown in Figure C9.7.1.3-1. The
somewhat arbitrary 25-degree limit
Figure C9.7.1.3-1Reinforcement Layout

9.7.1.4 Edge Support

Unless otherwise specified, at lines
of discontinuity, the edge of the deck
shall either be strengthened or be
supported by a beam or other line
component. The beam or component
shall be integrated in or made
composite with the deck. The edge
beams may be designed as beams
whose width may be taken as the
effective width of the deck specified in
Article 4.6.2.1.4.
Where the primary direction of the
deck is transverse, and/or the deck is C9.7.1.5
composite with a structurally
continuous concrete barrier, no An acceptable method of analyzing
additional edge beam need be deck overhangs for railing impact
provided. loads is presented in the appendix to
9.7.1.5 Design of Cantilever Slabs Section 13.
Any combination of increasing the
The overhanging portion of the depth of the slab, employing special
deck shall be designed for railing reinforcement extending the slab width
impact loads and in accordance with beyond the railing, and enlarging base
the provisions of Article 3.6.1.3.4. plates under railing posts may be
Punching shear effects at the
outside toe of a railing post or barrier
due to vehicle collision loads shall be C9.7.2.1
investigated.
Extensive research into the
behavior of concrete deck slabs
discovered that the primary structural
9.7.2Empirical Design action by which these slabs resist
concentrated wheel loads is not flexure,
9.7.2.1General as traditionally believed, but a complex
intemal membrane stress State referred
The provisions of Article 9.7.2 to as intemal arching. This action is
relate exclusively to the empirical made possible by the cracking of the
design process for concrete deck slabs concrete in the positive moment regin
of the design slab and the resulting
upward shift of the neutral axis in that
portion of the slab. The action is
sustained by in-plane membrane forces
that develop as a result of lateral
confinement provided by the
surrounding concrete slab, rigid
appurtenances, and supporting
components acting compositely with
the slab.
The arching creates what can best
be described as an intemal compressive
dome, the failure of which usually
occurs as a result of overstraining
around the perimeter of the wheel
footprint. The resulting failure mode is
that of punching shear, although the
inclination of the fracture surface is
In case of nonuniform spacing of
supporting components, the effective All available test data indcate that
length, Seffective, shall be taken as the the factor of safety of a deck designed
larger of the deck lengths at the two by the flexural method specified in the
locations shown in Figure 9.7.2.3-1. 16th edition of the AASHTO Standard
Specifications, working stress design, is
at least 10.0. Tests indcate a
comparable factor of safety of about
8.0 for an empirical design. Therefore,
even the empirical design possesses an
extraordinary reserve strength.
The design of reinforced concrete
decks using the concept of intemal
arching action within the limits
specified herein has been verified by
extensive nonlinear fnite element
analysis (Hewitt and deV Batchelor,
The longitudinal bars of the 1975; Fang et al. 1990). These
isotropic reinforcement may participate analyses are accepted in lieu of
in resisting negative moments at an project-specific design calculation as a
intemal support in continuous preapproved basis of design.
structures. Slabs with the mnimum specified
reinforcement have demonstrated
nearly complete insensitivity to
Figure 9.7.2.3-1Effective differential displacement among their
Length for Nonuniform Spacing of supports.
Beams The additional longitudinal
9.7.2.4 Design Conditions reinforcement
C9.7.2.4 provided for the slab in
the negative moment regin of
9.7.2.2 Application continuous beamscross-ffames
Intermedate and girder-type
are not
For the purpose of this Article, the bridges in
beyond
designEmpirical
depth ofdesign of reinforced
the slab shall exelude needed order that required
to use for
the empirical
concrete
the loss decks
that is may
expectedbe used if theas a
to occur isotropic
deck reinforcement
design method for according to
cross-sections
conditions
result of grinding, grooving, or9.7.2.4
set forth in Arricie wear. the provisions
involving of Arricie
torsionally weak9.7.2.5
open need
are
TheThesatisfied.
empirical design may be used not be matched
shapes, such as T- in the perpendicular
or I-shaped girders.
only provisions
if applied
the following of conditions
this Arricieareshall direction.
Use ofTheoretically, this portion
separated, torsionally stiff of
not be
satisfied: to overhangs. the deck will be orthotropically
beams without intermedate diaphragms
The overhang should be designed reinforced,
can give risebuttothis
the does not weaken
situation, shown in
for:I the deck.
Figure C9.7.2.4-1, in which there is a
jjCross-frames or diaphragms are relative displacement between beams
Wheel loads for decks
used throughout with
the cross-section at and C9.7.2.2
in which the beams do not roate
discontinuous
lines of support; railings and barriers sufficiently to relieve the moment over
using the equivalent strip method,
For cross-section involving
Equivalent
torsionally line
stiff load
units,for decks
such as with
continuous barriers specified
individual separated box beams, in Although current tests indicated
Arricie 3.6.1.3.4, and
either intermedate diaphragms that arching action may exist in the
between the
Collision boxes area provided at cantilevered overhang of the slab, the
spacing loads
amechanism using
notas tospecified
exceed failure
in Arricieor
25.0 ft, available evidence is not sufficient to
the need
Al3.2. for supplemental formlate code provisions for it (Hays
reinforcement over the webs to et al., 1989).
9.7.2.3 Effective Length bending
accommodate transverse As indicated in Arricie 9.5.5,
between the box units is Figure C9.7.2.4-1Schematic
acceptance of
testing complying with
For the purpose
investigated and of the empirical
reinforcement is Effect of Relative Displacements
Section 13 may be used to satisfy
design method, the
provided if necessary; effective length of in Torsionally
design Stiff Cross-Section
requirements for deck
slab shall be taken as: All the tests carried out so far were
overhangs.
The supporting components are restricted to specimens of uniform
For
madeslabs monolithic
of Steel and/or with walls or
concrete; depth. Slabs supported by wood beams
beams: the face-to- face distance, are not qualified for the empirical
and design due to the lack of experimental
Core depth of the slab is not less shear transfer between the slab and the
than 4.0 in.; relatively soft timber beams.
No experience exists for effective
The effective length, as specified in lengths exceeding 13.5 ft. The 7.0-in.
Article 9.7.2.3, does not exceed depth is considered an absolute
13.5 ft; mnimum with 2.0-in. cover on top
and 1.0-in. cover on the bottom,
providing for a reinforced core of 4.0
The minimum depth of the slab is
not less than 7.0 in., excluding a
sacrificial wearing surface where
applicable;
There is an overhang beyond the
centerline of the outside girder of
at least 5.0 times the depth of the Figure C9.7.2.4-2Core of a Concrete
slab; this condition is satisfied if Slab
The provisions ofthe Ontario
HighwayBridgeDesign Code (1991),
based on model test results, do not
permit length-to-depthratios in excess
of 15.0. The larger valu of 18.0 is
based on recent experiments (Hays et
al., 1989).
The specified 28-day strength of the The intention of the overhang
deck concrete is not less than 4.0 provisin is to ensure confinement of
ksi; and the slab between the first and the
second beam.
The deck is made composite with The 4.0-ksi limit is based on the
the supporting structural fact that none of the tests included
components. concrete with less than 4.0-ksi
For the purpose of this Article, a strength at 28 days. Many jurisdictions
mnimum of two shear connectors at specify 4.5-ksi concrete for ensuring
24.0-in. centers shall be provided in reduced permeability of the deck. On
the negative moment regin of the other hand, tests indcate that
continuous Steel superstructures. The resistance is not sensitive to the
provisions of Article 6.10.1.1 shall compressive strength, and 3.5 ksi
also be satisfied. For concrete girders, maybe accepted with the approval of
the use of stirrups extending into the the Owner.
deck shall be taken as sufficient to
satisfy this requirement.
9.7.2.5 Reinforcement
Requirements
Four layers of isotropic C9.7.2.5
reinforcement shall be provided in
empirically designed slabs. Prototype tests indicated that 0.2
Reinforcement shall be located as cise percent reinforcement in each of four
to the outside surfaces as permitted by layers based on the effective depth d
cover requirements. Reinforcement satisfes strength requirements.
shall be provided in each face of the However, the conservative valu of
slab with the outermost layers placed 0.3 percent of the gross area,2 which
in the direction of the effective length. corresponds to about 0.27 in. /ft in a
The minimum amount
2
of reinforcement 7.5-in. slab, is specified for better
shall be 0.27 in. /ft of Steel for each crack control in the positive moment
SECTION 9: DECKS AASHTO
AND DECKLRFD
SYSTEMS
BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS, SEVENTH EDITION, 2014
Welded or9.7.4Stay-in-Place
Mechanical Splices ofFormworkconstruction and widenings. Sleeve
C9.7.4.1
Reinforcement.
9.7.4.1 Sleeve wedge-type
General wedge-type couplers will not be
couplers shall not be permitted on permitted The on coated reinforcing
intent of this Article dueistoto
Stay-in-place fonnwork shall be stripping
coated reinforcing. of the coating.
designedto be elastic under the prevent excessive sagging of the
If the skew exceeds 25 degrees, Theformwork
intent of during
this provisin is crack
construction, which
construction
specified loads.inThe
reinforcement bothconstruction control.would Beamresultslab inbridges with a
load shall
shall be
notdoubled
be taken an unanticipated
directions in to
thebeendless than
skew exceeding
increase in25 thedegrees
weight have
of the concrete
the weight of the fonn and the
zones of the deck. Each end zone shall shownslab. a tendency to develop torsional
concrete
be taken slab plus 0.050
as a longitudinal distanceksf. cracks dueDeflection
to differential
limitsdeflections
are specifiedin to
equal to the effective length of theunfactored
Flexural stresses due to slab the endensurezone adequate
(OHBDC,cover 1991). The
for reinforcing
construction
specified in Article loads shall not exceed: extent steel
9.7.2.3. of cracking is usually
and to account forlimited
all deadto load
75 percent of the yield strength of a width that approximates
in the design. the effective
length.
9.7.2.6 Steel, Deckor with Stay-in-Place
Formwork 65 percent of the 28-day C9.7.2.6
compressive strength for concrete Concrete in the troughs of the
For decks made with corrugated
in compression or the modulus of
metal formwork, corrugated metal deck is ignored due
rupture the design for
in tensin depth of
prestressed to lack of evidence that it consistently
the slab shall be assumed
concrete form panels. to be the
mnimum concrete depth. contributes to the strength of the deck.
The elastic deformation caused by Reinforcement should not be placed
the dead load of the forms, plstic directly on corrugated metal formwork.
concrete, and reinforcement shall notradial confmementdesign
The empirical
around
is based on a
the wheel
exceed: load, which may be weakened by the
For form span lengths of 10.0 ft inherent or discontinuity of the bottom
less, the form span length divided reinforcement at the boundaries
by 180 but not exceeding 0.50 in.; between formwork panels. Limited
or tests carried out on flexurally designed
slabs withC9.7.4.2
stay-in-place concrete
9.7.3 Traditional
For formDesign
span lengths greater than formworkFor indicate
steel astay-in-place
punching shearformwork, it
9.7.3.1 10.0 ft, the form span length
General failure mode, but somewhat
has been common to provide less an
divided by 240 but not exceeding resistance than that
allowance for provided
the weight byoffully
the form
The provisions
0.75 in. of this Article shall cast- in-place slabs. The
and additional reasonwith
concrete, for the
this
apply to concrete slabs that have four decrease is that the discontinuity
provisin added to the contract
9.7.4.2
layers Steel Formwork
of reinforcement, two in each between the panels
documents thatintercepts, and thusis
if the allowance
direction, Panels
and thatshall
comply with Article
be specified prevens,
to be tied the undisturbed formation
exceeded by the Contractor's choice, of
9.7.1.1.
together mechanically at their common the frustum of a cone where
the Contractor is responsible forpunching
edges and fastened to their support. shear No occurs
showing(Buth that ettheal., 1992).
effects on the rest of
welding of the Steel formwork to the the bridge are acceptable or providing
9.7.3.2 Distribution
supporting Reinforcement
components shall be additional strengthening as needed at
permitted, unless otherwise
Reinforcement shall be placed in shown in no cost to the Owner. The customary
the contract documents.
the secondaiy direction in the bottom allowance has been 0.015 ksf, but this
of slabs asSteel formworkofshall
a percentage the not be
primary should be reviewed if form spans
considerad
reinforcement for to be composite
positive momentwith as a exceed about 10.0 ft.
concrete slab.
follows:
For primary reinforcement parallel to C9.7.4.3.1
trafile:
Thousands of bridges have
9.7.4.3 Concrete Formwork
100/VS < 50percent successfiilly been built with a depth
ratio of 43 percent or somewhat
For9.7.4.3.1 Depth
primary reinforcement higher; 55 percent is believed to be a
The to
perpendicular depth of stay-in-place concrete
trafile: practical limit, beyond which cracking
should neither exceed 55 percent of of the cast-in-place concrete at the
the depth
220/ of 67percent
-\/s < the fnished deck slab or panel interface may be expected.
be less than 3.5 in.
where:

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8-10 SECTION 8: WOOD STRUCTURES

AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS, SEVENTH EDITION,

treatable with wood preservativesGrain in to Grain

8.4.1.2.3 Reference Design Vales C8.4.1.2.3

reference design vales Fh, Fva,

The format conversin factor is

8.4.4.4Size Factor, CF, for Sawn Lumber C8.4.4.4

where: Thickness (in.)

Deck Type Lumber

The deck factors for planks in

8.5.2.2 Resistance Factors C8.5.2.2

8.7 COMPONENTS UNDER C8.7

0.8 for sawn lumber

factored flexural moment (kip-in.)

factored flexural resistance adjusted by all

8.12.3 Stress Laminated Timber

larger of the spacing of the rib webs (in.) (9.8.3.6.2)

9.4.2 Deck Drainage

Figure C9.7.1.3-1Reinforcement Layout

9.7.1.4 Edge Support

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