Mar Eng

MANAGEMENT LEVEL COURSE ENGINE
FUNCTION - 2
INTRODUCTION:
The effectiveness of any evaluation depends on the accuracy of the

description of what is to be measured.
The learning objectives that are used in the detailed teaching syllabus,
Column 3 Methods for demonstrating competence and Column 4
Criteria for evaluating competence in Table A-III/2 of the STCW Code, set
out the methods and criteria for evaluation.
Instructors should refer to these when designing the assessment.
It is consistent with the intent of STCW that demonstration of skills and

practical understanding is determined by direct observation, while
knowledge and theoretical understand is determined through written
examination in a variety of question styles.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
Upon successful completion of the training under this Function, trainees shall
be expected to have gained the minimum knowledge, understanding and
proficiencies needed to carry out and undertake at the management level the
tasks, duties and responsibilities for electrical, electronic and control
engineering of ships powered by main propulsion machinery of 3,000 kW
propulsion power or more.
SCOPE:
Function 2 of this updating course covers the topics relating to the gaps that
were identified in order for Management Level Marine Engineer Officers who
were certified under the STCW 1978 Convention, as amended in 1995 to
meet the additional knowledge, understanding and proficiencies (KUPs)
UNDER THE 2010 STCW Manila Amendments for Electrical, Electronic and
Control Engineering at the Management Level
ZRC TRAINING CENTER PHILS. INC. CEBU Page 1

FUNCTION - 2
MANAGEMENT LEVEL COURSE
FUNCTION 2 - UPDATING
ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONICS AND CONTROL ENGINEERING
MODULE 1
Manage Operation of Electrical and Electronic Control Equipment
Module 1

FUNCTION - 2
Competence: Manage Operation of Electrical and Electronic Control
Equipment (Theoretical Knowledge)
Marine Electro technology, Electronics, Power Electronics, Automatic

Control Engineering and Safety Devices
Electronics, Power Electronics

Discusses the operation of semiconductor devices
Uni junction Transistor
A uni junction transistor (UJT) is a

three-lead electronic semiconductor device
with only one junction that acts exclusively
as an electrically controlled switch. The UJT
is not used as a linear amplifier. It is used in
free-running oscillators, synchronized or
triggered oscillators, and pulse generation
circuits at low to moderate frequencies
(hundreds of kilohertz). It is widely used in the triggering circuits for silicon
controlled rectifiers.
Bipolar junction Transistor
A bipolar junction
transistor (BJT or bipolar transistor) is a
type of transistor that relies on the contact of
two types of semiconductor for its operation.
BJTs can be used as amplifiers, switches, or
in oscillators. BJTs can be found either as
individual discrete components, or in large
numbers as parts of integrated circuits.
BJTs come in two types, or polarities, known

as PNP and NPN based on the doping types of
the three main terminal regions. An NPN
transistor comprises two semiconductor
junctions that share a thin p-
doped anode region, and a PNP transistor comprises two semiconductor
junctions that share a thin n-doped cathode region.
Operation and characteristic

FUNCTION - 2
From the explanation of how a Bipolar Transistor works, we can expect
the main characteristic of a Bipolar Transistor to be its Current Gain
value. In practice this value isn't a 'universal constant' but depends on
various factors: e.g. the transistor's temperature, the size and shape of
its Base region, the way it's various parts were doped to make them
into semiconductors, etc.
The above illustration shows how, for a 'typical' transistor, the Current
Gain varies with the Collector Current level, IC. from this graph we can
see that the proportion of electrons 'caught' by a hole whilst trying to
cross the Base region does vary a bit depending on the current level.
Note that the graph doesn't show the transistor's beta value, it shows a
related figure called the transistor's Small Signal current gain, hfe. This
is similar to the beta value, but is defined in terms of small changes in
the current levels. This parameter is more useful than the beta value
when considering the transistor's use in signal amplifiers where we're
interested in how the device responds to changes in the applied
voltages and currents.
The second way we can characterize the behavior of a Bipolar

Transistor is by relating the Base-Emitter voltage, VBE, we apply to the
Base current, IB, it produces. As can expect from the diode-like nature
of the Base-Emitter junction this voltage/current characteristic curve
has an exponential-like shape similar to that of a normal PN Junction
diode.
As with the previous curve, the graph shown here should only be
regarded as a 'typical' example as the precise result will vary a bit from
device to device and with the temperature, etc.
In most practical situations we can expect the Collector current to be

set almost entirely by the chosen Base-Emitter voltage. However, this
is only true when the the Base-Collector voltage we are applying is 'big
enough' to quickly draw over to the Collector any free electrons which
enter the Base region from the Emitter.

FUNCTION - 2
The above plot of characteristic curves gives a more complete picture

of what we can expect from a working Bipolar Transistor. Each curve
shows how the collector current, IC, varies with the Collector-Emitter
voltage, VCE, for a specific fixed value of the Base current, IB. This kind
of characteristic curve 'family' is one of the most useful ones when it
comes to building amplifiers, etc, using Bipolar Transistors as it
contains quite a lot of detailed information.
BIAS CIRCUIT
Biasing in electronics is the method of establishing

predetermined voltages or currents at various
points of an electronic circuit for the purpose
of establishing proper operating conditions
in electronic components. Many electronic
devices whose function is signal
processing time-varying
(AC) signals also require a steady (DC)
current or voltage to operate
correctly. The AC signal applied to
them is superposed on this DC bias
current or voltage. Other types of
devices, for example magnetic
recording heads, require a time-
varying (AC) signal as bias.
The operating point of a device, also known as
bias point, quiescent point, or Q-point, is the
steady-state voltage or current at a specified terminal of an active
device (a transistor or vacuum tube) with no input signal applied.

FUNCTION - 2
AC AND DC CURRENT GAIN DATA SHEET
The D-C current gain of a transistor is simply the collector current

divided by the base current. The A-C current gain calculation differs
from the d-c current gain calculation. The a-c gain is calculated in
terms of specific increments of base current This technique give a
more accurate picture of how a transistor reacts to a-c signals
Field-effect transistor
The field-effect transistor (FET) is a transistor that uses

an electric field to control the shape and hence
the conductivity of a channel of one type of charge
carrier in a semiconductor material. FETs are unipolar
transistors as they involve single-carrier-
type operation. The concept of the FET
predates the bipolar junction
transistor (BJT), though it was not
physically implemented until after BJTs
due to the limitations of semiconductor
materials and the relative ease of
manufacturing BJTs compared to FETs at the time.
Thyristors
A thyristor is a two- to four-lead solid-state semiconductor device with

four layers of alternating N and P-type material. They act exclusively
as bistable switches, conducting when their gate receives a current
trigger, and continue to conduct while they are forward biased (that is,
while the voltage across the device is not reversed). A three-lead
thyristor is designed to control the larger current of its two leads by
combining that current with the smaller current or voltage of its other
lead - known as its control lead. On the other hand, a two-lead thyristor
is designed to 'switch on' if the potential difference between its leads is
sufficiently large - a value representing its breakdown voltage.

FUNCTION - 2
SCRs
A silicon-controlled
rectifier (or semiconductor-
controlled rectifier) is a four-
layer solid state current controlling
device. The name "silicon controlled
rectifier" is General Electric's trade name
for a type of thyristor. The SCR was
developed by a team of power
engineers led by Gordon Hall[1] and
commercialized by Frank W. "Bill"
Gutzwiller in 1957.
GTO
A gate turn-off thyristor (GTO) is a special type of thyristor, which is

a high-power semiconductor device. It was invented at General
Electric.[1] GTOs, as opposed to normal thyristors, are fully controllable
switches which can be turned on and off by their third lead, the GATE
lead.
DIACs
The DIAC, or "diode for alternating current", is a diode that

conducts current only after its break over voltage, VBO, has
been reached momentarily.
When this occurs, the diode enters the region
of negative dynamic resistance, leading to a
decrease in the voltage drop across the diode and,
usually, a sharp increase in current through the
diode. The diode remains "in conduction" until the
current through it drops below a value characteristic for the
device, called the holding current, IH. Below this value,
the diode switches back to its high-resistance (non-
conducting) state. This behavior is bidirectional, meaning typically the
same for both directions of current.

FUNCTION - 2
TRIACs
TRIAC, from Triode for Alternating

Current, is a genericized trade name for
an electronic component that can
conduct current in either direction when it is
triggered (turned on), and is formally called
a bidirectional triode thyristor
or bilateral triode thyristor.
TRIACs are part of the thyristor family and
are closely related to silicon-controlled
rectifiers (SCR). However, unlike SCRs,
which are unidirectional devices (that is,
they can conduct current only in one
direction), TRIACs are bidirectional and so
current can flow in either direction. Another
difference from SCRs is that TRIAC current
flow can be enabled by either a positive or
negative current applied to
its gate electrode, whereas SCRs can be triggered only by current
going into the gate. To create a triggering current, a positive or
negative voltage has to be applied to the gate with respect to the MT1
terminal (otherwise known as A1).
Insulated gate bipolar transistor

FUNCTION - 2
The insulated-gate bipolar
transistor (IGBT) is a three-
terminal power semiconductor
device primarily used as an electronic
switch and in newer devices is noted for
combining high efficiency and fast
switching. It switches electric power in
many modern appliances: variable-
frequency drives (VFDs), electric cars,
trains, variable speed refrigerators, air-
conditioners and even stereo systems
with switching amplifiers. Since it is
designed to turn on and off
rapidly, amplifiers that use it often
synthesize complex waveforms with pulse
width modulation and low-pass filters. In
switching applications modern devices
boast pulse repetition rates well into the
ultrasonic rangefrequencies which are at
least ten times the highest audio
frequency handled by the device when used as an analog audio
amplifier.
Resistor values - the resistor color code

Resistance is measured in ohms. The symbol for ohm is an omega. 1 is
quite small so resistor values are often given in k and M. 1 k = 1000
1 M = 1000000
Resistor values are normally shown using colored bands. Each color
represents a number as shown in the table.

FUNCTION - 2
Ost resistors have 4 bands:
1. The first band gives the first digit.

2. The second band gives the second
digit.
3. The third band indicates the number of zero.
4. The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the
resistor, this may be ignored for almost all circuits but further details
are given. This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zero) and gold
bands.
So its value is 270000 = 270 k.
On circuit diagrams the is usually omitted and the value is written
270K.

FUNCTION - 2
Small value resistors (less than 10 ohm)
The standard color code cannot show values of less than 10. To show
these small values two special colors are used for the third band: gold,
which means 0.1, and silver, which means 0.01. The first and
second bands represent the digits as normal.
For example
Red, violet, gold bands represents 27 x 0.1 = 2.7
Green, blue, silver bands represent 56 0.01 = 0.56
Tolerance of resistors (fourth band of colour code)
The tolerance of a resistor is shown by the fourth band of the colour

code. Tolerance is the precision of the resistor and it is given as a
percentage. For example a 390 resistor with a tolerance of 10% will
have a value within 10% of 390 , between 390 - 39 = 351 and 390 +
39 = 429 (39 is 10% of 390).
A special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance:
Silver 10%, gold 5%, red 2%, brown 1%

If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is 20%
Tolerance may be ignored for almost all circuits because precise
resistor values are rarely required.
Real resistor values (the E6 and E12 series)
You may have noticed that resistors are not available with every
possible value, for example 22k and 47k are readily available, but 25k
and 50k are not!
Why is this? Imagine that you decided to make resistors every 10
giving 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and so on. That seems fine, but what happens
when you reach 1000? It would be pointless to make 1000, 1010, 1020,
1030 and so on because for these values 10 is a very small difference,
too small to be noticeable in most circuits. In fact, it would be difficult
to make resistors sufficiently accurate.
To produce a sensible range of resistor values you need to increase the
size of the 'step' as the value increases. The standard resistor values
are based on this idea and they form a series that follows the same
pattern for every multiple of ten.
The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten, for resistors with 20%
tolerance)
10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68 ... then it continues 100, 150, 220, 330, 470,

FUNCTION - 2
680, 1000 etc.
Notice how the step size increases as the value increases. For this
series, the step (to the next value) is roughly half the value.
The E12 series (12 values for each multiple of ten, for resistors with
10% tolerance)
10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 82 ... then it continues 100,
120, 150 etc. Notice how this is the E6 series with an extra value in the
gaps.
The E12 series is the one most frequently used for resistors. It allows
you to choose a value within 10% of the precise value you need. This is
sufficiently accurate for almost all projects and it is sensible because
most resistors are only accurate to 10% (called their 'tolerance'). For
example a resistor marked 390 could vary by 10% 390 = 39, so it
could be any value between 351 and 429.
Variable Resistors
Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with
connections at both ends and a wiper which moves along
the track as you turn the spindle. The track may be made
from carbon, cermet (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil
of wire (for low resistances). The track is usually rotary but
straight track versions, usually called sliders, are also
available.
Variable resistors may be used as a rheostat with two connections (the
wiper and just one end of the track) or as a
potentiometer with all three connections in use.
Miniature versions called presets are made for setting
up circuits, which will not require further adjustment.
Variable resistors are often called potentiometers in

books and catalogues. They are specified by their maximum
resistance, linear or logarithmic track, and their physical size. The
standard spindle diameter is 6mm.
The resistance and type of track are marked on the body:
4K7 LIN means 4.7 k linear track

1M LOG means 1 M logarithmic track
Some variable resistors are designed to be mounted directly on the
circuit board, but most are for mounting through a hole drilled in the
case containing the circuit with stranded wire connecting their
terminals to the circuit board.

FUNCTION - 2
RHEOSTAT
This is the simplest way of using a variable resistor. Two terminals are
used: one connected to an end of the track, the other to the moveable
wiper. Turning the spindle changes the resistance between the two
terminals from zero up to the maximum resistance.
Rheostats are often used to vary current, for example to control the
brightness of a lamp or the rate at which a capacitor charges.
If the rheostat is mounted on a printed circuit board you may find that
all three terminals are connected! However, one of them will be linked
to the wiper terminal. This improves the mechanical strength of the
mounting but it serves no function electrically.
POTENTIOMETER
Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all three terminals
connected. This arrangement is normally used to vary voltage, for
example to set the switching point of a circuit with a sensor, or control
the volume (loudness) in an amplifier circuit. If the terminals at the
ends of the track are connected across the power supply then the
wiper terminal will provide a voltage that can be varied from zero up to
the maximum of the supply.
PRESETS
These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor. They are
designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted
only when the circuit is built. For example to set the frequency of an
alarm tone or the sensitivity of a light-sensitive circuit. A small
screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust presets.
Multi turn presets are used where very precise adjustments must be
made. The screw must be turned many times (10+) to move the slider
from one end of the track to the other, giving very fine control.
Capacitor
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing
circuits because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They
are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of
charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily
pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.

FUNCTION - 2
Capacitance
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large
capacitance means that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is
measured in farads, symbol F. However if F is very large, so prefixes
are used to show the smaller values.
Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, (micro), n (nano) and p

(pico):
means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000F = 1F

n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1F
p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF
Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many
types of capacitor with different labeling
systems!
Polarized capacitors (large values, 1F +)
Electrolytic Capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the
correct way round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -.
They are not damaged by heat when soldering. There are two designs
of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached to each
end (220F in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end
(10F in picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they
stand upright on the circuit board.
It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are

clearly printed with their capacitance and voltage rating. The voltage
rating can be quite low (6V for example) and it should always be
checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor.
Tantalum Bead Capacitors

Tantalum bead capacitors are polarized and have low voltage ratings
like electrolytic capacitors. They are expensive but very small, so they
are used where a large capacitance is needed in a small size. Modern
tantalum bead capacitors are printed with their capacitance and
voltage in full.
However, older ones use a colour-code system that has two stripes (for
the two digits) and a spot of colour for the number of zeros to give the
value in F. The standard color code is used, but for the spot, grey is

FUNCTION - 2
used to mean 0.01 and white means 0.1 so that values of less
than 10F can be shown. A third colour stripe near the leads shows the
voltage (yellow 6.3V, black 10V, green 16V, blue 20V, grey 25V, white
30V, pink 35V).
Unpolarized capacitors (small values, up to 1F)
Examples:
Small value capacitors are unpolarized and may be connected either

way round. They are not damaged by heat when soldering, except for
one unusual type (polystyrene). They have high voltage ratings of at
least 50V, usually 250V or so.
Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a
multiplier, so you need to use experience to work out what the
multiplier should be.
Example: 4n7 means 4.7nF
Capacitor Number Code

A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is
difficult:
the 1st number is the 1st digit
the 2nd number is the 2nd digit
the 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the
capacitance in pF
Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and
voltage rating.
Example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF!)
Example: 472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance).
Capacitor Colour Code

A colour code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is
now obsolete, but of course there are many still around. The colours
should be read like the resistor code, the top three colour bands giving
the value in pF. Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band (voltage
rating).

FUNCTION - 2
Capacitor Color Code
Example:
Brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF =

0.01F.
Note that there are no gaps between the colour bands,

so 2 identical bands actually appear as a wide band.
Example:
Wide red, yellow means 220nF = 0.22F.
Polystyrene Capacitors
This type is rarely used now. Their value (in pF)
is normally printed without units. Polystyrene
capacitors can be damaged by heat when
soldering (it melts the polystyrene!) so you
should use a heat sink (such as a crocodile clip).
Clip the heat sink to the lead between the capacitor and the joint.
Variable Capacitor
Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning
circuits and they are sometimes called 'tuning
capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values,
typically between 100pF and 500pF (100pF = 0.0001F).
The type illustrated usually has trimmers built in (for
making small adjustments - see below) as well as the main variable
capacitor.
Variable capacitors are not normally used in timing circuits because

their capacitance is too small to be practical and the range of values
available is very limited. Instead, timing circuits use a fixed capacitor
and a variable resistor if it is necessary to vary the time period.
Trimmer Capacitor
This type of variable capacitor (a trimmer) is operated
with a small screwdriver or similar tool. It is designed to
be set when the circuit is made and then left without
further adjustment.
Instrument transformers
The use of instrument transformers for indirect connection of relays,

synchroscopes and measuring instruments means that they are
isolated from high voltage and current in main circuits and working
with much lower values from transformer secondaries. Thus the
instruments are safer and require less insulation.
FUNCTION - 2
Transductors
A device for converting a signal or physical quantity of one

kind (the input) into a corresponding physical quantity of
another kind (the output). For example, the input may be
pressure, temperature, torque, speed, etc. and the output
an electrical or pneumatic signal which can feed a control
system, instrument, data-logger alarm, etc.
Thermistor
A thermistor is an input transducer (sensor) which converts

temperature (heat) to resistance. Almost all thermistors have a
negative temperature coefficient (NTC) which means their resistance
decreases as their temperature increases. It is possible to make
thermistors with a positive temperature coefficient (resistance
increases as temperature increases) but these are rarely used. Always
assume NTC if no information is given.
A multimeter can be used to find the resistance at various

temperatures; these are some typical readings for example:
Icy water 0C: high resistance, about 12k

Room temperature 25C: medium resistance, about 5k
Boiling water 100C: low resistance, about 400
Piezo transducer
Piezo transducers are output transducers which convert an electrical

signal to sound. They require a driver circuit (such as a 555 stable) to
provide a signal and if this is near their natural (resonant) frequency of
about 3kHz they will produce a particularly loud sound.
Piezo transducers require a small current, usually less than 10mA, so

they can be connected directly to the outputs of most ICs. They are
ideal for buzzes and beeps, but are not suitable for speech or music
because they distort the sound. They are sometimes supplied with red
and black leads, but they may be connected either way round. PCB-
mounting versions are also available.
Symbols and installation diagrams
The wiring of fluorescent lamp circuits requires special consideration

and this applies also to switches. Because the current, unless fitted
with power factor correction devices, operates at less than unity power
factor the current is greater than that calculated from the rated lamp
watts.

FUNCTION - 2
Whenever possible, the lamp fitting supplier should be consulted as
the power factor and control gear losses vary with different types. In
the absence of makers ratings, the demand in volt-amperes should be
taken for the purpose of switch and cable ratings as 1.8 times the
rated lamp watts. This is based on the assumption that the power
factor is not less than 0.85 lagging and takes into account control gear
losses and harmonic currents.
Lamp replacement
The basis of good maintenance for the majority of lighting installations,

particularly in passenger ships, should be group replacement of lamps.
This is becoming widely accepted as the most economical form of
relamping.
The most economic point in lamp life can be assessed in two ways:
By taking account of the lumen depreciation of the lamp during life

By considering the failure pattern of lamps
Switchgear and control
While DC switchboards may employ open type panels, metalclad dead-

front equipment is mandatory on AC systems unless the voltage
between poles and earth is 55V or less. AC systems require additional
apparatus to be switchboard mounted; this includes frequency meters,
synchroscopes, wattmeters, voltage and current transformer, ammeter
switches, voltage regulators and means for adjusting the speed of the
prime mover.
With an AC system the duty of fault interruption is made easier than

the DC. When an AC fault occurs the fault current, after the first few
cycles, will pass through current zero every half cycle. Thus the arc
initially drawn between the contacts of the opening circuit breaker will
have a natural tendency to extinguish at each current zero. Conversely
a DC breaker can only interrupt the fault current by continually
increasing the resistance of the arc until the latter can no longer
maintain itself. Consequently, for a given type of circuit breaker, it is
usually possible to obtain a higher interrupting capacity on AC than DC.
Switches
There are three important features to consider when selecting a switch:
1. Contacts (e.g. single pole, double throw)

2. Ratings (maximum voltage and current)
3. Method of Operation (toggle, slide, key etc.)

FUNCTION - 2
Switch Contacts
Several terms are used to describe switch contacts:
Pole - number of switch contact sets.
Throw - number of conducting positions, single or double.
Way - number of conducting positions, three or more.
Momentary - switch returns to its normal position when released.
Open - off position, contacts not conducting.
Closed - on position, contacts conducting, there may be several on
positions.
Switch Contacts
Switch contacts are rated with a maximum voltage and current, and
there may be different ratings for 4AC and DC. The AC values are
higher because the current falls to zero many times each second and
an arc is less likely to form across the switch contacts.
For low voltage electronics projects the voltage rating will not matter,
but you may need to check the current rating. The maximum current is
less for inductive loads (coils and motors) because they cause more
sparking at the contacts when switched off.
Type of Switches
ON-OFF - Single Pole, Single Throw = SPST A simple on-off switch. This
type can be used to switch the power supply to a circuit. When used
with mains electricity this type of switch must be in the live wire, but it
is better to use a DPST switch to isolate both live and neutral.
ON OFF - Push-to-
make = SPST
Momentary
A push-to-make switch returns to its normally open (off) position when
you release the button, this is shown by the brackets around ON. This
is the standard doorbell switch.
ON-(OFF) - Push-to-break = SPST Momentary A push-to-break switch
returns to its normally closed (on) position when you
release the button.
ON-ON - Single Pole, Double Throw
= SPDT This switch can be on in both
positions, switching on a separate device in each case.
It is often called a changeover switch. For example, a
SPDT switch can be used to switch on a red lamp in one
position and a green lamp in the other position.

FUNCTION - 2
A SPDT toggle switch may be used as a simple on-off
switch by connecting to COM and one of the A or B
terminals shown in the diagram. A and B are
interchangeable so switches are usually not labeled.
ON-OFF-ON
SPDT Centre Off - A special version of the standard SPDT
switch. It has a third switching position in the centre
which is off. Momentary (ON)-OFF-(ON) versions are also
available where the switch returns to the central off
position when released.
Dual ON-OFF - Double Pole, Single Throw = DPST A pair

of on-off switches which operate together (shown by the
dotted line in the circuit symbol).
A DPST switch is often used to switch mains electricity
because it can isolate both the live and neutral connections.
Push Switches (break) - This type of switch is normally closed (on),
it is open (off) only when the button is pressed.
SPST - Single Pole Single Throw. An on off switch that allows
current to flow only when it is in the closed (on) position.
SPDT - A two way change over switch directs the flow of current to
one of two routes according to its F position. Some SPDT have central
off position and are described as on-off-on.
DPST - A dual on-off switch that is often used to switch mains
electricity because it can isolate both the live and neutral connections.
DPDT - This switch can be wired up as a reversing switch for a motor.
Some DPDT switches have central off position.
Relay - An electrically operated switch, for example a 9v battery
circuit connected to the coil can switch a 230 V AC mains circuit.
Drum-type controllers
For large motors and for heavy duties a drum type starter is
appropriate, particularly where frequent starting or speed regulation is
required such as for winches, i.e. cranes etc. For still heavier duties or
where automatic operation by pushbutton, float switch, pressure
switch, thermostat, etc. is required contactor type starters will be
necessary.
Transformers

FUNCTION - 2
The two coils of a simple single-phase transformer are of isolated wire
and wound on the same laminated core. Often the windings are shown
separated in Figure 4.9.
Alternating current applied to one winding produces an alternating
magnetic flux (strengthened by the iron core) which in cutting the
second winding induces a voltage in it, also alternating. The flux,
although established in the core by the AC source energizing the
primary winding, also cuts this winding and induces a voltage in it
almost equal to the applied primary voltage.
The same
voltage is
induced in each turn of both windings so that voltage is stepped up or down

in proportion to the number of turns. The primary winding is always the one
connected to the power source; the secondary to the load.
Induction regulators
An induction regulators gives voltage or phase variation and is based

on the construction of the induction motor except that the constituent
parts remain stationary. The angular position of the rotor can be
adjusted but the rotor is not free to rotate.
In a three-phase induction regulator the supply voltage is fed to both

primary and secondary windings, the former being star connected and
the secondary connected to the output terminals as shown in Figure
12.13(a). When connected to the supply a rotating magnetic field is
set up which cuts the conductors of the secondary windings and
induces an e.m.f.in them. The magnitude of the induced voltage
remains constant but its phase angle in relation to the primary voltage
can be varied by plus or minus the secondary voltage and at
intermediate values as shown in Figure 12.13(b).

FUNCTION - 2
The total movement of the rotor is 180 degrees (elec.) and slip rings
are unnecessary as the connections to the rotor winding can be made
with flexible. The primary windings may be on either the stator or the
rotor, whichever is most convenient.
Diodes devices
Some designs use thyristors but it is more common for all the devices
to be silicon diodes. Diodes are available in either polarity so it is
essential when fitting replacements to maintain correct polarity.
Alternatively some diodes are of a double-sided construction in which
case it is essential to fit them the correct way round.
Not all diodes are clearly marked but by using an Avometer or similar
instrument the conducting direction can be determined.
DIODES
Function
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the
circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes
are the electrical version of a valve and early diodes were actually
called valves.
Forward Voltage Drop

Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through the diode,
rather like a person pushing through a door with a spring. This means
that there is a small voltage across a conducting diode, it is called the
forward voltage drop and is about 0.7V for all normal diodes which are
made from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a diode is almost
constant whatever the current passing through the diode so they have
a very steep characteristic (current-voltage graph).
Reverse Voltage
When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct,
but all real diodes leak a very tiny current of a few A or less. This can
FUNCTION - 2
be ignored in most circuits because it will be very much smaller than
the current flowing in the forward direction. However, all diodes have a
maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded
the diode will fail and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this
is called breakdown.
Connecting and soldering

Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be
labeled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c,
for cathode!). The cathode is marked by a line painted on the body.
Diodes are labeled with their code in small print; you may need a
magnifying glass to read this on small signal diodes!
Testing diodes
You can use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED)
to check that a diode conducts in one direction but not the other. A
lamp may be used to test a rectifier diode, but do NOT use a lamp to
test a signal diode because the large current passed by the lamp will
destroy the diode!
Signal diodes (small current)

Signal diodes are used to process information (electrical signals) in
circuits, so they are only required to pass small currents of up to
100mA. General-purpose signal diodes such as the 1N4148 are made
from silicon and have a forward voltage drop of 0.7V
Germanium diodes such as the OA90 have a lower forward voltage

drop of 0.2V and this makes them suitable to use in radio circuits as
detectors that extract the audio signal from the weak radio signal.
For general use, where the size of the forward voltage drop is less
important, silicon diodes are better because they are less easily
damaged by heat when soldering, they have a lower resistance when
conducting, and they have very low leakage currents when a reverse
voltage is applied.
Bridge rectifiers
There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to
convert AC to DC. The bridge rectifier is one of them and it is available
in special packages containing the four diodes required. Bridge
rectifiers are rated by their maximum current and maximum reverse
voltage. They have four leads or terminals: the two DC outputs are
labelled + and -, the two AC inputs are labeled.
The diagram shows the operation of a bridge rectifier as it converts

AC to DC. Notice how alternate pairs of diodes conduct

FUNCTION - 2
Bridge Rectifier
Various types of Bridge Rectifiers
Zener Diodes
Zener diodes are used to maintain a fixed voltage. They are designed
to reakdown in a reliable and non-destructive way so that they can
be used in reverse to maintain a fixed voltage across their terminals.
The diagram shows how they are connected, with a resistor in series to
limit the current.
Example:
a = anode k = cathode
Zener Diode connection diagram
Zener diodes are rated by their

breakdown voltage and maximum
power:
The minimum voltage available is

2.7V.
HOW TO USE SOLDERING IRON

FUNCTION - 2
What Is Soldering?
A soldering iron is a tool with a metal tip that gets really hot. Were talking
like 800 degree Fahrenheit, though you can adjust the temperature on a
good iron. Its job is to transfer heat to things like wires, transistor leads, and
pads on PCBs. After the appropriate areas are heated properly, solder is
applied. If you plan on soldering, then youre better off spending $30-$40 on
a 20-30 Watt iron instead of on a cheap $15 one. Youll get a longer-lasting
tool that will work for a much wider variety of applications and youll get
proper heat control to boot. There are also soldering guns available, but you
should only use these when repairing thick cables and never on PCBs, as the
tips have a live voltage running through them that can damage sensitive
electronics.
Solder is a thin tube, usually rolled in spools, made of various metal alloys.
Its job is to hold the individual components together. The individual
components and their quantities can vary, but for computer electronics,
youre usually looking at a 60% tin and 40% lead. Lead-free solder is also
available, though it has higher melting temperatures and less wettability,
meaning you may need a better soldering iron to use it and removing it can
be more tedious. Lead-free solder is better for the environment and has
other benefits, and they function more or less the same way.
The inside of the tube is filled with flux, a substance that gets rid of
oxidation and helps clean the surfaces involved in the fusing process. For
electronic use, you want rosin-core/rosin-flux solder. Acid-flux is used in
plumbing and the acid can damage the sensitive components on PCBs.

FUNCTION - 2
Safety First! Cleaning and Tinning the Tip
Many whove never used a soldering iron are afraid of damaging equipment,
but more important is the danger to yourself! Soldering irons get really hot
(think, and solder itself is molten metal. Be sure to wear safety glasses, keep
loose clothing and hair out of the way, and be careful with your fingers.
Better still, use protective gloves. Solder can contain lead, so be sure to
wash your hands thoroughly after handling it. Its also really important to
work in a well-ventilated area because the fumes from the rosin can cause
damage to your lungs when inhaled. Honestly, its more common sense and
preparation than anything. Just take proper precautions and youll be fine.
In order to conduct heat properly, your soldering iron needs to be free of any
old solder. After being exposed to air, it oxidizes and thus insulates against
heat. We want heat to conduct so that we can apply everything quickly and
efficiently. A dirty tip means that youll have to hold the iron on longer and
risk heat damage to the PCB, and nobody wants that. Keep a wet sponge
handy, and after the soldering iron is fully heated, softly scrape it against the
sponge to remove old solder. The tip should be nice and shiny, or at least
very close to it.
Next, were going to tin the tip. This will protect the tip and allow heat to
conduct better via the presence of new solder. On the hot iron, carefully
apply a small amount of fresh solder and coat the tip. It should still be shiny
if youve done it right. As soon as you tin the tip you should start soldering
your components together. After every few joins, clean and re-tin, and again
before putting your iron away into storage. This will really help increase the
longevity of your tool. A good soldering iron should easily last years this way.

FUNCTION - 2
Joining Parts
Hold the iron in your dominant hand and a long piece of solder in your other
hand. When soldering two components together, you want to touch the area
where they join with the soldering iron. Hold it there for about a second, then
slide the solder underneath the tip of the iron, sandwiching it to the PCB
(refer to above image, cursor points to solder). Hold it for another second or
two, feeding in how much solder you need. This amount will vary depending
on the project, application, and diameter of the solder, so check your
instructions and study the pictures to get a good idea of the end result.
Now, this is really important. Pull away the solder first, and continue holding
the iron for another second. This allows the solder to continue to melt and
pool, forming a good joint. Then, you can remove the iron. The total process
shouldnt take more than 5 seconds, and usually youre aiming for 3-4.
Wait a few seconds and dont disturb the solder. It cools very quickly, but
moving or blowing on the joint will cause it to deteriorate. A bad solder
connection will look really oxidized, overly dull, and grainy. It also sort of
looks like a ball of solder formed on the area. A good connection should be
smooth and uniform and its sides will be concave. It wont look like a raised
ball, itll look flat.
Desoldering

FUNCTION - 2
When removing a connection or undoing a mistake, you can often
resolder over the original and add a touch of new solder. If you want to
take the extra step and do it right, you can remove the old solder
completely and start with a fresh work area. There are two tools you
can use for this, a vacuum-based solder sucker, or a solder wick.
Snubber circuits
the process of commutating an electric
current.
Example circuits of snubber
Electronics Calculators.
Driving inductive loads with transistor switches, whether they be fly

back transformers, relays or motors often result in the high voltage
resonant spikes when the coils are interrupted from their current
source by the transistor. There are various ways of mitigating these
undesirable spikes which cause component failures and EMI issues.
The most common approach is to use snubber circuits. This
engineering tutorial article not only explains common snubber circuits
but provides several design calculators that make snubber design easy.
Figure 1 - Coil driving circuit showing the use of a RCD

clamping snubber (D1,C1,R1) and a RCD rate of voltage
rise snubber (D2,R2,C2).

FUNCTION - 2
Navitron NT888G
Purpose designed by Navitron Systems

Limited for professional use on Magnetic
and/or Gyrobased commercial vessels of all
types - including High Speed Craft - to
approximately 3000 gross registered
tonnes, the Navitron NT888G is a speed
adaptive Autopilot which constantly
monitors and self tunes to provide
optimum steering performance.
Powerfully equipped and technologically
advanced, the NT888G is 'wheelmarked'
in accordance with MED 96/98/EC and
Fully Type Approved for conventional hull
and High Speed Craft (HSC) to latest IMO and ISO specifications. Also
Russian Maritime Register of Shipping (RMRS) and Morsviazsputnik
approved.

FUNCTION - 2
Self-steering gear
Is equipment used on ships and boats to

maintain a chosen course without constant
human action. It is also known by several
other terms, such as autopilot (borrowed
from aircraft and considered incorrect by
some) and autohelm (technically
a Raymarine trademark, but often used
generically). Several forms of self-steering
gear exist, divided into two categories: electronic and mechanical.
Smoothing circuits

FUNCTION - 2
Most circuits will require 'smoothing' of the DC output of a rectifier,
and this is a simple matter since it involves only one capacitor, as
shown in figure 1.
The output waveform in figure 2 shows how

smoothing works. During the first half of the
voltage peaks from the rectifier, when the
voltage increases, the capacitor charges up.
Then, while the voltage decreases to zero in
the second half of the peaks, the capacitor
releases its stored energy to keep the output
voltage as constant as possible. Such a
capacitor is called a 'smoothing' or 'reservoir'
capacitor when it is used in this application.
Stabilization
The act of stabilizing something or making it more stable; "he worked

for price stabilization for farm products"; "wage stabilization is
necessary for industrial peace"; "stabilization means that the product
can be handled under atmospheric conditions".
Explain the Integrated Circuits
Integrated circuit
An integrated circuit or monolithic

integrated circuit (also referred to as
an IC, a chip, or a microchip) is a set
of electronic circuits on one small plate
("chip") of semiconductor material,
normally silicon. This can be made much
smaller than a discrete circuit made from
independent components. ICs can be made
very compact, having up to several billion transistors and
other electronic
components in an area the size of a
fingernail. The width of each conducting line
in a circuit can be made smaller and smaller
as the technology advances; in 2008 it
dropped below 100 nanometers and in 2013
it was expected to be in the tens of
nanometers.

FUNCTION - 2
Operational Amplifier Basics
As well as resistors and capacitors, Operational Amplifiers, or Op-
amps as they are more commonly called,
are one of the basic building blocks of
Analogue Electronic Circuits. Operational
amplifiers are linear devices that have all
the properties required for nearly ideal DC
amplification and are therefore used
extensively in signal conditioning, filtering
or to perform mathematical operations
such as add, subtract, integration and
differentiation.
An ideal Operational Amplifier is basically a three-terminal device
which consists of two high impedance inputs, one called the Inverting
Input, marked with a negative or minus sign, ( - ) and the other one
called the Non-inverting Input, marked with a positive or plus sign
( + ).
The third terminal represents the Operational Amplifiers output port
which can both sink and source either a voltage or a current. In a linear
operational amplifier, the output signal is the amplification factor,
known as the amplifiers gain ( A ) multiplied by the value of the input
signal and depending on the nature of these input and output signals,
there can be four different classifications of operational amplifier gain.
Voltage Voltage in and Voltage out
Current Current in and Current out
Trans conductance Voltage in and Current out
Trans resistance Current in and Voltage out
Three types of Integrated circuits
low lead count with low cost requirements

medium i/o count packages
high electrical performance flip chip packages
Low Lead Count Packages
The thermal performance of the SOIC (Small Outline Integrated Circuit)

and QFP (Quad Flat Package) style package (Figure 1) is determined to
a large extent by the package size, the lead frame pad for the die
(commonly called the die pad or flag) and die size. To improve the
mechanical integrity of the package during a board soldering process,
the lead frame pad size is normally minimized.

FUNCTION - 2
Medium i/o Count
The wire bond PBGA (Plastic Ball Grid Array) is the most common
package type used for the medium i/o count devices. Again, the
package choice is driven by cost (wire bond substrates are cheaper
than flip-chip substrates because of the lower connection density),
relative high density of i/o and better electrical performance than large
leaded packages. The package size is frequently driven by the ball grid
array pitch. Obviously, the package with the balls on 1.27 mm pitch is
much larger than the same number of balls on a 0.5 mm pitch. As a
general rule, the cost of a package substrate and the printed circuit
board scale with area; larger area equals higher cost. But, finer
(smaller) pitch parts increase the cost and complexity of both the
laminate substrate of the package and the cost and complexity of the
printed circuit board. In many cases, the use of 0.5 mm pitch balls will
require a high density interconnect (HDI) printed circuit board, which is
much more expensive than standard printed circuit board technologies.
Having more connections in a small area also increases the layer count
in the printed circuit board. For general use, the most common pitch
seems to be 1 mm.

FUNCTION - 2
Flip Chip Packages
Flip chip packages are the preferred choice when the best electrical
performance is necessary for high i/o devices. Flip chip packages are
used over a range of power dissipations from less than 1 W to over 100
W.
Measured Thermal Resistance for Three Substrate Types for Flip Chip
360 2525 mm Device Figure 7 shows a pictorial view of a bare die flip
chip package. For low power devices, the standard thermal resistances
for the package are useful as a guide to their performance. Table 3
provides the thermal resistance of a 360 i/o, 25 x 25 mm, exposed-die
flip chip package with three different substrate materials. It is
interesting to contrast the two different ceramic substrates. The high
temperature cofired substrate with approximately 90% alumina has a
conductivity of approximately 16 W/m-K. The metallization is either
tungsten or other glass frit composition with low enough conductivity
that the metallization patterns do not significantly improve thermal
performance of the package. The HiCTE (High Coefficient of Thermal
Expansion) ceramic is a low fired ceramic with a higher glass content
and much lower thermal conductivity, usually about 2 W/m-K, but uses
copper metallization. The copper content must be considered when
determining the conductivity of the substrate. The third common style
of substrate is a plastic laminate, usually consisting of a laminate core
such as BT laminate with large drilled vias and buildup layers of
dielectric and plated copper. The vias in the buildup layers are usually
much smaller diameter and constructed by photolithography or by
laser ablation. At higher powers, most of the heat transfer will be
through a heat sink. Hence, the standard junction to ambient or
junction to board thermal resistances are almost irrelevant. The
relevant thermal metric is jc.

FUNCTION - 2
Method and apparatus for accurate alignment of integrated circuit
In a method for mounting an integrated circuit onto a substrate in a

flip-chip configuration, a circuit alignment feature on the processed
surface of the integrated circuit and a substrate alignment feature on
the mounting surface of the substrate are used to accurately align a
set of bonding pads on the processed surface of the integrated circuit
with a corresponding set of contact pads on the mounting surface of
the substrate. The positions of the circuit and substrate alignment
features are determined, and a separation between these alignment
features which will result in accurate alignment of the bonding pads to
the corresponding contact pads is calculated. The circuit is moved with
respect to the substrate in order to achieve this predetermined
separation. The method may be carried out using an apparatus which
includes a die placement fixture and a substrate placement fixture. An
alignment feature detection system is used to determine positions of
circuit and substrate alignment features, and an alignment controller
coupled to the alignment feature detection system is adapted to move
the circuit fixture with respect to the substrate fixture such that
predetermined separation between the circuit and substrate alignment
features is achieved.

FUNCTION - 2
Two main advantages
There are two main advantages of ICs

over discrete circuits: cost and
performance. Cost is low because the
chips, with all their components, are
printed as a unit by photolithography rather than
being constructed one transistor at a time.
Furthermore, much less material is used to
construct a packaged IC die than to construct a discrete circuit.
Performance is high because the components switch quickly and
consume little power (compared to their discrete counterparts) as a
result of the small size and close proximity of the components. As of
2012, typical chip areas range from a few square millimeters to around
450 mm2, with up to 9 million transistors per mm2.
Integrated circuit configuration
CMRR
The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of a differential
amplifier (or other device) is the rejection by the device of unwanted
input signals common to both input leads, relative to the wanted
difference signal. An ideal differential amplifier would have infinite
CMRR; this is not achievable in practice. A high CMRR is required when
a differential signal must be amplified in the presence of a possibly
large common-mode input. An example is audio transmission
over balanced lines.
Theory
Ideally, a differential amplifier takes the voltages, and on its two
inputs and produces an output voltage ,
where is the differential gain. However, the output of a real
differential amplifier is better described as
Where is the common-mode gain, which is typically much smaller

than the differential gain.
The CMRR is defined as the ratio of the powers of the differential gain
over the common-mode gain, measured in positive decibels (thus using
the 20 log rule):

FUNCTION - 2
As differential gain should exceed common-mode gain, this will be a

positive number, and the higher the better.
The CMRR is a very important specification, as it indicates how much of
the common-mode signal will appear in your measurement. The value
of the CMRR often depends on signal frequency as well, and must be
specified as a function thereof.
It is often important in reducing noise on transmission lines. For
example, when measuring the resistance of a thermocouple in a noisy
environment, the noise from the environment appears as an offset on
both input leads, making it a common-mode voltage signal. The CMRR
of the measurement instrument determines the attenuation applied to
the offset or noise.
Example: operational amplifiers
Typical instrumentation amplifier implementation, designed to have a high

CMRR.
An operational amplifier (op-amp) has two inputs, V+ and V-, and

an open-loop gain G. In the ideal case, the output of an ideal op-amp
behaves according to the equation
This equation represents an infinite CMRR: if both inputs fluctuate by

the same amount (while maintaining a constant difference V + - V-), this
change will have no bearing on the output. In real applications, this is
not always the case: the lower the CMRR, the larger the effect on the
output signal, following the general equation
Where VCM represents the common-mode voltage at the inputs, or

(V+ + V-)/2.
FUNCTION - 2
The 741 (a common op-amp chip) has a CMRR of 90 dB, which is
reasonable in most cases. A value of 70 dB may be adequate for
applications which are insensitive to the effects on amplifier output;
some high-end devices may use op-amps with a CMRR of 120 dB or
more.
So for example, an op-amp with 90dB CMRR operating with 10V of
common-mode will have an output error of 316uV.
INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
An instrumentation (or instrumentational) amplifier is a type

of differential amplifier that has been outfitted with input buffer
amplifiers, which eliminate the need for input impedance matching and
thus make the amplifier particularly suitable for use in measurement
and test equipment. Additional characteristics include very
low DC offset, low drift, low noise, very high open-loop gain, very
high common-mode rejection ratio, and very high input impedances.
Instrumentation amplifiers are used where
great accuracy and stability of the circuit both short and long-term are
required.
The most commonly used instrumentation amplifier circuit is shown in the

figure. The gain of the circuit is
The rightmost amplifier, along with the resistors labelled and is

just the standard differential amplifier circuit, with gain = and
differential input resistance = 2 . The two amplifiers on the left are
the buffers. With removed (open circuited), they are simple unity
gain buffers; the circuit will work in that state, with gain simply equal

FUNCTION - 2
to and high input impedance because of the buffers. The buffer

gain could be increased by putting resistors between the buffer
inverting inputs and ground to shunt away some of the negative
feedback; however, the single resistor between the two inverting
inputs is a much more elegant method: it increases the differential-
mode gain of the buffer pair while leaving the common-mode gain
equal to 1. This increases the common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of
the circuit and also enables the buffers to handle much larger
common-mode signals without clipping than would be the case if they
were separate and had the same gain. Another benefit of the method
is that it boosts the gain using a single resistor rather than a pair, thus
avoiding a resistor-matching problem (although the two s need to be
matched), and very conveniently allowing the gain of the circuit to be
changed by changing the value of a single resistor. A set of switch-
selectable resistors or even a potentiometer can be used for ,
providing easy changes to the gain of the circuit, without the
complexity of having to switch matched pairs of resistors.
The ideal common-mode gain of an instrumentation amplifier is zero. In
the circuit shown, common-mode gain is caused by mismatches in the
values of the equally numbered resistors and by the mismatch in
common mode gains of the two input op-amps. Obtaining very closely
matched resistors is a significant difficulty in fabricating these circuits,
as is optimizing the common mode performance of the input op-amps.
[3]
420 mA
For industrial process control instruments, analog 420 mA and 10

50 mA current loops are commonly used for analog signaling, with
4 mA representing the lowest end of the range and 20 mA the highest.
The key advantages of the current loop are that the accuracy of the
signal is not affected by voltage drop in the interconnecting wiring, and
that the loop can supply operating power to the device. Even if there is
significant electrical resistance in the line, the current loop transmitter
will maintain the proper current, up to its maximum voltage capability.
The live-zero represented by 4 mA allows the receiving instrument to
detect some failures of the loop, and also allows transmitter devices to
be powered by the same current loop (called two-wire transmitters).
Such instruments are used to
measure pressure, temperature, flow, pH or other process variables. A
current loop can also be used to control a valve positioner or other
output actuator. An analog current loop can be converted to a voltage

FUNCTION - 2
input with a precision resistor.
Since input terminals of
instruments may have one
side of the current loop input
tied to the chassis ground
(earth), analog isolators may
be required when connecting
several instruments in series.
4-20mA Current Loop Tester Circuit Diagram
Voltage regulator
Voltage regulation means to prevent the

voltage from dropping down or rising above a
specific value. A 12 volt regulator circuit will
provide exactly 12V under load as well as
without load. On the other hand, an un-
regulated 12V power supply output voltage
with drop under while the load will increase
and will rise when not under load. For
example, an un-regulated 12V power supply
can output 14V when not under load and can
drop the voltage to 11V when under 1A load
and 10V when under 2A load. This rise and
drop of voltage in un-regulated power supplies
can sometimes burn sensitive electronics
equipments.
I, once, went to market to buy a voltage
regulated supply but was amazed to see the cost. I decided to build my
own power supply and researched a bit on the internet. My required
load was 12V and 1A so I ended up designing the following voltage
regulator circuit which is very low cost but at the same time it is
efficient.
Here goes the parts list.
1. 240V to 15V 1.2A Transformer
2. 4 pieces of IN4001 (You can use a bridge rectifier as well)
3. 220uF 25V Capacitor
4. .1uF 25V Capacitor
5. 7812 IC (Integrated Circuit)
6. A heat sink plate for 7812 IC
7812 is a very good voltage regulator integrated circuit (IC). It is cheap

but efficient, that is why I selected it for this regulator circuit. 7812
Pin2 connections are also explained in my regulator circuit diagram.

FUNCTION - 2
You can see that Pin 1 is input, Pin 2 is Ground (which is often V) and
Pin 3 is output. It is very simple to understand 7812. The 220uF 25V
capacitor is used as a buffer to cover frequency gap. The second
capacitor is used as an extra filter. IN4001 rectifiers are used to
convert AC current into DC current. Transformer is used to convert
240V AC into 15V AC. If you have 110V mains then you can use a 110V
AC to 15 AC transformer.
Multi vibrator
A multi vibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of

simple two-state systems such as light emitting diodes, timers and flip-
flops. It is characterized by two amplifying devices (transistors,
electron tubes or other devices) cross-coupled by resistors and
capacitors.
Mathematical formula for calculating frequency:
F= 1/T
= 1/[(0.693)*R*C]
= 1/[(0.693)*(R1*C1 +R2*C2)
where F is frequency in hertz.
R1 and R2 are resistors in Ohms.

C1 and C2 are capacitors in Farads.
T is time constant.
IC applications

FUNCTION - 2
PWM lamp dimmer. A simple and efficient
PWM lamp dimmer using timer IC NE555 is
discussed in this article. Yesterdays linear
regulator based dimmers can only attain a
maximum efficiency of 50% and are far
inferior when compared to the PWM based
dimmers which can hit well over 90%
efficiency. Since less amount of power is
wasted as heat, the switching elements of
PWM dimmers require a smaller heat sink
and this saves a lot of size and weight. In
simple words, the most outstanding
features of the PWM based lamp dimmers
are high efficiency and low physical size.
Explain electronics fault diagnosis on board ship
Interpretation and used of electronic system and sub system circuit

diagrams
Basic principles
If youve come across a circuit diagram for the first time maybe in a
hobby electronics magazine like Everyday Practical Electronics or even
a Haynes car repair manual then you can be forgiven for being a bit
confused. A diagram full of spaghetti-like lines and weird symbols
how on earth do you make sense of it all?
In this special article Ill explain how to interpret even complex circuit
diagrams properly and generally find your way around them with
confidence. Most seasoned electronics hobbyists and technicians can
read them like they were written in plain English, and actually it
doesnt take much practice to understand them, as youll soon
discover.
When our elder sister magazine Practical Electronics was launched
back in 1964, each and every circuit diagram and assembly drawing
was expertly and beautifully drawn entirely by hand, using fantastically
skilled artists and draughtsmen. These days, computer software is
used to draft circuit diagrams on-screen (schematic capture), offering
us the bonus of being able to re-arrange parts with a mouse-click to
obtain the best-looking diagram layout. The design data can then be
fed into a printed circuit board design package and a whole PCB can be
designed and manufactured from that.
Whether hand-drawn or produced on a CAD package, there are some
basic principles that are common to all circuit diagrams. Good circuit
diagram design helps ensure that anyone can pick up a diagram and

FUNCTION - 2
understand clearly what is going on. Its the responsibility of circuit
designers to ensure that their diagrams are legible and easily
understood, to explain graphically the make-up of a circuit and to help
those who need to work with it afterwards, either in manufacture or
when repairing an item in the field.
Mapping it out
If youre new to the subject of reading

circuit diagrams (also called circuit
schematics), then one way to start is to
think of them as road maps. The towns
and villages in the map are the
electronic components themselves, and
the lines representing highways or
roads show how theyre connected to
each other.
Sometimes there will be intersections or junctions where the roads

meet each other and are joined together. This is where electronic
components are physically connected with each other.
Other times, well definitely not want them to meet each other! For
example a road bridge passing over a road underneath; in electronics
terms, these are times when electrical wires or conductors are
fully insulated from each other and our circuit diagrams need to show
that very clearly. Just imagine the potential problems if we cant figure
it out if something is supposed to be connected to something else!
On maps therell be narrow single-lane roads carrying some traffic

just like a wire carries an electrical current or audio signal, but youll
sometimes also see huge multi-lane highways carrying loads of traffic
all side by side! Whats more, there might be high-density roads
carrying very heavy traffic.
Apart from visualizing those little villages on our imaginary roadmap,

youll see large areas representing conurbations and built-up areas like
towns and cities. Roads and highways are still represented as solid
lines connecting these places, but because the cities have extremely
complicated road networks within them (think of London or Paris!), the
map doesnt show each and every twist and turn of the city roads.
Theyre simplified as big areas coloured on a map. Youd have to buy
an A-Z guide to see the internal road network of a city itself.

FUNCTION - 2
A circuit diagram can work the same way, by showing boxes that
represent something (e.g. an integrated circuit) thats a lot more
complicated internally, or something that could even justify having its
own circuit diagram.
One major difference between our road map analogy and a circuit
diagram is that a map is geographical: it has to show the location of
roads and towns in correct relation to each other. (One exception is the
world-famous map of the London Underground, a design masterpiece
that shows which tube stations are on which line. But not
geographically.)
A circuit diagram has no geographical handicaps: as long as the solid

lines go to the right places, it doesnt matter where the components
are shown on the circuit diagram relative to each other. Good circuit
diagram design, though, mean that parts are grouped together
reasonably closely on the diagram just as they would be in the circuit
board itself, so that parts arent scattered randomly around in the
drawing.
In a nutshell then, when you see a circuit diagram, simply think of it as

a road map stripped of all unnecessary detail.
At a junction
If were going to understand how to read circuit diagrams, then the

basics start with the wires the conductors that
carry electrical current from one component to
another. Without them you dont have a circuit!
In a circuit diagram, solid lines indicate wires. If

several wires join each other we always show
this with a blob.
If lines on a diagram cross each other but you dont see a blob then
the crossing wires are not joined to each other. Sometimes youll see
a hoop to emphasize that wires arent joined together. But thats a bit
old-fashioned these days.

FUNCTION - 2
The most basic electronic components (resistors,
capacitors, diodes, transistors etc.) are the
building block houses of our circuit, often
called discrete components, as opposed
to integrated circuits which are silicon chip
cities on our map. Components are the destinations in our roadmap,
interconnected by wires (roads).
Each component has a unique symbol, and its important that you
learn to recognize what they are. After a little experience youll soon be
reading diagrams with ease. Sometimes the symbol also attempts to
explain how the component works, such as the one-way arrowhead of
a diode (which only conducts one way, but not the other), or a
capacitor, which is physically divided by an internal gap (filled with
a dielectric). Components are labelled with unique serial numbers, e.g.
resistors start with R1, R2 etc, capacitors are labelled C1, C2 in the
circuit diagrams, and so on. Either their values
will also be shown in the drawing or there will be
a separate components list.
Usually, a solid line on a circuit diagram will

connect directly to one component such as a resistor (shown left), so
theres no need to show a blob where it joins onto the resistor,
otherwise the diagram becomes messy and
confusing to look at.
Its a best practice never to show a crossroads of wires

with a blob, but to offset them as shown. Then its crystal
clear what the diagram represents, and youll be left in no
doubt that all four wires are joined together.
Remember, a circuit diagram has to be drafted so that

someone whos never seen it before a repair technician for example can
easily understand what the circuit represents without making mistakes.
In summary:
Joints or junctions where wires or components are electrically
connected to each other are represented by a blob.
Lines that cross each other but do not have a blob,
are not connected to each other.

FUNCTION - 2
Avoid crossroads blobs to improve confidence when reading the
diagram.
Theres no need to show blobs when connecting to individual
components.
All components have a unique ID, such as R1, R2, etc. and values may
also be shown (e.g. R1 100 ohms).
Riding on (power) rails

All circuitry needs a source of power, whether derived from the mains
electricity, or from d.c. batteries.
A battery has two terminals marked + and -. A car battery usually has
+12V and -12V markings. (Its pedantic but technically correct to say
that the use of +12V and -12V is misleading, because it implies that
mathematically theres a potential difference (voltage) of 24V between
the terminals: its markings should really
is +12V and 0V. But ordinary consumers
just know them as the positive and
negative terminals.)
A car is the perfect example to illustrate

my next point: the principle of
grounding. Most cars are made of steel and have a 12V negative
earth or negative chassis. What this means is that the metal body of
the car acts as a huge continuous wire connecting directly to the
negative terminal of the battery.
Car makers do this to save miles of wiring: a headlight just needs a

single +12V wire to go to the bulb from the headlight switch, and the
bulbs other wire is actually the entire car body. Current then flows
through the steel body and through an earth strap straight back to the
car battery, thus forming a circuit. The same is true of most of the cars
electrics, from the smallest bulb to the starter motor: there is a live
side which is at +12V and then theres a return which goes to the
metal chassis and back to the battery negative.
This feature of having a chassis or ground to act as a giant

common wire is used a lot in circuit diagrams, because it saves
designers having to draw lots of lines to join up the negative side of a
circuit.

FUNCTION - 2
Youll frequently see a special symbol to indicate a
ground connection. Somewhere in the circuit
diagram, a battery or power source often has one
terminal (usually 0V or the negative) connected to
ground. Elsewhere in the circuit, components will
also be shown connected to ground.
Here are two points to remember:
Ground symbols are used to keep circuit diagrams clear and simple:
everything having a ground symbol is connected together, its just that
the wires arent drawn in the circuit diagram itself. Consider them as
invisible common connections through a car body.
A different symbol is seen for earth connections. These are literally

connections to the soil, e.g. for safety reasons. But you also see this
symbol being used to represent chassis or ground connections (like a
car body). In the USA they tend not to say earth at
all but ground instead. However in Britain, an
earth connection usually means precisely that.
The wires that carry the main source of power

around the circuit are usually called supply rails.
Remember in electronics, we cant afford to use
incorrect car battery terminology well properly say e.g. +12V
rail or 0V rail or ground rail. In electronics, a negative rail is indeed less
than 0V! This sounds impossible: how can you have something less
than zero?
Its a simple matter of relativity. For example, in a dual rail supply

circuit you might see three supply rails lets say + 12V, 0V and -12V
(shown), We wont go into circuit design here but the +12V rail could
equally be labelled as +24V, the mid-way 0V rail could be labelled as
+12V and the -12V rail labelled as 0V: the voltage differences in
relation to each other would still be the same. So dont be put off by
the concept of negative voltages, its just the way we denote all
voltage levels in relation to a 0V rail.
It is however preferable to show a 0V common rail in a circuit

diagram and label the other voltage rails with respect to that. Often
the 0V side is grounded as depicted by the use of the grounding
symbol; everything with a ground symbol then connects together.

FUNCTION - 2
Sometimes you might find that the thickness of the lines in a circuit
diagram varies. This is a bit unofficial but its used to show how heavy
duty the wire is, for example, a connection to a starter motor or a
mains heater. All of these ideas help the technician to visualize at a
glance whats going on when they study the circuit diagram.
Supply rails are the voltage supplies used to power the circuit. They
will be clearly marked with their voltage.
Take care to understand the idea of relative voltages for instance a

+12V supply rail will be 12 Volts positive with respect to (w.r.t.) the 0V
rail. Negative voltage rails will be negative w.r.t. the 0V rail.
Thick lines in circuit diagrams can represent heavy loads, to help

highlight them in the circuit schematic.
Now you can explain to your car-mechanic friends why all along
theyve been wrong to talk of +12V and -12V of a car battery!
Weve now seen how circuit diagrams describe how components are
joined into a circuit, how blobs indicate junctions in wiring, and weve
explained how power rails and ground symbols show how supply
voltages are distributed around the circuit. Lets move on from our
simple car battery idea and look at electronic circuit diagrams proper.
Buses and Inter wiring
Apart from simple discrete components joined together by wires (or the
copper tracks of a printed circuit board), youll see integrated circuits
(i.c.s) or chips used at the heart of circuitry. Integrated circuits can
have anything from four pins to the many hundreds seen on central
processing units.
ICs can be considered to be conurbation cities in our road map

analogy. They can contain millions of transistors which are obviously
impossible to represent in a circuit schematic (unless you want a sheet
of paper larger than several soccer pitches). Therefore, only the city
limits are shown in a circuit diagram. An integrated circuit is shown by
a simple outline box with each pin number brought out separately. In
simpler chips, the pins might be labelled to indicate their function, if
theres room on the diagram.

FUNCTION - 2
The same technique can be used in diagrams for dealing with complex
sub-systems or even connecting different circuit boards together. Each
sub-system or circuit board can be represented as a simple black box
with terminals (inputs and outputs) connected by interconnecting wires
shown as lines in circuit diagrams. Below is a block diagram of our
Micro Lab single board computer.
Imagine that you have a hugely complex circuit containing logic or CPUs or
digital displays. It becomes messy if not impossible to have a circuit diagram
showing thousands of wires joining various parts together. A schematic
shorthand we use is to draw a bus a line representing a group of
connections, such as an address bus or memory bus.
The idea of buses in schematics saves having to draw hundreds or

more of lines side by side on a circuit diagram.
The inter-connections of sub-systems or even entire circuit boards can

also be depicted using black boxes linked with wires and buses.
The skilful use of lines and buses in circuit diagrams shows the reader how
everything is connected together, leaving no room for doubt. Now that you
know the basics, lets see how some unusual components are represented in
circuit diagrams.
Electronic test equipment
Electronic test equipment (sometimes called "testgear" or "bench top")

is used to create signals and capture responses from electronic Devices
Under Test (DUTs). In this way, the proper operation of the DUT can be
proven or faults in the device can be traced. Use of electronic test
equipment is essential to any serious work on electronics systems.
Practical electronics engineering and assembly requires the use of
many different kinds of electronic test equipment ranging from the
very simple and inexpensive (such as a test light consisting of just a
light bulb and a test lead) to extremely complex and sophisticated
such as Automatic Test Equipment. ATE often includes many of these
instruments in real and simulated forms
Generally, more advanced test gear is necessary when developing
circuits and systems than is needed when doing production testing or
when troubleshooting existing production units in the field.
FUNCTION - 2
Method of DMM display
A multimeter, also called a volt-ohm meter or VOM, is a device that

measures resistance, voltage and current in electronic circuits. Some
also test diodes and continuity. Multimeters are small, lightweight and
battery operated, and they can test a wide variety of electronic
components in many situations, making them indispensable tools for
anyone who needs to test and repair electronic circuits.
Method 1 of 5: Measuring Resistance
Connect the multimeter to the circuit.

Insert the black probe into the common
terminal and the red probe into the
terminal marked for measuring for
measuring volts and ohms. The
terminal may also be marked for testing diodes.
Twist the selector knob to set the

multimeter to measure resistance. This
may be represented by the Greek letter
Omega, which stands for ohms, the unit
of measurement for resistance.
Turn off the power circuit

FUNCTION - 2
Remove the resistor you want to
measure. If you leave the resistor in
the circuit you may not get an
accurate reading. Touch the tips of the
probes to each side of the resistor.
Read the display taking care to the

note the units. A reading of 10 may
indicate 10 kilo-ohms or mega-ohms.
Method 2 of 5: Measuring Voltage
Connect the multimeter to a circuit.

Put the black probe in the common
terminal and the red probe in the
terminal marked for measuring volts
ohms.
Set the multimeter it for the voltage youre measuring. You can
measure volts DC(direct current),
millivolts DC or volts AC(alternating
current). If your multimeter has an
auto range function, its not necessary
to select the voltage youre measuring.
Measure AC voltage by placing the

probes across the component. Its not
necessary to observe polarity.
Observe polarity when measuring DC

voltage or millivoltage. Place the black
probe on the negative side of the
component and the red probe on the
positive side.

FUNCTION - 2
Read the display, taking care note the units.

If you prefer you can touch hold
feature to keep the reading on the
display after you remove the probes.
The multimeter will beep each time a
new voltage is detected.
Method of 3 of 5: Measuring Current
Choose either the terminal marked for

measuring 10 amps or the one marked
for measuring 300 milliamps(mA). If
youre unsure of the current start in
the 10 amp terminal until youre sure
the current is less than 300 milliamps.
Set the multimeter to measure

current. This may be represented by
the letter A.
Turn off power to the circuit
Break the circuit. To measure current

you must place the multimeter in
series with the circuit. Place the
probes on either side of the break,
observing polarity(black probe on
negative side, red probe on positive)
Turn the power on. The current will run through the circuit, up the red
probe and through the multimeter then out the black probe and into
the circuit.
FUNCTION - 2
Read the display, remembering

whether you are measuring amps or
milliamps. You can use the touch hold
feature if desired.
Method 4 of 5: Testing Diodes
Insert the back probe into the

common terminal and the red probe
into the terminal marked for
measuring ohms, volts or diode test.
Use the selector knob to choose the
test diode function. This may be
represented by a symbol
representing a diode, an arrow
pointing at a vertical line.
Turn the power off to the circuit.
Test forward bias. Place the red probe

on the positive side of the diode and
the black probe on the negative side,
if you get a reading of less than1 but
more than 0, the forward bias is good.
Reverse the probes to test reverse

bias. If the display reads OL
(overload), this indicates the reverse
bias is good.

FUNCTION - 2
A reading of OL or while testing
forward bias, and 0 while testing
reverse bias indicates that the diode
is bad.
Some multimeters will beep when the reading is less than 1. This
doesnt necessarily indicate a good diode, because a shorted diode will
also cause a bee.
Method 5 of 5: Measuring Continuity
Put the black probe into the common

terminal and red probe into the
terminal used to measure volts and
ohms.
Set the multimeter to the same

setting you use to test diodes.
Turn the power off to the circuit.
Place the leads on either side of the

section of circuit youre testing, its
not necessary to observe polarity, a
reading of less than 210 ohms
indicates good continuity.
Learning to read a multimeter isnt difficult when you understand how

the device works. This article will teach you to read both an analog and
a digital multimeter.

FUNCTION - 2
Use of CRO as testing and displaying instrument

The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a
common laboratory instrument that provides
accurate time and aptitude measurements of
voltage signals over a wide range of
frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease
of operation make it suitable as a general
purpose laboratory instrument. The heart of
the CRO is a cathode-ray tube shown schematically
The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by

the heated cathode (negative electrode) and
accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The
assembly of the cathode, intensity grid, focus grid,
and accelerating anode (positive electrode) is
called an electron gun. Its purpose is to generate
the electron beam and control its intensity and
focus. Between the electron gun and the
fluorescent screen are two pair of metal plates -
one oriented to provide horizontal deflection of
the beam and one pair oriented to give vertical
deflection to the beam. These plates are thus
referred to as the horizontal and vertical deflection
plates. The combination of these two deflections
allows the beam to reach any portion of the
fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron beam hits
the screen, the phosphor is excited and light is emitted from
that point. This conversion of electron energy into light allows us to
write with points or lines of light on an otherwise darkened screen.
In the most common use of the oscilloscope the signal to be studied is

first amplified and then applied to the vertical (deflection) plates to
deflect the beam vertically and at the same time a voltage that
increases linearly with time is applied to the horizontal (deflection)
plates thus causing the beam to be deflected horizontally at a uniform
(constant> rate. The signal applied to the vertical plates is thus
displayed on the screen as a function of time. The horizontal axis
serves as a uniform time scale.
The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is
accomplished by use of a sweep generator that is incorporated in the
oscilloscope circuitry. The voltage output of such a generator is that of
a saw tooth wave as shown in Fig. 2. Application of one cycle of this

FUNCTION - 2
voltage difference, which increases linearly with time, to the horizontal
plates causes the beam to be deflected linearly with time across the
tube face. When the voltage suddenly falls to zero, as at points (a) (b)
(c), etc...., the end of each sweep - the beam flies back to its initial
position. The horizontal deflection of the beam is repeated periodically,
the frequency of this periodicity is adjustable by external controls.
To obtain steady traces on the tube face, an internal number of cycles
of the unknown signal that is applied to the vertical plates must be

associated with each cycle of the sweep generator. Thus, with such a
matching of synchronization of the two deflections, the pattern on the
tube face repeats itself and hence appears to remain stationary. The
persistence of vision in the human eye and of the glow of the
fluorescent screen aids in producing a stationary pattern. In addition,
the electron beam is cut off (blanked) during fly back so that the
retrace sweep is not observed.
CRO Operation
A simplified block diagram of a typical oscilloscope is shown in Fig. 3.

In general, the instrument is operated in the following manner. The
signal to be displayed is amplified by the vertical amplifier and applied
to the vertical deflection plates of the CRT. A portion of the signal in
the vertical amplifier is applied to the sweep trigger as a triggering
signal. The sweep trigger then generates a pulse coincident with a
selected point in the cycle of the triggering signal. This pulse turns on
the sweep generator, initiating the saw tooth wave form. The saw
tooth wave is amplified by the horizontal amplifier and applied to the
horizontal deflection plates. Usually, additional provisions signal are
made for applying an external triggering signal or utilizing the 60 Hz
line for triggering. Also the sweep generator may be bypassed and an
external signal applied directly to the horizontal amplifier.
CRO Controls
The controls available on most oscilloscopes provide a wide range of

operating conditions and thus make the instrument especially

FUNCTION - 2
versatile. Since many of these controls are common to most
oscilloscopes a brief description of them follows.
Similar to finite element analysis, rather than using computer

generated models, the actual circuit board and test fixture are used in
measuring the circuit boards strain during the test cycle. Small
sensors called "tri-directional rosettes" are mounted to the circuit
board around strain sensitive components. The measurements taken
from the rosettes' are recorded with a scanner.
Test results can highlight the risk of:
Fractured solder joints

Lifted pads or traces
Cracked components
Delamination of the PCB
Analysis of measurement and test result on components and circuits
Extra measure of attention
The fixture and circuit board are used for the strain gage test resulting
in actual "live" measurements of the UUT's flexing during the test
cycle. During strain gage testing the fixture gets a detailed inspection
and is fine tuned to keep strain at the lowest possible levels.

FUNCTION - 2
When should extra testing be performed?
High concentrations of probes under BGA's or fragile components
The UUT is thinner than 0.062"
The UUT larger than 200in2
Fixture has > 2200 probes
Extra high spring force probes are utilized
If a component has a strict warranty policy
Electrical impedance is the measure of the opposition that

a circuit presents to a current when a voltage is applied.
In quantitative terms, it is the complex ratio of the voltage to

the current in an alternating current (AC) circuit. Impedance
extends the concept of resistance to AC circuits, and possesses
both magnitude and phase, unlike resistance, which has only
magnitude. When a circuit is driven with direct
current (DC), there is no distinction between
impedance and resistance; the latter can be
thought of as impedance with
zero phase angle.
It is necessary to introduce the concept
of impedance in AC circuits because
there are two additional impeding
mechanisms to be taken into account
besides the normal resistance of DC circuits:
the induction of voltages in conductors self-
induced by the magnetic fields of currents
(inductance), and the electrostatic storage of charge induced
by voltages between conductors (capacitance). The
impedance caused by these two effects is collectively referred
to as reactance and forms the imaginary part of complex
impedance whereas resistance forms the real part.
The symbol for impedance is usually Z and it may be
represented by writing its magnitude and phase in the form |Z|.
However, complex number representation is often more powerful
for circuit analysis purposes. The term impedance was coined

FUNCTION - 2
byOliver Heaviside in July 1886.[1][2] Arthur Kennelly was the first to
represent impedance with complex numbers in 1893.[3]
Impedance is defined as the frequency domain ratio of the voltage to
the current.[4] In other words, it is the voltagecurrent ratio for a
single complex exponential at a particular frequency . In general,
impedance will be a complex number, with the sameunits as
resistance, for which the SI unit is the ohm (). For a sinusoidal current
or voltage input, the polar form of the complex impedance relates the
amplitude and phase of the voltage and current. In particular,
The magnitude of the complex impedance is the ratio of the voltage

amplitude to the current amplitude.
The phase of the complex impedance is the phase shift by which the
current lags the voltage.
The reciprocal of impedance is admittance (i.e., admittance is the

current-to-voltage ratio, and it conventionally carries units of siemens,
formerly called mhos).
Automatic Control Engineering and Safety Devices
Explains the difference between open and closed loop

Open Loop
A system, sometimes called feed forward, without a monitoring
feedback. It may operate an alarm device or register an effect on an
instrument or data-logger. See Figure 19.2
Closed Loop
A control system, sometimes called feedback, possessing a
monitoring feedback, the deviation signal from this being used to
control the action of a final controlling element in such a manner as to

FUNCTION - 2
tend to reduce the amount of deviation to zero. Figure 19.1 Closed
Loop Control System.
Process Control
Deals with the behavior of dynamical system over time. The desired
output of a system is called the reference variable. When one or more
output variables of a system need to show a certain behaviour over
time, a controller manipulates the inputs to a system to obtain the
desired effect on the output of the system.
Control
Ability to purposefully direct or suppress.
A. Determine the behavior or supervise the running.
B. Power to direct or determine
Operation and use of sensor and transmitter
Sensors & Transmitters
A sensor element measures a process variable: flow rate,

temperature, pressure, level, pH, density, composition, etc. Much of
the time, the measurement is inferred from a second variable: flow
and level are often computed from pressure measurements,
composition from temperature measurements.
A transducer is a device that receives a signal and retransmits it in a
different form. For example, we've discussed I/P transducers that
convert a current signal to pneumatic form. Most industrial sensors
act to detect process variables in the form of a position or voltage
change, and hence most sensors also function as transducers. For

FUNCTION - 2
example, a thermocouple represents a temperature change as a

voltage change, while a displacer represents a level change as a
change in position of a rotating element.
If the sensor element does not produce a signal suitable for
transmission through the plant, an additional transducer element is
needed. This combined sensor/transducer device is typically called
a transmitter, at least in industrial settings. Laboratory equipment
manufacturers are likely to refer to the combined device as a
transducer.
Signals produced by sensor measurement and transducer
transmission are processed by the control system. They may be
displayed on control panels as indicators, stored by recorders, or
used by alarms or switches. Standard symbols for these devices
consist of two letter groups -- the first indicates the process variable,
the second the control function. So:
PI - pressure indicator
TC - temperature controller
LAH - level alarm high
FS - flow switch
PRC - pressure recorder/controller
TIC - temperature indicator/controller
and so on.
Controller and basic control theory

A controller is a comparative device that receives an input signal from
a measured process variable, compares this value with that of a
predetermined control point value (set point), and determines the
appropriate amount of output signal required by the final control
element to provide corrective action within a control loop. An
Electronic Controller uses electrical signals and digital algorithms to
perform its receptive, comparative and corrective function.
Operation and use of final control elements

Final Control Element
A final control element is defined as a mechanical device that
physically changes a process in response to a change in control
system set point. Final control elements relevant to actuators include
valves, dampers, fluid couplings, gates, and burner tilts to name a
few. Final control elements are an essential part of process control
systems, allowing an operator to achieve a desired process variable
output by manipulating a process variable set point.
FUNCTION - 2
Current trends in industry focus on improving quality and efficiency in

an effort to reduce process costs. Many industrial facilities are
recognizing the bottom line savings found from improved process
control performance through precise and consistent control of final
control elements.
Traditional methods of positioning final control elements include

electric actuators with squirrel-cage motors that suffer from duty-
cycle limitations, poor resolution, and poor reliability. Commonly used
pneumatic actuators suffer from stick/slip overshoot and high
maintenance requirements. While it may seem like a given that your
actuator should move when and where the controller tells it to, in
many cases dead time and stick/slip overshoot cause delays in
reaching the set point. The inefficiencies of these technologies can
subject the process to relatively poor control and unplanned outages
causing process variability and increased process costs. Many times
these costs go unnoticed because they are not direct and
immediately apparent. When selecting an actuator for a final control
element, the actuator should have performance characteristics that
will enable a control system to perform as designed.
The key final control element actuator performance characteristics are as

follows:
Precise, repeatable positioning typically better than 0.15% of span.
The ability to start and stop instantaneously without dead time or
position over shoot.
Continuous duty rating without limitations on the number of starts
per minute.
Perform consistently and unaffected by load.
Rugged industrial design capable of operating in difficult
environments without an effect on performance.
Minimal periodic maintenance required.
A final control element actuator designed with these characteristics
provides two extremely important advantages:
An ability to follow the demand signal from the controller precisely
and instantly. This ensures that the actuator responds exactly as
directed by the controller. Thus, the actuator is not the limiting factor

FUNCTION - 2
in the control loop and the controller can function to its optimal
levels.
A high degree of maintenance-free reliability. An actuator designed to
function as outlined above by default is more rugged than typical
actuators. By design, then, it is capable of a much higher degree of
reliability.
Equipment of final elements
A device such as a valve or damper that acts to change the value of the
manipulated variable. Positioned by an actuator.
TRIPPLE OFFSET BUTTERFLY VALVE SERIES BT
SOLENOID VALVES
BALL VALVES PLUG VALVES

FUNCTION - 2
PNEUMATIC CONTROL PARTS

PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS
BUTTERFLY VALVES SPECIALTY VALVES
ESD PARTIAL STROKE VALVE MONITORS GLOBE VALVE
BALL VALVES

FUNCTION - 2
Control loop analysis

The basic idea of loop analysis is to trace how a sinusoidal signal
propagates in the feedback loop. Stability can be explored by
investigating if the signal grows or decays when passes around the
feedback loop. This is easy to do because the transmission of
sinusoidal signals through a dynamical system is characterized by the
frequency response of the system. The key result is the Nyquist
stability theorem, which is important for several reasons. The concept
of Lyapunov stability is binary, a system is either stable or unstable.
From an engineering point of view it is very useful to have anotion of
degrees of stability. Stability margins can be defined based on
properties of the Nyquist curve. The Nyquist theorem also indicates
how an unstable system should be changed to make it stable.

To understand the difference between open-loop and closed-loop analysis,

consider this single-loop control system.
Operation and use of governor

FUNCTION - 2
A governor, or speed limiter, is a device used to
measure and regulate the speed of a machine, such
as an engine. A classic example is the centrifugal
governor, also known as the Watt or fly-ball
governor, which uses weights mounted on spring-
loaded arms to determine how fast a shaft is
spinning, and then uses proportional control to
regulate the shaft speed.
Electronic governors
Electronic governors. These governors typically are retrofitted to

applications that now require a governor. They pick up the engine
speed from the flywheel ring gear's teeth and control it electronically.
We supply Hoof Governors as well as governors by Governors America

Corp and would be happy to answer any questions.
Design features and system configurations of automatic control

equipment and safety device for the following;
General Requirements
Explain that electrical designed for land use often not suitable for
use in ships
Hydroelectric power plant

FUNCTION - 2
Hydroelectric power plant: plant that produces electricity from energy
generated by flowing water.
Explain that as far as possible, all materials should be non

flammable, explains where flame retardant materials maybe used
Flame retardants are added to different materials or applied as a

treatment to materials (e.g., textiles, plastics) to prevent fires from
starting, limit the spread of fire and minimize fire damage. Some flame
retardants work effectively on their own; others act as synergists to
increase the fire protective benefits of other flame retardants. A variety
of flame retardants is necessary because materials that need to be
made fire-resistant are very different in their physical nature and
chemical composition, so they behave differently during combustion.
The elements in flame retardants also react differently with fire. As a
result, flame retardants have to be matched appropriately to each type
of material. Flame retardants work to stop or delay fire, but, depending
on their chemical makeup, they interact at different stages of the fire
cycle. To better understand how flame retardants work, its helpful

to understand the fire cycle:
Explain the meaning of the term flame retardant
Flame retardants are compounds added to manufactured materials,

such as plastics and textiles, and surface finishes and coatings that
inhibit, suppress, or delay the production of flames to prevent the
FUNCTION - 2
spread of fire. They may be mixed
with the base material (additive
flame retardants) or chemically
bonded to it (reactive flame
retardants).[1]Mineral flame
retardants are typically additive
while organohalogen and
organophosphorus compounds can
be either reactive or additive. Fire-
retardant materials are designed
to burn slowly, different from fire-
resistant materials, which are designed to never
burn.
State the angles of heels and trim at which machinery should be

capable of operating
The principle of anti-heeling in the water pumped anti-heeling tank is

to generate a water gravity difference which can compensate heeling
of the ship as same as Y2-AHTa. And the water gravity difference
comes from water level difference which uses powerful water pump to
put the water from one side to opposite under control system. The Y2-
AHTp is made up of water pump, butterfly valve, water-level sensor,
motion transducer, monitoring system, etc. In general, the rated power
of Y2-AHTps water pump is relatively high which is relative to the
speed of anti-heeling. However, the price of Y2-AHTp set is
comparatively lower than Y2-AHTas.
Explain the effect of temperature changes on ;
Electromagnetic device

FUNCTION - 2
Relay is an Electromagnetic switch.
It operates on the principle of
Electromagnetic Force that creates
from a current conducting coil that
push or pull the switch contacts to
open or close the circuit. Relay is
used in many applications like as
vehicle indicator etc.
Generator Voltage
Synchronous ac generators are discussed in an elementary

way in Secs. 73, 115, 144, 145, 148, and 152 of Div. 1. These
generators may be constructed with either the armature or the field
structure as the revolving member. Small generators up to 50 kW are
commonly made with the revolving-armature construction. The
required magnetic field is produced by dc electromagnets, which are
excited as a small dc generator or exciter. The fundamental
construction and connections for a revolving-field alternator are shown
in Fig. 7.49.
FIGURE 7.49: Elementary diagram of an ac generator and exciter.

FUNCTION - 2
The emfin a synchronous alternator is
generated as suggested in Fig. 7.50. As
each field coil, D for instance, sweeps past the
armature coils, the lines of flux from the field
coil cut the armature coils. As coil D passes
from A to C,an alternating emf represented by
the curve ABC will be generated in the
armature. It should be understood that in
commercial alternators the armature coils
are set in slots and arranged differently from
those shown in Fig. 7.50, which only illustrate a
principle.
Discusses common maximum temperatures of air and sea water

used for design purposes.
AIR
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal

combustion engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to
a downstream turbine, and a combustion chamber in-between.
The basic operation of the gas turbine is similar to that of the steam
power plant except that air is used instead of water. Fresh atmospheric
air flows through a compressor that brings it to higher
pressure. Energy is then added by spraying fuel into the air and
igniting it so the combustion generates a high-temperature flow. This
high-temperature high-pressure gas enters a turbine, where it expands
down to the exhaust pressure, producing a shaft work output in the
process. The turbine shaft work is used to drive the compressor and
other devices such as an electric generator that may be coupled to the
shaft. The energy that is not used for shaft work comes out in
the exhaust gases, so these have either a high temperature or a high
velocity. The purpose of the gas turbine determines the design so that
the most desirable energy form is maximized. Gas turbines are used to
power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators, or even tanks.[
Water cooling is a method of heat removal from components and industrial

equipment. As opposed to air cooling, water is used as the heat conductor.
Water cooling is commonly used for coolingautomobile internal combustion
engines and large industrial facilities such as steam electric power
plants, hydroelectric generators, petroleum refineries and chemical plants.
FUNCTION - 2
[1]
Other uses include cooling the barrels of machine guns, cooling
of lubricant oil in pumps; for cooling purposes in heat exchangers; cooling
products from tanks or columns, and recently, cooling of various major
components inside high-end personal computers. The main mechanism for
water cooling is convective heat transfer.
Explains that the axis of a rotating machine should not be places

athwart ships unless so designed.
An athwart ships structure at the forward end of the cockpit with a

deck, often somewhat lower than the primary deck, to prevent a
pooping wave from entering through the companionway. May also
refer to the deck of a bridge. the heart of the stabilized sonar system is
the computer, which receives stabilizing inputs from the stable
element. The stable element uses either the main director train or the
fore-and-aft axis of the ship as its reference. The computer converts
these stabilizing inputs searchlights, radar systems, torpedo tubes, and
guns, as required by the ship. As the ship rolls and pitches the stable

FUNCTION - 2
element measures the angles of deviation from the true horizontal. The
computer then converts these angles into level and cross level signals
to be added to the angles of depression and train, which are generated
in the sonar system. The result is that the lines or planes of sound
remain stable and on the target regardless of the gyrations of the ship.
into the proper voltages to be used with the stabilized sonar system,
which is usually on a different reference axis. The computer also
supplies stabilizing information to different units of equipment, such as
Discusses the need to

periodically check the security of all electrical
connections
Periodic Inspections
The inspection of electrical

installations at the periodic inspection
incident to re issuance of a safety
certificate of inspection shall include an
inspection of all items enumerated in Section
33.1 and 33.6 to 33.25 inclusive to the
extent necessary to determine
mechanical and electrical condition and
performance and as per the applicable
subsection of this chapter; particular note shall
be made of circuits added or modified after the initial inspection.
Purpose of a periodic inspection

FUNCTION - 2
Initial inspection and testing is necessary on all newly completed
installations. In addition, because all the electrical installations
deteriorate due to a number of factors (such as damage, wear and
tear, corrosion, excessive electrical loading, aging and environmental
influences) periodic inspection and testing must be carried out at
regular intervals.
The purpose of a periodic inspection and test is to:
confirm the safety of persons and livestock against the effects of

electric shock or burns
ensure protection against damage to property by fi re or heat arising
from an installation defect
confirm that the installation has not been damaged and has not
deteriorated to the extent that it may impair safety
Identify any defects in the installation or non-conformity with the
current edition of the Regulations that may cause danger. The
intervals between tests is determined by the following.
Legislation requires that all installations must be maintained in a safe
condition and therefore must be periodically inspected and tested.
Table 8.01 details the maximum period between inspections of various
types of installation.
Licensing authorities, public bodies, insurance companies and other
authorities may require public inspection and testing of electrical
installations.
The installation must comply with BS 7671.
It is also recommended that inspection and testing should occur when
there is a change of use of the premises, any alterations or additions to
the original installation, any significant change in the electrical loading
of the installation, and where there is reason to believe that damage
may have been caused to the installation.
Discusses requirements regarding the provision of electrical power

and lighting for normal operation and for an emergency
Code and standards
A.) Classification of emergency and standby power systems
The classification of emergency and standby power systems is as

follows:
Emergency Power System: Defined in IEEE Std. 446-1995
[1] as an independent reserve source of electric energy that, upon failure or

outage of the normal source, automatically provides reliable electric power
FUNCTION - 2
within a specified time to critical devices and equipment whose failure to
operate satisfactorily would jeopardize the health and safety of personnel or
result in damage to property. The NEC
[2] gives a slightly different definition for Emergency Systems as those

systems legally required and classed as emergency by municipal, state,
federal, or other codes, or by any governmental agency having jurisdiction.
These systems are intended to automatically supply illumination, power, or
both, to designated areas and equipment in the event of failure of the normal
supply or in the event of accident to elements of a system intended to
supply, distribute, and control power and illumination essential for safety to
human life.
Standby Power System: Defined in
[1] as an independent reserve source of electric energy that, upon failure or

outage of the normal source, provides electric power of acceptable quality so
that the users facilities may continue in satisfactory operation. The NEC
[2] divides standby power systems into two categories, as follows: Legally
Required Standby Systems: Those systems required and so classed as legally
required standby by municipal, state, federal, and other codes or by any
governmental agency having jurisdiction. These systems are intended to
automatically supply power to selected load (other than those classed as
emergency systems) in the event of failure of the normal source. FPN:
Legally required standby systems are typically installed to serve loads, such
as heating and refrigeration systems, communications systems, ventilation
and smoke removal systems, sewage disposal, lighting systems, and
industrial processes that, when stopped during any interruption of the
normal electrical supply, could create hazards or hamper rescue and fire-
fighting operations. Optional Standby Systems: Those systems intended to
supply power to public or private facilities or property where life safety does
not depend on the performance of the system. Optional standby systems are
intended to supply on-site generated power to selected loads either
automatically or manually. FPN: Optional standby systems are typically
installed to provide an alternate source of electric power for such facilities as
industrial and commercial buildings, farms, and residences and to serve
loads such as heating and refrigeration systems, data processing and
communications systems, and industrial processes that, when stopped
during any power outage, could cause discomfort, serious interruption of the
process, damage to the product or process, and the like.

FUNCTION - 2
Main Engine
Control Theory
Control theory is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering

andmathematics that deals with the behavior of dynamical systems with
inputs.
Main engine control system is used for automatic remote control and
protection of main ship's diesels. It permits to change direction and
speed rotation of propeller directly from the bridge by navigators. The
system consists of the equipment installed on the bridge, engine
control room (ECR) locally mounted near the engine.
The set of Engine Remote Control equipment in ECR essentially

consists of a panel fitted up with the various signaling, alarm and
control facilities, in addition to the electronic modules (both logic and
analog).
Electronic Control Modules Rack comprises:
a) Engine starting and reversal logic module,

with LED display (direction of rotation indicator)
of logic status and starting set-point adjust
potentiometer status;
b) Digital/analog engine RPM converter with
cut-in thresholds and LED display of the status
of the thresholds and thresholds adjusting
potentiometers.
c) Engine control programmer with LED display of
stand-by, RPM reduction, emergency, etc. and
acceleration gradient adjusting potentiometer.
d) RPM controller with potentiometers for
variables and operating limits adjustment.
e) Torque lirniter, with limit indicator.
Locally Mounted Equipment comprises electro-hydraulic type actuator, for

remote control of the fuel linkages; the said actuator is continuously linked
mechanically to the lever and is therefore driven by the manual hand wheel
when it is de energized.
The equipment also comprises induction type pick-ups to monitor the

FUNCTION - 2
number of RPM's and rotating direction, as well as a five-position servo-
motor, complete with four devices to position the engine local control lever
for reversing gears and starting air distributors for engine stop, running
ahead, starting ahead, running astern, starting astern. Equipment on Bridge
comprises:
1. Engine telegraph.
2. Automatic control panel. It has the following items mounted on panel
front:
a) Manual power limiter.
b) Engine speed fine adjustment potentiometer.
c) Illuminated push-button for bridge control demand.
d) "Control transfer inhibited" signal display.
e) "Control on the bridge/ECR" signal display.
f) Direction of engine rotation indicator (LED).
g) Engine RPM indicator.
h) Fuel oil lever actuator position indicator.
3. Shield push-button for emergency stop and emergency maneuvering.
Changing set points.
Set point is the desired process output

that an automatic control system will aim to
reach. For example, a boiler might have a
temperature set point, that is the temperature
the control system aims to attain

FUNCTION - 2
Basic control system design. The engine control and monitoring
System is as a stand-alone control

system for General Electric (GE)
diesel engines used in marine
propulsion applications. The modular
design of the system allows
interfacing to the Kongsberg Maritime
Auto Chief propulsion control
system. This is a complete control
and safety system for slow and
medium speed propulsion motors
with fixed and controllable pitch
propellers, including functionality for
gear control, clutch control, thruster control and so on. The GE system
solution described herewith includes the following functions:
Alarm monitoring and control system for General Electric (GE) Power
Star TM Electronic Fuel Injection Control (EFI)
Alarms and status received via a serial interface (MODBUS)
Start and stop of engine locally
Start and stop of pre-lube pump
Transfer of speed control to Remote Control System (RCS)
Shutdown safety function with
First order and second order systems.
In the physical world, if a system is described by an equation that is

first order in time, the system is general dissipative (has energy loss).
If the equation is second order in time, the system may be non
dissipative. Such a system has time-reversal symmetry.
Transfer Functions.
In engineering, a transfer function (also known as the system
function[1] or network function and, when plotted as a graph, transfer
curve) is a mathematical representation, in terms of spatial or
temporal frequency, of the relation between the input and output of
a linear time-invariant system with zero initial conditions and zero-
point equilibrium.[2] With optical imaging devices, for example, it is
the Fourier transform of the point spread function (hence a function
of spatial frequency) i.e. the intensity distribution caused by a point
object in the field of view.

FUNCTION - 2
Control system stability.
Electronic stability control (ESC), also

referred to as electronic stability
program (ESP) or dynamic stability
control (DSC), is a computerized
technology [1][2] that improves the
safety of a vehicle's stability by
detecting and reducing loss of
traction (skidding).[3] When ESC
detects loss of steering control, it
automatically applies the brakes to
help "steer" the vehicle where the
driver intends to go. Braking is
automatically applied to wheels
individually, such as the outer front
wheel to counter over steer or the
inner rear wheel to
counter understeer. Some ESC
systems also reduce engine power
until control is regained. ESC does not
improve a vehicle's cornering
performance; instead, it helps to
minimize the loss of control.
According to Insurance Institute for Highway Safety and the
U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, one-third of fatal
accidents could be prevented by the use of the technology
Natural frequency and control systems
Natural frequency
The frequency at which a system oscillates when not subjected to a
continuous or repeated external force.
Control systems
A control system is a device, or set of devices, that manages,
commands, directs or regulates the behavior of other device(s) or
system(s). Industrial control systems are used in industrial production
for controlling an equipment or a machine.

FUNCTION - 2
There are two common classes of control systems, open loop control
systems and closed loop control systems. In open loop control systems
output is generated based on inputs. In closed loop control systems
current output is taken into consideration and corrections are made
based on feedback. A closed loop system is also called a feedback
control system. The human body is a classic example of feedback
control system. Fuzzy logic is also used in control systems.
Time lag and time constant
Measuring the Dead Time and Time Constant of a Process
Lets begin with the measurement of dead time and time constant of a
self-regulating process. Typically, one will place the controller in
manual control mode, wait for the process variable to settle down, and
then make a step change of a few percent in the controller output. At
first the process variable does nothing (dead time) and then it begins
changing (time constant) until finally it settles out at a new level.
Measuring Dead Time and Time Constant
To measure the dead time and time constant, draw a horizontal line at
the same level as the original process variable. Well call this the
baseline. Then find the maximum vertical slope of the process variable
response curve. Draw a line tangential to the maximum slope all the
way to cross the baseline. Well call this crossing the intersection.

FUNCTION - 2
The process dead time is measured along the
time axis as the time spanned between the
step change in controller output and the
intersection.
Next, measure the total change in process

variable. Then find the point on the process
response curve where the process variable has changed by 0.63 of the
total change in process variable. Well call this point P63.
The process time constant is measured along the time axis as the time
spanned between the intersection (described previously)
We can draw a chart with a continuum of

dead time through time constant (see
figure below). Processes with dynamics
consisting of pure dead time will be on
the left and pure lag (time constant) on the
right. In the middle the process dead time
will equal its time constant.
Well find that flow loops and liquid

pressure loops fall just about in the middle
of the continuum, because their dead time
and time constant are almost equal. Gas
pressure and temperature loops will be
located more toward the right they are lag (time constant) dominant.
Serpentine channels in water treatment plants and conveyors with
downstream mass meters will appear on the left side they are dead-
time dominant.
Level loops should actually be treated differently, but can be

approximated on the continuum by replacing the time constant with
their residence time (time they will take to fill or empty out at full flow
rate.) Most level loops will be located far to the right, having relatively
short dead times.

FUNCTION - 2
The ratio of dead time to time constant affects the controller modes
and tuning rules we use, the controllability of the process, and the
minimum possible loop settling time.
A continuum from pure Dead Time to pure Lag
Controller Modes
The derivative control mode works well where process variables

continue to move in the same direction for some time, i.e. lag-
dominant processes. Derivative control does not work well on
processes where the process variable changes sporadically typically
processes with relatively short time constants, located in the middle
and to the left on the continuum.
Applicability of Tuning Rules
Most tuning rules will work on lag-dominant processes. However,

the Ziegler-Nichols rules have only a narrow range of
applicability. Lambda / IMC tuning rules apply to a broader spectrum of
processes, while Cohen-Coon has the widest coverage. The Dead-
Time tuning rule, applies to processes on the left, as its name implies.
Controllability
Lag-dominant loops are easier to control than dead-time-dominant

loops. Operators find that lag-dominant processes respond much more
intuitively than dead-time-dominant processes and are easier to
control in manual mode.
Loop Settling Time
When tuning a loop for the shortest possible settling time, one finds
that there is a minimum limit on settling time. If you tune the controller
any tighter, the loop will begin oscillating. The minimum settling time
depends mostly on the amount of dead time in a control loop, and will
be between two and four times the length of the dead time. The ratio

FUNCTION - 2
of time constant to dead time determines where the minimum settling
time falls between two and four times the process dead time.
System response
The order of a system is defined as
being the highest power of
derivative in the differential
equation, or being the highest
power of s in the denominator of
the transfer function. A first-order
system only has s to the power one
in the denominator, while a second-
order system has the highest power
of s in the denominator being two.
Automatic Identification System

transponders on vessels
automatically broadcast at regular
intervals to receivers on ship and
land, sending information such as vessel identification, position and
speed.
Tuning
Controller Design and System Modelling
Tuning a Controller
Introduction
In the first section on controllers we looked at two control algorithms for

proportional and proportional integral controllers. In order to implement
these algorithms there are two parameters which have to be fixed, namely
, the controller gain
, the integral reset time
In the second section on modelling processes we looked at
First order input output processes
Mechanistic models of actual processes

FUNCTION - 2
For the first of these we saw that there were three parameters necessary to
define the process. These are
T, the dead time
, the process gain
, the process time constant
The aim of this section is to introduce a method of matching the

personality of the controller to that of the process so as to achieve
the optimum controllability. In other words how do we go from the
process parameters to the controller parameters? The method
introduced uses the open loop response of a process and works best
with a delay-followed-by-first-order-lag. There are many
other tuning methods which look at other aspects of the process in
order to tune the controller. A couple of these will be discussed in a
later section.
Selecting Controller Parameters
The best choice of controller parameters depends significantly on the nature

of the process to be controlled. Thinking back to the simple input-output
models we can say that

FUNCTION - 2
Instantaneous Response processes are easy to control. Large gains

may be used, subject to noise constraints. Integral action should be
used.
First Order Response Processes are also easy to control. The tuning
method described below is based on a first order response.
Time Delay processes are difficult to control. A pure time delay

becomes unstable in principle if a dimensionless gain greater than 1 is
used in a proportional only controller.
Inverse Response processes exhibit a response to an adjustment like

this:
You will see later in the interactive exercises that this is very difficult to
control!
A General Process Model
Let us consider first the simple case of a first-order lag in series with a time
delay. This setup is shown in a diagram below.

FUNCTION - 2
If we change u by a known amount and plot the response curve it is possible

to determine the model parameters Ts, Td and the gain from the resulting
graph. This is shown in the diagram below.
Zeiglar Nichols Open Loop Tuning Method
The Zeigler Nichols Open-Loop Tuning Method is a way of relating the

process parameters - delay time, process gain and time constant - to
the controller parameters - controller gain and reset time. It has been
developed for use on delay-followed-by-first-order-lag processes but
can also be adapted to real processes
The method is outlined below.
Look at the open loop response of the process to a step change in the
manipulated variable.
Evaluate
o The steady-state gain, (y2 - y1) / (u2 - u1)

FUNCTION - 2
o The time delay, Td
o The time constant, Ts
The diagram above shows how to obtain these values.
Finally substitute these values into the table below to obtain the
relevant controller parameters.
Controller Rese Derivati

Gain
Type t ve
P Ts / Td - -
0.9 Ts / 3.3
PI -
Td Td
1.2 Ts / 2.0
PID 0.5 Td
Td Td
The Gain evaluated above is the product of the controller gain setting, and
the process steady state gain, G.
Gain = *G
Therefore by substituting all the values in for the above and re-arranging we
get the following values for the controller parameters:
Controller Controller Derivat

Reset
Type Gain, ive
P (Ts ) / (Td ) - -
(0.9 Ts ) /
PI 3.3 Td -
(Td )
(1.2 Ts ) /
PID 2.0 Td 0.5 Td
(Td )
Advantages of this method are
Only a single experimental test is needed.
It does not require trial and error
The controller settings are easily calculated.

FUNCTION - 2
However there are also Disadvantages
Experiment is under open loop response and so disturbances may

affect the results.
Results tend to be oscillatory.
Does not work well for complex responses - leads to inaccurate tuning
model.
Controlling Real Processes
In the real world, unfortunately, the response of a process to a change in one

of its inputs seldom follows the first-order case required for the Z-N tuning.
If we are lucky it may be similar in form but different in detail as shown

below.
In this case the tangent should be drawn at the point where the slope of the
response is steepest. Now we have estimates for the parameters and it may
be necessary to change them in order to get the optimum values. To do this
it is possible to use a model of the process and controller to see the effect of
altering the control parameters. There is the chance to do this in the case
study section.
However if we are unlucky the response may be like this..
.. in
which
case
it is
very difficult to
control And it
may not be possible using a PI controller.
Gains for Real Processes and Controllers

FUNCTION - 2
In a process the measurement y is strictly speaking a dimensioned quantity:
temperature, pressure, flow etc.The adjustment u is usually a flow, so that
the process gain, , will in general have odd dimensions! This also makes it
hard to interpret or compare gain values.
In practice, both measurement and adjustment have a maximum

range determined by the measuring instrument or valve. It is best to work
with scaled quantities always expressed as a fraction or percentage of
range, e.g.
As indicated these values are percentages and so are dimensionless values

between 0 and 100. Thus it is possible to define a dimensionless gain for
the process as
If the value of the gain is large, say 100, then this means that the change
in y is 100 times greater than the corresponding change in u. This could lead
to y going out of bounds or else the change in u being very restrictive.
Alternatively, if the gain is very small, say 0.01, then for a large change
in u there is hardly any response in y.
What is required is a gain of around 1. This enables both input and output to
be used to their full ranges which in turn improves the controllability.
So if this definition of the gain is used it is clear from a glance if a suitable

value has been obtained or not. In this case simply use the value of
the gain from the first table above along with the dimensionless process gain
above to obtain the dimensionless controller gain.

FUNCTION - 2
In practice a controller does not want to deal with meaningless dimensions

when asking for the value of the gain. Therefore a parameter known as
the Proportional Band is used instead.
Firstly remember that you have a value of the dimensionless gain for the
controller as evaluated above.
Now we define the Proportional Band, P, as the reciprocal of the

dimensionless controller gain.
Remember that when specifying a controller setting, always use

dimensionless gain or proportional band.
SIGNAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
Fiber optics is now the dominant medium for terrestrial transmission of

digital signals, and digital fiber optic systems are well established for
transporting high quality video, audio, and data signals. Systems must
make efficient use of optical fiber by transporting multiple channels of
video and audio on a single fiber. A digital system working within a
digital domain should be capable of expanding, inserting, routing, and
switching signals within a network in such a way that video and audio
performance is not affected. Of growing importance is the ability of
these networks to accept a variety of signal formats and to interface
with public television communication networks. Signal formats for
transmission of video might include video encoding at various levels of
FUNCTION - 2
digitizing accuracy, compressed video, advanced or high definition
video, as well as digital high speed data. Understanding aspects of
multiplexing, modulation schemes, and digital systems are important
to implementing a multichannel transmission system. All
video/audio/data transport systems share a number of elements in
common that form the basic system building blocks for any v/a/d
system. These include: transmitters, receivers,
signal regenerators,repeaters, coders, decoders, switches, modulators,
amplifiers, A/D and D/A converters, splitters, combiners, signal fanouts,
which allow signals to be added and dropped from a network or utilize
smaller system components for the signal distribution, A/B switching
for redundant circuit protection, network control data interfaces, and
synchronizing clock interfaces. Figure 1 illustrates a digital
transmission system with a two-level time-division multiplexing
(TDM) hierarchy.
Figure 1 Digital System with a Two-level TDM Hierarchy
The transmit end, a digital coder converts the incoming analog video signal
to PCM digital data. The coder also contains a time-division multiplexer,
called a high level mux, which creates a digital sub channel that is time-
division multiplexed with the PCM video data. This high level mux/video
coder outputs a digital data stream and a clock signal, used for synchronicity.
These signals then enter the optical transmitter for digital line coding, light
source modulation, and an interface to the optical transmission fiber. This
high level mux receives its input from a second TDM, called the low level
mux, which controls a data bus that can interface with a variety of input
signals such as digitized audio and digital data signals. At the receive end, an
optical receiver converts the signal from optical to electrical and provides
line decoding plus clock recovery. The PCM data and recovered clock are
then sent to a digital video decoder that converts the digital video back to an

FUNCTION - 2
analog signal. The video decoder also contains a high level demux, which
separates the sub channel and sends it to a low level demux. At the low level
demux, the signals are demultiplexed and put back on the data bus where
they are decoded to system output.
Practical Digital Fiber Optic Multichannel System Considerations
A desirable feature in multichannel digital networks is the capacity to add
video channels, or "contribution circuits," that are digitally transmitted from
a remote site to a network node. The contribution circuit must
be bidirectional for transmission from the network node back to the remote
site; a system clock must be at the remote site as well. In a TDM structure all
inputs are time-division multiplexed in a fully synchronous digital system
without interaction or crosstalk allowing signals to be added or dropped
without affecting the rest of the system. Diplexed, reverse direction data
channels provide a cost effective and convenient method to enable
synchronous multiplexing of remote unidirectional signals into a digital
network. This also provides a low-cost method for adding bidirectional, low
speed data channels to single direction, high speed video links. Synchronous
transmission is not possible without a bidirectional contribution circuit. To
achieve this, one needs a duplex transmission link operating on one fiber at
the same optical wavelength in both directions. This is achieved by diplexing
the forward and reverse optical signals using optical couplers; however, this
causes signal interference which degrades signal-to-noise ratio.
Optical couplers can minimize this degradation, as can shaping the power
spectrums of the forward stream and reverse data streams. Provided the
frequency is synchronous with the signal clock, the digital ports for a
synchronous TDM should have the ability to interface with a variety of input
signal formats such as digital coding and/or framing patterns. This allows
signals to be multiplexed and transported over the same optical channel.
These universal ports can be achieved by scrambling or coding the incoming
data on each TDM port. The system should only require that the incoming
data be frequency synchronous but not necessarily phase coherent with the
rest of the system. This facilitates the use of video codecs of different sample
accuracies or coding formats, transporting digitized non-video signals, and
adding signals such as digitized SDTV/HDTV or digitally compressed MPEG-2
signals all in the same system. Practical CATV or RF-based networks should
interface to existing CATV signal formats and co-exist as easily as possible
with the RF portions of the signal distribution plant. This requires that the
digital video coders and decoders in the system be capable of accepting
variations to the "standard" video signal. Because the final signal format for
CATV networks is VSB/AM, a valuable feature for any digital transport system
FUNCTION - 2
would include the ability to output a VSB/AM signal, rather
than baseband video, to the RF portions of the
System Examples
The simplest multichannel video transport system is the point-to-point link.
The example in Figure 2 illustrates an eight channel digital video system.
Figure 2 Point-to-point Video Transport System
It is useful to think of a partition in the system between its signal codecs and
the optical transmitter and receiver. In this example, the system uses an
eight channel optical link. It is important to decide how these digital channels
are utilized. Figure 2 shows all eight inputs and outputs on the transmission
terminals in use, leaving no room for future expansion. More system capacity
could be achieved with additional optical terminals or optical terminals that
offer a higher channel count. Many multichannel video transport systems
require linking one transmit site to several receive sites in a point-to-
multipoint configuration. Figure 3 illustrates an example of this type of
system. In this figure, there are three end-of-the-line receive sites and one
intermediate receive site where a digital drop/add function has been
incorporated. At the intermediate hub, all channels from the headend are
dropped for local use and are retransmitted to the next site. Two channels
are also added to the intermediate hub for transmission to the next hub.

FUNCTION - 2
Figure 3 Point-to-multipoint Configuration
As video transport systems evolve into multi-service communications

networks, with stringent up-time requirements, system redundancy becomes
a must to provide remote monitoring of the system. A redundant path with
automatic switching, added to the system, allows full monitoring and control
at each site, with communication back to the head end. The redundant
elements required include digital signal fan outs as well as digital A/B
switches. Failure on the primary fiber will cause the system to automatically
switch to the secondary fiber keeping network performance unaffected.
Figure 4 illustrates this enhanced system feature.
Figure 4 Digital Video Transport System with System Redundancy
Digital systems can be used to build fiber optic video transport networks
from a set of basic common components that can provide configurations that
range from simple point-to-point links to complex point-to-multipoint systems

FUNCTION - 2
with enhancements for system redundancy. As the system grows, this
building block approach allows for system expansion using existing parts.
Signal performance remains uniform while any number of channels and
services can be transported independent of the distance of the link or the
number of links. This offers a level of "future-proofing" that allows the
installed system to keep up with the customer's needs.
Final Control Element
Control valve trim

A final control element is defined as a mechanical device that
physically changes a process in response to a change in control system
set point. Final control elements relevant to actuators include valves,
dampers, fluid couplings, gates, and burner tilts to name a few. Final
control elements are an essential part of process control systems,
allowing an operator to achieve a desired process variable output by
manipulating a process variable set point.
Flow characteristics
All control valves have an inherent flow characteristic that defines the
relationship between 'valve opening' and flow rate under constant
pressure conditions. Please note that 'valve opening' in this context
refers to the relative position of the valve plug to its closed position
against the valve seat. It does not refer to the orifice pass area. The
orifice pass area is sometimes called the 'valve throat' and is the
narrowest point between the valve plug and seat through which the
fluid passes at any time. For any valve, however it is characterized, the
relationship between flow rate and orifice pass area is always directly
proportional.

FUNCTION - 2
Valves of any size or inherent flow characteristic which are subjected to
the same volumetric flow rate and differential pressure will have
exactly the same orifice pass area. However, different valve
characteristics will give different 'valve openings' for the same pass
area. Comparing linear and equal percentage valves, a linear valve
might have a 25% valve opening for a certain pressure drop and flow
rate, whilst an equal percentage valve might have a 65% valve
opening for exactly the same conditions. The orifice pass areas will be
the same.
The physical shape of the plug and seat arrangement, sometimes

referred to as the valve 'trim', causes the difference in valve opening
between these valves. Typical trim shapes for spindle operated globe
valves are compared in Figure 6.5.1.
Fig. 6.5.1The shape of the trim determines the valve characteristic
In this Tutorial, the term 'valve lift' is used to define valve opening, whether
the valve is a globe valve (up and down movement of the plug relative to the
seat) or a rotary valve (lateral movement of the plug relative to the seat).
Rotary valves (for example, ball and butterfly) each have a basic
characteristic curve, but altering the details of the ball or butterfly plug may
modify this. The inherent flow characteristics of typical globe valves and
rotary valves are compared in Figure 6.5.2.
Globe valves may be fitted with plugs of differing shapes, each of which has
its own inherent flow/opening characteristic. The three main types available
are usually designated:
Fast opening.
Linear.
Equal percentage.

FUNCTION - 2
Examples of these and their inherent characteristics are shown in Figures
6.5.1 and 6.5.2.
Fig. 6.5.2 Inherent flow characteristics of typical globe valves and

rotary valves
Fast opening characteristic
The fast opening characteristic valve plug will give a large change in
flowrate for a small valve lift from the closed position. For example, a
valve lift of 50% may result in an orifice pass area and flow rate up to
90% of its maximum potential.
A valve using this type of plug is sometimes referred to as having an

'on / off' characteristic.
Unlike linear and equal percentage characteristics, the exact shape of

the fast opening curve is not defined in standards. Therefore, two
valves, one giving a 80% flow for 50% lift, the other 90% flow for 60%
lift, may both be regarded as having a fast opening characteristic.
Fast opening valves tend to be electrically or pneumatically actuated

and used for 'on / off' control.
The self-acting type of control valve tends to have a plug shape similar to the
fast opening plug in Figure 6.5.1. The plug position responds to changes in
liquid or vapour pressure in the control system. The movement of this type of
valve plug can be extremely small relative to small changes in the controlled
condition, and consequently the valve has an inherently high range ability.
The valve plug is therefore able to reproduce small changes in flow rate, and
should not be regarded as a fast opening control valve.

FUNCTION - 2
Linear characteristic
The linear characteristic

valve plug is shaped so that
the flow rate is directly
proportional to the valve lift
(H), at a constant
differential pressure. A
linear valve achieves this by
having a linear relationship
between the valve lift and the orifice pass area (see Figure 6.5.3).
Fig. 6.5.3 Flow / lift curve for a linear valve
For example, at 40% valve lift, a 40% orifice size allows 40% of the full flow
to pass.
Equal percentage characteristic (or logarithmic characteristic)
These valves have a valve plug shaped so that each increment in valve
lift increases the flow rate by a certain percentage of the previous flow.
The relationship between valve lift and orifice size (and therefore flow
rate) is not linear but logarithmic, and is expressed mathematically in
Equation 6.5.1:
Equation 6.5.1
Where:
=Volumetric flow through the valve at lift H.

(ln ) H Note: 'In' is a mathematical function known as 'natural
X =
logarithm'.
Valve range ability (ratio of the maximum to minimum controllable flow
=
rate, typically 50 for a globe type control valve)
H =Valve lift (0 = closed, 1 = fully open)
max =Maximum volumetric flow through the valve
Example 6.5.1
The maximum flow rate through a control valve with an equal percentage
characteristic is 10 m/h. If the valve has a turndown of 50:1, and is subjected
to a constant differential pressure, by using Equation 6.5.1 what quantity will
FUNCTION - 2
pass through the valve with lifts of 40%, 50%, and 60% respectively?
Where:
max = Maximum volumetric flow through the valve = 10 m/h
H = Valve lift (0 closed to 1 fully open) = 0.4; 0.5; 0.6
= Valve range ability = 50
Equation 6.5.1
The increase in volumetric flow rate through this type of control valve
increases by an equal percentage per equal increment of valve
movement:

FUNCTION - 2
When the valve is 50% open, it will pass 1.414 m/h , an increase of
48% over the flow of 0.956 m/h when the valve is 40% open.
When the valve is 60% open, it will pass 2.091 m/h , an increase of
48% over the flow of 1.414 m/h when the valve is 50% open.
It can be seen that (with a constant differential pressure) for any 10%
increase in valve lift, there is a 48% increase in flow rate through the control
valve. This will always be the case for an equal percentage valve with range
ability of 50. For interest, if a valve has a range ability of 100, the
incremental increase in flow rate for a 10% change in valve lift is 58%.
Table 6.5.1 shows how the change in flow rate alters across the range of
valve lift for the equal percentage valve in Example 6.5.1 with a range ability
of 50 and with a constant differential pressure.
Table 6.5.1 Change in flow rate and valve lift for an equal
percentage characteristic with constant differential pressure

FUNCTION - 2
Fig. 6.5.4 Flow rate and valve lift for an equal percentage
characteristic with constant differential pressure for Example 6.5.1
A few other inherent valve characteristics are sometimes used, such as

parabolic, modified linear or hyperbolic, but the most common types in
manufacture are fast opening, linear, and equal percentage.
Steps in Selecting a Control Valve
The basic steps in control valve selection are presented below.
1. The first step in control valve selection involves collecting all relevant
data and completing the ISA Form S20.50. The piping size must be set
prior to valve sizing, and determining the supply pressure may require
specifying a pump. The novice might have to iterate on the needed
piping, pump pressure and pressure drop through the piping network.
2. Next, the size of the valve is required; select the smallest valve C v that
satisfies the maximum Cv requirement at 90% opening. While
performing these calculations, checks should be made regarding
flashing, cavitation, sonic flow and Reynolds number to ensure that the
proper equation and correction factors are used. As many difficulties
occur due to oversized valves as to undersized valves. Adding lots of
safety factors will result in a valve that is nearly closed during normal
operation and has poor range ability.
3. The trim characteristic is selected to provide good performance; goals

are usually linear control loop behavior along with acceptable range
ability.
4. The valve body can be selected based on the features in Table 5 and
the typical availability in Table 6. Note that the valve size is either
equal to the pipe size or slightly less, for example, a 3-inch pipe with a
2-inch globe valve body. When the valve size is smaller than the
process piping, an inlet reducer and outlet expander are required to
make connections to the process piping.
5. The actuator is now selected to provide sufficient force to position the

stem and plug.
6. Finally, auxiliaries can be added to enhance performance. A booster

can be increase the volume of the pneumatic signal for long pneumatic
lines and large actuators. A positioner can be applied for slow
feedback loops with large valves or valves with high actuator force or
FUNCTION - 2
friction. A hand wheel is needed if manual operation of the valve is
expected.
Table6. Information on Standard Commercial Control Valves1
Body Size (in) Maximum Temperature Capacity3

2
Type Pressure (psia) (F ) Cd = Cv/d2
Globe 1/4 to 16 50,000 cryogenic to 1200 10
Ball 1/2 to 36 2500 up to 1400 30
Butterfly 3/4 to 200 2500 cryogenic to -2200 20
Diaphrag 1/4 to 20 100 -30 to 2200 22

m
Actuators
In Block 5, 'Basic Control Theory', an analogy was used to describe simple

process control:
The arm muscle and hand (the actuator) turned the valve - (the
controlled device).
One form of controlling device, the control valve, has now been covered. The
actuator is the next logical area of interest.
The operation of a control valve involves positioning its movable part (the
plug, ball or vane) relative to the stationary seat of the valve. The purpose of
the valve actuator is to accurately locate the valve plug in a position dictated
by the control signal.
The actuator accepts a signal from the control system and, in response,
moves the valve to a fully-open or fully-closed position, or a more open or a
more closed position (depending on whether 'on / off' or 'continuous' control

FUNCTION - 2
action is used).
There are several ways of providing this actuation. This Tutorial will
concentrate on the two major ones:
Pneumatic.
Electric.
Other significant actuators include the hydraulic and the direct acting types.
These are discussed in Block 7, 'Control Hardware: Self-Acting Actuation'.
Pneumatic actuators - operation and options
Pneumatic actuators are commonly used to actuate control valves and are
available in two main forms; piston actuators (Figure 6.6.1) and diaphragm
actuators (Figure 6.6.2).Fig. 6.6.1Typical piston actuators
Piston actuators
Piston actuators are generally used where the stroke of a diaphragm actuator
would be too short or the thrust is too small. The compressed air is applied to
a solid piston contained within a solid cylinder. Piston actuators can be single
acting or double acting, can withstand higher input pressures and can offer
smaller cylinder volumes, which can act at high speed.
Diaphragm actuators
Diaphragm actuators have compressed air applied to a flexible membrane

called the diaphragm. Figure 6.6.2 shows a rolling diaphragm where the
effective diaphragm area is virtually constant throughout the actuator stroke.
These types of actuators are single acting, in that air is only supplied to one
side of the diaphragm, and they can be either direct acting (spring-to-retract)
or reverse acting (spring-to-extend).

FUNCTION - 2
Fig. 6.6.2 A pneumatic diaphragm actuator
Reverse acting (spring-to-extend)
The operating force is derived from compressed air pressure, which is

applied to a flexible diaphragm. The actuator is designed so that the force
resulting from the air pressure, multiplied by the area of the diaphragm,
overcomes the force exerted (in the opposite direction) by the spring(s).
The diaphragm (Figure 6.6.2) is pushed upwards, pulling the spindle up, and
if the spindle is connected to a direct acting valve, the plug is opened. The
actuator is designed so that with a specific change of air pressure, the
spindle will move sufficiently to move the valve through its complete stroke
from fully-closed to fully-open.
As the air pressure decreases, the spring(s) moves the spindle in the
opposite direction. The range of air pressure is equal to the stated actuator
spring rating, for example 0.2 - 1 bar.
With a larger valve and / or a higher differential pressure to work against,

more force is needed to obtain full valve movement.
To create more force, a larger diaphragm area or higher spring range is

needed. This is why controls manufacturers offer a range of pneumatic
actuators to match a range of valves - comprising increasing diaphragm
areas, and a choice of spring ranges to create different forces. The diagrams
in Figure 6.6.3 show the components of a basic pneumatic actuator and the
direction of spindle movement with increasing air pressure.

FUNCTION - 2
Fig. 6.6.3 Valve and actuator configurations
Direct acting actuator (spring-to-retract)
The direct acting actuator is designed with the spring below the diaphragm,
having air supplied to the space above the diaphragm. The result, with
increasing air pressure, is spindle movement in the opposite direction to the
reverse acting actuator.
The effect of this movement on the valve opening depends on the design
and type of valve used, and is illustrated in Figure 6.6.3. There is however,
an alternative, which is shown in Figure 6.6.4. A direct acting pneumatic
actuator is coupled to a control valve with a reverse acting plug (sometimes
called a 'hanging plug').
Fig. 6.6.4Direct acting actuator and reverse acting control valve

FUNCTION - 2
The choice between direct acting and reverse acting pneumatic controls
depends on what position the valve should revert to in the event of failure of
the compressed air supply. Should the valve close or be wide-open? This
choice depends upon the nature of the application and safety requirements.
It makes sense for steam valves to close on air failure, and cooling valves to
open on air failure. The combination of actuator and valve type must be
considered. Figure 6.6.5 and Figure 6.6.6 show the net effect of the various
combinations.
Fig. 6.6.5 Net effect of various combinations for two port valves
Fig. 6.6.6 Net effect of the two combinations for three port valves
Effect of differential pressure on the valve lift
The air fed into the diaphragm chamber is the control signal from the
pneumatic controller. The most widely used signal air pressure is 0.2 bar to 1

FUNCTION - 2
bar. Consider a reverse acting actuator (spring to extend) with standard 0.2
to 1.0 bar spring(s), fitted to a direct acting valve (Figure 6.6.7).
Fig. 6.6.7 Reverse acting actuator, air-to-open, direct acting valve -
normally closed
When the valve and actuator assembly is calibrated (or 'bench set'), it is
adjusted so that an air pressure of 0.2 bar will just begin to overcome the
resistance of the springs and move the valve plug away from its seat.
As the air pressure is increased, the valve plug moves progressively further
away from its seat, until finally at 1 bar air pressure, the valve is 100% open.
This is shown graphically in Figure 6.6.7.
Now consider this assembly installed in a pipeline in a pressure reducing

application, with 10 bar g on the upstream side and controlling the
downstream pressure to 4 bar g.
The differential pressure across the valve is 10 - 4 = 6 bar. This pressure is

acting on the underside of the valve plug, providing a force tending to open
the valve. This force is in addition to the force provided by the air pressure in
the actuator.
Therefore, if the actuator is supplied with air at 0.6 bar (halfway between 0.2
and 1 bar), for example, instead of the valve taking up the expected 50%
open position, the actual opening will be greater, because of the extra force
provided by the differential pressure.
Also, this additional force means that the valve is not closed at 0.2 bar. In
order to close the valve in this example, the control signal must be reduced
to approximately 0.1 bar.

FUNCTION - 2
The situation is slightly different with a steam valve controlling temperature
in a heat exchanger, as the differential pressure across the valve will vary
between:
A minimum, when the process is calling for maximum heat, and the
control valve is 100% open.
A maximum, when the process is up to temperature and the control
valve is closed.
The steam pressure in the heat exchanger increases as the heat load
increases. This can be seen in Tutorial 6.5, Example 6.5.3 and Table 6.5.7.
If the pressure upstream of the control valve remains constant, then, as the
steam pressure rises in the heat exchanger, the differential pressure across
the valve must decrease.
Figure 6.6.8 shows the situation with the air applied to a direct acting
actuator. In this case, the force on the valve plug created by the differential
pressure works against the air pressure. The effect is that if the actuator is
supplied with air at 0.6 bar, for example, instead of the valve taking up the
expected 50% open position, the percentage opening will be greater because
of the extra force provided by the differential pressure. In this case, the
control signal has to be increased to approximately 1.1. bar to fully close the
valve.
Fig. 6.6.8 Direct acting actuator, air-to-close, direct acting valve -
normally open
It may be possible to recalibrate the valve and actuator to take the forces
created by differential pressure into account, or perhaps using different
springs, air pressure and actuator combinations. This approach can provide
an economic solution on small valves, with low differential pressures and
where precise control is not required. However, the practicalities are that:

FUNCTION - 2
Larger valves have greater areas for the differential pressure to act
over, thus increasing the forces generated, and having an increasing
effect on valve position.
Higher differential pressures mean that higher forces are generated.
Valves and actuators create friction, causing hysteresis. Smaller valves
are likely to have greater friction relative to the total forces involved.
The solution is to fit a positioner to the valve / actuator assembly. (More

information is given on positioners later in this Tutorial).
Note: For simplicity, the above examples assume a positioner is not used,
and hysteresis is zero.
The formulae used to determine the thrust available to hold a valve on its
seat for various valve and actuator combinations are shown in Figure 6.6.9.
Where:
A = Effective area of diaphragm

Pmax = Maximum pressure to actuator (normally 1.2 bar)
Smax = Maximum bench setting of spring
Pmin = Minimum pressure to actuator (normally 0 bar)
Smin = Minimum bench setting of spring
The thrust available to close the valve has to provide three functions:
1. To overcome the fluid differential pressure at the closed position.
2. To overcome friction in the valve and actuator, primarily at the valve

and actuator stem seals.
3. To provide a sealing load between the valve plug and valve seat to
ensure the required degree of tightness.
Control valve manufacturers will normally provide full details of the

maximum differential pressures against which their various valve and
actuator/spring combinations will operate; the Table in Figure 6.6.10 is an
example of this data.
Note: When using a positioner, it is necessary to refer to the manufacturer's

literature for the minimum and maximum air pressures.

FUNCTION - 2
Fig. 6.6.9 Two and three port formula
Fig.6.6.10 Typical Manufacturers valve/actuator selection chart

FUNCTION - 2
Positioners
For many applications, the 0.2 to 1 bar pressure in the diaphragm chamber
may not be enough to cope with friction and high differential pressures. A

FUNCTION - 2
higher control pressure and stronger springs could be used, but the practical
solution is to use a positioner.
This is an additional item (see Figure 6.6.11), which is usually fitted to the
yoke or pillars of the actuator, and it is linked to the spindle of the actuator
by a feedback arm in order to monitor the valve position. It requires its own
higher-pressure air supply, which it uses to position the valve.
Fig. 6.6.11 Basic pneumatic positioner fitted to actuator pillars

(valve not shown)
A valve positioner relates the input signal and the valve position, and will
provide any output pressure to the actuator to satisfy this relationship,
according to the requirements of the valve, and within the limitations of the
maximum supply pressure.
When a positioner is fitted to an 'air-to-open' valve and actuator

arrangement, the spring range may be increased to increase the closing
force, and hence increase the maximum differential pressure a particular
valve can tolerate. The air pressure will also be adjusted as required to
overcome friction, therby reducing hysteresis effects.
Example: Taking a PN5400 series actuator fitted to a DN50 valve (see Table
in Figure 6.6.10)
1. With a standard 0.2 to 1.0 bar spring range (PN5420), the maximum
allowable differential pressure is 3.0 bar.
2. With a 1.0 to 2.0 bar spring set (PN5426), the maximum allowable
differential pressure is increased to 13.3 bar.

FUNCTION - 2
With the second option, the 0.2 to 1.0 bar signal air pressure applied to the
actuator diaphragm cannot provide sufficient force to move an actuator
against the force provided by the 1.0 to 2.0 bar springs, and even less able
to control it over its full operating range. In these circumstances the
positioner acts as an amplifier to the control signal, and modulates the
supply air pressure, to move the actuator to a position appropriate to the
control signal pressure.
For example, if the control signal was 0.6 bar (50% valve lift), the positioner
would need to allow approximately 1.5 bar into the actuator diaphragm
chamber. Figure 6.6.12 illustrates this relationship.
Fig. 6.6.12The positioner as a signal amplifier
Valve Sizing
Control valve sizing involves determining the correct valve to install from the
many valves commercially available. The procedure is based on information
provided by valve manufacturers, who specify the capacity of their valves
using the valve coefficient, Cv. The valve coefficient is defined as the flow of
water that will pass through the valve when fully open with a pressure drop
of 1 psi. In these tables, the units of Cv are gallons of water per minute per
psi1/2. The engineer must calculate the desired Cv for the process fluid and
conditions by applying appropriate correction factors and select the valve
using tables of Cv versus valve stem position and line size provided by the
manufacturers
The required flow and pressure drop information used to size a valve is based
on the process operations and equipment, and ISA Form S20.50 (ISA, 1992)
provides a helpful method for recording the data. The size of the valve
depends on the pressure drop across the valve. A general guideline for
pumped systems is that the valve pressure drop should be 25-33% of the

FUNCTION - 2
total pressure drop from supply to the end of the pipe (Moore, 1970). To
provide appropriate rangeability, the Cv (flow rate) should be determined for
the extremes of expected operation. Typically, a valve should be selected
that has the maximum Cv value at about 90% of the stem position; this
guideline allows for some extra capacity. The valve should have the
minimum Cv at no less than 10-15% stem position, which will give a
reasonable rangeability, especially since the accuracy of the characteristic is
poor below 10% stem position..
For liquids in turbulent flow, the defining equation is the equation for flow
through an orifice, which can be rearranged and supplemented with
correction factors.
Where
Relationship for liquids in turbulent flow through an orifice
Cv = flow coefficient (gallons/min/psi1/2)

Fliq = flow rate (gallons/min)
dimensionless factor accounting for difference in piping due to
fittings for piping changes at inlet and outlet; values range from
FP =
0.80 to 0.98 and are typically about 0.95 (see Driskell 1983 for
details)
dimensionless factor accounting for viscosity effects for liquids; the
value is 1.0 for Reynolds numbers greater than 4x10 4 (see
FR =
Hutchison 1976 for the calculation of the valve Reynolds number
and FR)
Gliq = specific gravity of process fluid at 60 F (15 C)
DP = pressure drop across the valve (psi)
When the process conditions, including the valve (C v), are known, equation
(9) can be used to calculate the flow. When designing the process, the
desired flow is known but the valve is not; equation (9) can be rearranged to
calculate the valve coefficient required for the specified conditions. The
pressure decreases as the liquid flows through the valve. The possibility
exists for the liquid to partially vaporize due the pressure drop, and this

FUNCTION - 2
vaporization can have serious consequences for the control valve. Two
situations can occur: cavitation where the vapor forms and is condensed due
to the pressure recovery and flashing where vapor remains after the pressure
recovery. The effect of vaporization on the flow is shown in Figure 9.
Importantly, cavitation involves the collapsing of bubbles that can generate
significant forces that will damage the valve components, so that cavitation
should be avoided when designing a flow system. This can be achieved by
raising the pressure (e.g., higher supply pressure), lowering the stream
temperature (e.g., locating upstream of a heater) or using a valve with little
pressure recovery.
Flashing occurs when vapor remains downstream of the valve after the
pressure recovery. This situation will not result in damage to the valve and is
an acceptable design. Special flow models are required for valve sizing when
vaporization occurs and can be found is standard references, e.g., Driskell
(1983).
For gases and vapors with subsonic flow, the development of the equation is
similar but must consider the change in density with an expansion factor and
the lack of ideal behavior with the compressibility.
relationship for
gases and vapors
with subsonic flow
through an orifice
Where
Fg = gas flow rate (std. ft3/h)
specific gravity of the process fluid relative to air at standard
Gg =
conditions
N = unit conversion factor (equal to 1380 for English units)
P1 = upstream pressure (psia)
T1 = upstream temperature (R)
dimensionless expansion factor which depends on P1/P2 and
Y = the specific heat ratio; ranges from 0.67 to 1.0 (see Driskell
1983)
z = compressibility factor
Figure9. Typical effect of vaporization on flow rate.

FUNCTION - 2
Figure10. The effect of sonic velocity on flow.
When the pressure drop across the valve is large, sonic flow can occur which
will require special calculations for valve sizing (Hutchison, 1976). The
general behavior of flow versus pressure drop is shown in Figure 10. When
choked flow occurs, the downstream pressure does not influence the flow
rate. A rough guideline is that sonic flow does not occur when the pressure
drop is less than 42% of the supply pressure. Sonic flow through valves
occurs often and does not represent difficulties when the proper valve trim
design and materials are used.
ELECTRONIC PID
CONTROLLER
The concept of the feedback

loop to control the dynamic
behavior of the system: this
is negative feedback,
because the sensed value is
subtracted from the desired
value to create the error
signal, which is amplified by the controller.
Single-loop controllers

FUNCTION - 2
Todays single-loop controllers do not interface
with smart field devices.
No single-loop controllers are known today that
interface with smart devices using either HART or
fieldbus communications. Because the DeltaV
system incorporates this technology, the cost for
startup, maintenance, and engineering is reduced
to a minimum.
For example, if fieldbus instrumentation were to be
used, wiring costs could be reduced 80 to 90% on
new installations. With digital valve controllers, the
positioner can be used to verify that actual valve
positions match those being requested or an alert is
issued to indicate mismatches. Considering that the
majority of control problems are related to field
devices, the potential for longer-term better control
and reduced maintenance cost can be realized.
Requiring that the control system be capable of interfacing to smart field
devices will save new projects cost and reduce longer-term maintenance.
Monitoring & control system
A modern high pressure, high temperature water tube boiler holds a small
quantity of water and produces large quantities of steam. Very careful control
of the drum water level is therefore necessary. The reactions of steam and
water in the drum are complicated and require a control system based on a
number of measured elements.
When a boiler is operating the water level in the gauge glass reads higher
than when the boiler is shut down. This is because of the presence of steam
bubbles in the water, a situation which is accepted in normal practice. If
however there occurs a higher increase in steam demand from the boiler the
pressure in the drum will fall. Some of the water present in the drum at the
higher pressure will now flash off and become steam. These bubbles of
steam will cause the drum level to rise. The reduced mass of water in the
drum will also results in more steam being produced, which will further raise
the water level. This effect is known as swell. A level control system which
is used only level as a measuring element would close the feed control valve,
when it should be opening it.

FUNCTION - 2
When the boiler load returns to normal the drum pressure will rise and steam
bubble formation will reduce, causing a fall in water level. Incoming colder
feed water will further reduce steam bubble formation and what is known as
shrinkage of the drum level will occur.
The problems associated with swell and shrinkage are removed by the use of
a second measuring element, steam flow . A third element feed water flow
is added to avoid problems that would occur if the feed water pressure were
to vary.
Three Element Boiler Feed Water Control
Three Element Boiler Feed Water Control
A three element control system is shown in figure above. The measured

variables or elements are steam flow, drum flow and feed water flow.
Since in a balanced situation steam flow must equal feed flow, these two
signals are compared in a differential relay. The relay output is fed to a two
term controller and comparator into which the measured drum level signal is
also fed. Any deviation between the desired and actual drum level and any
deviation between feed and steam flow will result in controller action to
adjust the feed water control valve. The drum level will then be returned to
its correct position.
A sudden increase in steam demand would result in a deviation signal from

the differential relay and an output signal to open the feed water control

FUNCTION - 2
valve. The swell effect would therefore not influence the correct operation of
the control system. For a reduction in steam demand, an output signal to
close the feed water control valve would result, thus avoiding shrinkage
effects. Any change in feed water pressure would result in feed water control
valve movement to correct the change before the drum level was affected.
Combustion management principle No. 1, stated simply, is provide

more oxygen than you theoretically need to ensure that all of the
fuel burns up.
As a result, when combustion management principle No. 1 is applied to the

example chemical reaction, rather than two molecules of oxygen being
supplied for every one molecule of methane, each molecule of methane may
be provided three or four molecules of oxygen. This will ensure that all of the
fuel is burned. The extra oxygen that is added to the combustion zone,
however, enters at ambient temperature and it exits the boiler at flue-gas
temperature. The flue-gas temperature of a typical boiler could be anywhere
in the range of 300 to 500 degrees Fahrenheit range. As a result, the extra
oxygen could have entered the boiler at 70 degrees F and exit at 400 F. The
extra oxygen reached this temperature by receiving fuel energy in other
words, fuel was purchased to heat the extra oxygen. Additionally, ambient air
contains almost four molecules of nitrogen (3.76 to be exact) for every one
molecule of oxygen. As a result, every amount of excess air brings with it a
huge amount of nitrogen. This nitrogen enters at ambient temperature and
receives fuel energy to exit the boiler at flue-gas temperature.
This brings us to combustion management principle No. 2 do not

use too much oxygen.
In other words, combustion management requires that extra oxygen be

provided to the combustion zone in order to ensure that all of the fuel is
reacted; however, the amount of extra oxygen must be minimized to reduce
energy loss. The critical measurements required to manage the combustion
loss are the flue-gas oxygen content and the flue-gas combustibles
concentration. The flue-gas oxygen content is measured to allow the
combustion air flow to be modified to meet a set point. Combustibles
concentrations are measured to identify the minimum practical oxygen
concentration. It should be noted that combustibles concentrations can be
elevated even though excess oxygen is provided to the combustion zone.
This situation is typically indicative of a burner failure. A primary function of
a burner is to mix the air and fuel thoroughly to ensure complete
combustion. If a burner component has failed or is improperly adjusted, the
mixing process can be ineffective. This can result in unburned fuel and
excess oxygen. Combustibles concentration values vary based on fuel type,

FUNCTION - 2
operating conditions, and burners. A typical natural-gas-fired boiler will
operate with combustibles concentrations less than 50 parts per million
(ppm), while a coal-fired boiler may operate with combustibles
concentrations greater than 200 ppm. Generally, combustibles
concentrations less than 100 ppm are considered negligible in terms of
efficiency impact. Baseline combustibles concentrations should be
established for each boiler.
DIESEL ENGINE COOLING SYSTEM CORROSION CONTROL PROGRAMS
Diesel Engine Cooling System Corrosion Control
Large static diesel engines are used extensively in

small to medium sized electricity generation.
These can be found in industrial, mining and utility
applications.
Many of these systems utilize closed cooling

circuits. These are not subject to the effects of
external contamination and cycles of concentration that occur
in open evaporative cooling systems. However,
corrosion and microbiological growth can often occur if the
system is not managed correctly. Some of the causes for this include:
Insufficient precommission cleaning and passivation at time of system

commissioning
Contamination of bacteria present in makeup water
Use of nitrite-based corrosion inhibitors that can provide a food source
for bacteria
Absence of microbiological monitoring and treatment program
If not managed correctly, severe failure and disruption to plant operation can
occur. To avoid these, ZI-CHEM offers a comprehensive range of chemical
and application technologies to manage the water quality in these water
circuits.
These include:
Online corrosion measuring systems

Range of multi-component corrosion and scale inhibitor programs
Non-nitrite-based corrosion inhibitor programs

FUNCTION - 2
Microbiological monitoring programs to diagnose and predict problems
Chemical biocide programs
Inline bypass filtration systems to remove suspended iron
Comprehensive program management and reporting by experienced
personnel
A fixed pitch propeller

Cannot be adjusted or changed. It has one pitch, which is usually a
compromise between speed and power. In a boat, a power prop might get a
water skier up on skis quickly, but not be able to go very fast once they are
up. A speed prop would mean that the boat could go faster than the power
prop, but would
have trouble getting
the skier up out of
the water.
A controllable pitch propeller (CPP) or variable pitch propeller is a type

of propeller with blades that can be rotated around their long axis to change
their pitch. If the pitch can be set to negative values, the reversible
propeller can also create reverse thrust for braking or going backwards
without the need of changing the direction of shaft revolutions.

FUNCTION - 2
General requirements of automatic control equipment and safety

devices
Monitoring system
With an electrical system connecting all the equipment with power, the
control system controlling all the actions of the system, a monitoring system
is needed to log the actions, performance and status of the components in
these systems.
Monitoring systems technologies log the actions, performance an status of

the components in the electrical and control systems. They collect data from
various components, sub-systems or systems, which are then used to draw
certain conclusions, based on algorithms programmed into the collection
system. The monitoring collection system can be ground-based, while
monitoring systems flying in the air, floating on the sea, or generating
electricity on another continent.

FUNCTION - 2
All monitoring systems work on the simple basis of:
Sense - Acquire - Transfer - Analyze Act
Safety system
The system safety concept calls for a risk

management strategy based on identification, analysis of hazards and
application of remedial controls using a systems-based approach.
[1]
This is different from traditional safety strategies which rely on
control of conditions and causes of an accident based either on
the Epidemiological analysis or as a result of investigation of individual
past accidents.[2] The concept of system safety is useful in
demonstrating adequacy of technologies when difficulties are faced
with probabilisticrisk analysis.[3] The underlying principle is one
of synergy: a whole is more than sum of its parts. Systems-based
approach to safety requires the application of scientific, technical and
managerial skills to hazard identification, hazard analysis, and
elimination, control, or management of hazards throughout the life-
cycle of a system, program, project or an activity or a product.
[1]
"Hazop" is one of several techniques available for identification of
hazards.
Local control
Control refers to sending command messages to a device to operate
the I&C and power-system devices. Traditional supervisory control and
data acquisition (SCADA) systems rely on operators to supervise the
system and initiate commands from an operator console on the master
computer. Field personnel can also control devices using front-panel
push buttons or a laptop computer.

FUNCTION - 2
In addition, another task is power-system integration, which is the act of

communicating data to, from, or among IEDs in the I&C system and remote
users. Substation integration refers to combining data from the IEDs local to
a substation so that there is a single point of contact in the substation for all
of the I&C data.
Power-system automation processes rely on data acquisition; power-system
supervision and power-system control all working together in a coordinated
automatic fashion. The commands are generated automatically and then
transmitted in the same fashion as operator initiated commands.
Failure mode and effect analysis
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) was one of the first
systematic techniques for failure analysis. It was developed
by reliability engineers in the 1950s to study problems that might arise
from malfunctions of military systems. An FMEA is often the first step
of a system reliability study. It involves reviewing as many
components, assemblies, and subsystems as possible to identify failure
modes, and their causes and effects. For each
Component, the failure modes and their resulting effects on the rest of
the system are recorded in a specific FMEA worksheet. There are
numerous variations of such worksheets. An FMEA is mainly a
qualitative analysis.[1]
A few different types of FMEA analysis exist, like
Functional,

FUNCTION - 2
Design, and
Process FMEA.
power supply
A power supply is a device that

supplies electric power to an electrical
load. The term is most commonly
applied to electric power
converters that convert one form of
electrical energy to another, though it
may also refer to devices that convert
another form of energy (mechanical,
chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that
controls the output voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value
is held nearly constant despite variations in either load current or the voltage
supplied by the power supply's energy source.
Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as
any energy it consumes while performing that task, from an energy source.
Depending on its design, a power supply may obtain energy from:
Electrical energy transmission systems. Common examples of this

include power supplies that convert AC line voltage to DC voltage.
Energy storage devices such as batteries and fuel cells.
Electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators.
Solar power.
Remote Control-Diesel Propulsion

Control-electronic, electronic-pneumatic, electronic hydraulic or
pneumatic
Pneumatics is a section of technology that deals with the study and

application of pressurized gas to produce mechanical motion.

FUNCTION - 2
Pneumatic systems, that are used extensively in industry, and factories, are
commonly plumbed with compressed air or compressed inert. This is because
a centrally located and electrically powered compressor, that
powers cylinders and other pneumatic devices through solenoid valves, can
often provide motive power in a cheaper, safer, more flexible, and more
reliable way than a large number of electric motors and actuators.
Electronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical

components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated
circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies. Commonly,
electronic devices contain circuitry consisting primarily or exclusively of
active semiconductors supplemented with passive elements; such a circuit is
described as an electronic circuit.
The electro-pneumatic action is a control system for pipe organs, whereby
air pressure, controlled by an electric current and operated by the keys of
an organ console, opens and closes valves within wind chests, allowing
the pipes to speak. This system also allows the console to be physically
detached from the organ itself. The only connection was via an electrical
cable from the console to the relay, with some early organ consoles utilizing
a separate wind supply to operate combination pistons.

FUNCTION - 2
The electronichydraulic analogy (derisively referred to as the drain-pipe

theory by Oliver Lodge) [1] is the most widely used analogy for "electron
fluid" in a metal conductor. Since electric current is invisible and the
processes at play in electronics are often difficult to demonstrate, the
various electronic components are represented by hydraulic equivalents.
Electricity (as well as heat) was originally understood to be a kind of fluid,
and the names of certain electric quantities (such as current) are derived
from hydraulic equivalents. As with all analogies, it demands an intuitive and
competent understanding of the baseline paradigms (electronics and
hydraulics).
2/2 Valve; 2 3/2 Valve; 3 4/2 Valve; 4 4/3 Valve; 4 5/2 Valve; 5
Ports, 2 Ports, 2 Ports, 2 Ports, 3 Ports, 2
Positions Positions Positions Positions Positions
5/3 Valve; 5 Accumulator Air Dryer Air Motor Air Motor

Ports, 3 (One (Two
Positions Directional Directional

FUNCTION - 2
Flow) Flows)
Check Valve Compressor Cylinder ----- Cylinder Cylinder

(Spring (Spring Double Double
Loaded) Return) Acting Acting
(Double Rod) (Single Fixed
Cushion)
Cylinder Differential Direction of Exhaust Line Filters and

Double Pressure Flow or Control Regulators
Acting Line
(Two
Adjustable
Cushions)
Filter Filter (Manual Fixed Flexible Line Flow Control

(Automatic Drain) Restriction Valve
Drain)
Lines Lines
Flow Gauge Lever Lubricator
Connected Crossing
Muscular One Bypass One Flow Pedal or Pilot Pressure

Control Flow Path Path Treadle (External)
and
Two Closed
Ports
Pilot Pressure Plugged Port Plunger or Pneumatic Pressure

(Internal) Position Actuated

FUNCTION - 2
Indicator Pin Electric

Switch
Pressure Pushbutton Quick Acting

Gauge Coupling
Pressure Pressure
Regulator Regulator
(Adjustable, (Adjustable,
Non- Self-
Relieving) Relieving)
Roller Roller (One- Shuttle Valve Silencer Single

Way) Square
Solenoid and Solenoid Solenoid Spring Two Closed

Pilot; (Single (Single Ports
Manual Winding) Winding)
Override and
Pilot
Two Distinct Two Flow Two Flow Two Flow Vacuum

Positions and Paths Paths and Paths with Pump
One One Closed Cross
Transitory Port Connection
(Center)
Position
Connexion
Solenoid Valve
Connexion
symbols from
Leading the
the UK's
Variable way
Working Line premier
Restriction Forward
solenoid valve
suppliers

FUNCTION - 2
The following symbols are generally in accordance with BS 1553-1...and BS

5070
Different Line Types

FUNCTION - 2
Different Pipe Supports
Symbols for Fitting and Representations

FUNCTION - 2
Symbols for Valves
Symbols for Valve Actuators
Symbols for Instruments

FUNCTION - 2
Malfunction-alarm, engine slow down, engine stop

Engine Safety devices
The main engine safety devices are provided in the system to safe
gaurd the main engine in case of any damage in the system Mainly are
fitted in engine when all the alarm and trips fails to work then the last
means for safe gaurding the engine and components is these safety
devices fitted in the main engine .These are mainly of the type of
pressure relief valve which release the excess pressure built in case of
malfunctioning of the engine and no action is will in advance to rectify
or to avoid the situation
SOME OF THE MAIN ENGINE SAFETY DEVICES FITTED IN THE MAIN

ENGINE :
Crank case Relief Door
Scavenge Space Relief Door
The Starting Air Line Relief valve
Cylinder head Relief valve
Flame trap

FUNCTION - 2
Oil mist detector
Running Direction Interlock
Turning gear Interlock
Main Engine Slow Down

Main engine slow down automatically when there is problem in the
system and to avoid the greater damage in the later stages when
these defects are rectified the engine automatically tunes to the sea
speed .This is the primary stage to rectify the defects and it also
indicates there is a great damage to be taken place so rectify the
defects as early as possible.
Main Engine Safety Tips :
Main engine safety trip which trips the main engine when no corrective
action is taken to the alarm and in certain cases the main engine is
tripped manual .
Manual tripping of main engine is done in chance of the collision or
grounding of the ship when sailing in conjusted water and in navigation
of the ship in restricted visibility. .
So when any main engine trips are activated the Main engine stops
and again it should be started with the help of starting air after
correcting the faults.
SOME OF THE MAIN ENGINE TIPS ARE :

1. Over Speed Trip
2. Low Lube oil pressure Trip
3. Cam shaft Lube oil low pressure Trip
4. Jacket cooling water low pressure Trip
5. Piston cooling water low pressure Trip
6. Thrust Bearing High pressure Trip
7. Main Bearing high pressure and temperature Trip
8. Oil Mist Detector
9. Spring air pressure Low Trip
10. Emergency Manual Trip

FUNCTION - 2
UMS systems
Concept of unattended machinery spaces(UMS)
Is a way of operating the automatically controlled machinery of vessel (e.g.
ship) ; UMS Mode means that, instead of ship, provided he is in permanent
control over a signaling device (control)
Requirements of UMS bridge control

The number of UMS ships has increased rapidly over the past few years.
Control systems are much more reliable now than they were when first
applied to ships. Educating the crew to understand control functions is now
undertaken by most shipowners. More ships will, in future, be fitted with
remote-control systems as a means of reducing crews.
Nowadays, however, far more UMS ships are in operation. Crews have grown
familiar with the systems and training is more prolific. In the immediate
future more owners will adopt UMS, not only as a means of cutting crew to a
minimum and thus cut operational costs, but also for reasons of safety.

FUNCTION - 2
Remote - control systems. As a number of remote-control stations may be

installed, operation must only be possible for one station at a time. There
should be no misunderstanding as to which station has control at any time
one time, thus there should be continuous indication at all the main control
stations showing which one has control. When control is transferred from one
station to another, a warning must be given. Only one station which has
taken control must acknowledge the fact.
There must be means by which the propulsion machinery can be stopped

from the bridge, regardless of whether another station is being operated. Any
orders activated from the bridge are to be indicated in the control rooms.
Indicators of the speed and direction or rotation of reversible engines, or the

propeller pitch and speed of rotation must be fitted on the bridge.
Additionally, an independently-operated stand-by control should be provided
in the engine room. It must be able to override the remote control system.
For diesel plant with fixed-pitch propellers the fuel supply and direction of
engine rotation should be affected by a single control lever. The controls
must operate the machinery in a time sequence acceptable for the engines,
and able to shut-off the fuel supply if the desired and actual direction of
rotation of the engine and the cam-shaft position does not match.
In addition to alarm indication for the lubricating oil system, the system must
be able to shut down the engine if lubricating (lube) oil is lost. The circuit and
sensors for this function must be additional to the alarm circuit required.
On the bridge, both audible and visual alarms are to operate and indication
given when the speed of the main engines is to be reduced due to the
following fault condition: high scavenge air temperature, oil mist detected in
crankcase, low piston coolant outlet flow, low piston coolant pressure, also
for low cylinder coolant pressure if on a separate circuit.
Where the lube oil cooling water and oil fuel booster pumps are not driven by
the main engine, the standby pump is to start automatically if the discharge
pressure from the working pump falls below a predetermined value.
Testing regime for UMS

FUNCTION - 2
Testing of field instruments shall in general include the physical sensor
and the whole signal loop, and verify correct functionality, indication
and alarming.
Generator and distribution system

Power generation On board
Shipboard power is generated using a prime mover and an alternator

working together. For this an alternating current generator is used on board.
The generator works on the principle that when a magnetic field around a
conductor varies, a current is induced in the conductor.
The generator consists of a stationary set of conductors wound in coils on an

iron core. This is known as the stator. A rotating magnet called the rotor
turns inside this stator producing magnetic field. This field cuts across the
conductor, generating an induced EMF or electro-magnetic force as the
mechanical input causes the rotor to turn.
The magnetic field is generated by induction (in a brushless alternator) and

by a rotor winding energized by DC current through slip rings and brushes.
Few points to be noted about power on board are :
AC, 3 phase power is preferred over DC as it gives more power for the
same size.
3 phases is preferred over single phase as it draws more power and in

the event of failure of one phase, other 2 can still work.
Power Distribution on board
The Power Distributed on board a ship needs to be supplied efficiently

throughout the ship. For this the power distribution system of the ship is
used.
A shipboard distribution system consists of different component for

distribution and safe operation of the system. They are:

FUNCTION - 2
Ship Generator consisting of prime mover and alternator

Main switch board which is a metal enclosure taking power from the
diesel generator and supplying it to different machinery.
Bus Bars which acts as a carrier and allow transfer of load from one
point to another. Circuit breakers which act as a switch and in unsafe
condition can be tripped to avoid breakdown and accidents. Fuses as
safety device for machinery.
Transformers to step up or step down the voltage. When supply is to be

given to the lighting system a step down transformer is used in the
distribution system.
In a power distribution system, the voltage at which the system works

is usually 440v.
There are some large installations where the voltage is as high as

6600v.
Power is supplied through circuit breakers to large auxiliary machinery

at high voltage.
For smaller supply fuse and miniature circuit breakers are used.
The distribution system is three wires and can be neutrally insulated or

earthed.
Insulated system is more preferred as compare to earthed system

because during an earth fault essential machinery such as steering
gear can be lost.

FUNCTION - 2
Emergency Power
In case of the failure of the main power

generation system on the ship, an
emergency power system or a standby
system is also present. The emergency
power supply ensures that the essential
machinery and system continues to operate
the ship.
Emergency power can be supplied by

batteries or an emergency generator or even both systems can be used.
Rating of the emergency power supply should be made in such a way that it
provides supply to the essential systems of the ship such as
a) Steering gear system

b) Emergency bilge and fire p/p
c) Watertight doors.
d) Fire fighting system.
e) Ships navigation lights and emergency lights.
f) Communication and alarm system.
Emergency generator is normally located outside the machinery space of the

ship. This is done mainly to avoid those emergency situations wherein access
to the engine room is not possible. A switch board in the emergency
generator room supplies power to different essential machinery.
Instrumentation and safety in generator and distribution system
Types of protection
Generator sets In a power plant, the protective relays are intended

to prevent damage to alternators or to the transformers in case of
abnormal conditions of operation, due to internal failures, as well as
insulating failures or regulation malfunctions. Such failures are unusual,
so the protective relays have to operate very rarely. If a protective relay
fails to detect a fault, the resulting damage to the alternator or to the
transformer might require costly equipment repairs or replacement, as
well as income loss from the inability to produce and sell energy.

FUNCTION - 2
High-voltage transmission network Protection on the
transmission and distribution serves two functions: Protection of plant and
protection of the public (including employees). At a basic level, protection
looks to disconnect equipment which experiences an overload or a short
to earth. Some items in substations such as transformers might require
additional protection based on temperature or gas pressure, among
others.
Overload and back-up for distance (overcurrent) Overload

protection requires a current transformer which simply measures the
current in a circuit. There are two types of overload protection:
instantaneous overcurrent and time overcurrent (TOC). Instantaneous
overcurrent requires that the current exceeds a predetermined level for
the circuit breaker to operate. TOC protection operates based on a current
vs time curve. Based on this curve if the measured current exceeds a
given level for the preset amount of time, the circuit breaker or fuse will
operate.
Earth fault ("ground fault" in the United States) Earth fault

protection again requires current transformers and senses an imbalance
in a three-phase circuit. Normally the three phase currents are in balance,
i.e. roughly equal in magnitude. If one or two phases become connected
to earth via a low impedance path, their magnitudes will increase
dramatically, as will current imbalance. If this imbalance exceeds a pre-
determined value, a circuit breaker should operate. Restricted earth fault
protection is a type of earth fault protection which looks for earth fault
between two sets current transformers[4] (hence restricted to that zone).
Distance (impedance relay) Distance protection detects both

voltage and current. A fault on a circuit will generally create a sag in the
voltage level. If the ratio of voltage to current measured at the relay
terminals, which equates to an impedance, lands within a predetermined
level the circuit breaker will operate. This is useful for reasonable length
lines, lines longer than 10 miles, because its operating characteristics are
based on the line characteristics. This means that when a fault appears
on the line the impedance setting in the relay is compared to the
apparent impedance of the line from the relay terminals to the fault. If the
relay setting is determined to be below the apparent impedance it is
determined that the fault is within the zone of protection. When the
transmission line length is too short, less than 10 miles, distance
protection becomes more difficult to coordinate. In these instances the
best choice of protection is current differential protection.
Back-up The objective of protection is to remove only the affected

portion of plant and nothing else. A circuit breaker or protection relay may
FUNCTION - 2
fail to operate. In important systems, a failure of primary protection will
usually result in the operation of back-up protection. Remote back-up
protection will generally remove both the affected and unaffected items
of plant to clear the fault. Local back-up protection will remove the
affected items of the plant to clear the fault.
Low-voltage networks The low-voltage network generally relies

upon fuses or low-voltage circuit breakers to remove both overload and
earth faults.
Auxiliary diesel generator alarm and shut down

All monitored parameters for which alarms are required to identify machinery
faults and associated safeguards are listed in Table 1.
All these alarms are to be indicated at the control location for machinery as
individual alarms; where the alarm panel with individual alarms is installed
on the engine or in the vicinity; common alarm in the control location for
machinery is required.
For communication of alarms from machinery space to bridge area and

accommodation for engineering personnel detailed requirements are
contained in M29
Monitored parameter Alarm Shut down
Fuel oil leakage from high X
pressure pipe
Lubricating oil temperature High
Lubricating oil pressure Low x
Oil mist concentration in High x
crankcase
Pressure of cooling water Low
Temperature of cooling water High
or air
Level in cooling water Low
expansion tank, if not
connected to main system
Level in fuel oil daily service Low
tank
Starting air pressure Low
Over speed activated X
Fuel oil viscosity before Low

FUNCTION - 2
injection pumps or fuel oil High
temp before injection pumps
Exhaust gas temperature High
after each cylinder
Common rail fuel oil pressure Low
Common rail servo oil low
pressure
Automatic starting of propulsion auxiliaries
Starting of an Auxiliary Diesel Engine
The auxiliary diesel engine is mostly started with the help of compressed air,
depending upon the size of the engine. Other means of starting includes
Electric start (battery) and air motor(engaged in the flywheel). The most
common method is the use of compressed air. The lay out for starting the
auxiliary engine is given below.
Before starting the auxiliary engine, the following safety checks

must be carried out:
1. Turning gear disengaged (if available).
2. Lubricating oil sump level normal
3. Turbocharger oil level (both turbine & blower) side normal
4. Lubricating oil priming pump running.
5. Fuel oil/diesel oil booster pumps running.
6. Lube oil, cooling fresh water, fuel oil pressure normal.
7. Rocker arm tank level normal.
8. All valves in compressed air line open to the engine.
Referring to the above starting diagram of an auxiliary engine, the" main air"
from the main air bottle arrives at the air starting valve. There is a tapping
from the main air starting line, "pilot air" going to the starting air distributor.
When the engine rotates, the camshaft also rotates which in turn rotates "the

FUNCTION - 2
starting air distributor cam". This cam is designed as per the firing order of
the engine such that, the distributor rotates and lets the pilot air to the
particular unit. The pilot air reaches on top of the air starting valve, opening
it, in turn making the long awaited main air to let inside the combustion
chamber. The main air which is at 30 bar, pushes the piston down making
the crankshaft to rotate. This leads to continuous rotation of the crankshaft
making the engine to achieve the minimum r.p.m at which firing of the
injected fuel takes place. When the engine picks up on fuel, the air is cut off
and drained. Thus the auxiliary diesel engine is started with the help of
compressed air.
In the next article, we will take up the study of the various valves mentioned
in the starting air systems namely master air starting valve, cylinder valves
and so forth.

FUNCTION - 2
Steam boiler
A boiler or steam generator is a device used to create steam by
applying heat energy to water. Although the definitions are somewhat
flexible, it can be said that older steam generators were commonly
termed boilers and worked at low to medium pressure (1300 psi or 6.895
2,068.427 kPa) but, at pressures above this, it is more usual to speak of
a steam generator.
Following failure will have alarms and display-feed water high salinity , high water
level, boiler pressure high and low, superheated outlet temperature high , fuel
pump low outlet pressure, heavy fuel temperature high and low (or high and low
viscosity), uptake high gas temperature, control system power failure, automization
steam/ air pressure low
Feed water high salinity
This is the single most important item to estimate the performance of an ion
exchange system. It is also one of the first things to check when plant

FUNCTION - 2
performance deteriorates. You cannot rely on an analysis that was made

months or years ago. Some effects of a change in salinity are:
Type of change Effect
Higher salt content Shorter runs, lower throughput, sometimes lower

quality of the treated water
Lower salt content Longer runs, higher throughput
Change in ionic balance Change in treated water quality. The resin

(e.g. less bicarbonate, volumes become unbalanced, the degasifier has
more chloride) less or more carbon dioxide to handle
Higher ratio of silica to This may increase silica leakage and require a
total anions change in regeneration conditions.
The picture below is a schematic representation of a water analysis, with

cations and anions. A good water analysis must be balanced.

FUNCTION - 2
See also a detailed description of the water analysis, with the concentration
units to use and a table of the most common ions in water.
If the water analysis varies according to season, plant performance should be

re-assessed, and perhaps operating conditions re-adjusted, to reflect the
seasonal variations. If you don't analyze the water yourself, give a sample to
a reputable laboratory for testing. If your feed water is city water, you should
be able to obtain an accurate analysis from your municipality.
When re-assessing the performance of a plant, or optimizing it, it is

recommended to use the most probable analysis for the basic calculation,
then to re-run the calculation with seasonal analyses to estimate plant
throughput under various conditions. All the water analyses should be real,
not maxima, averages or minima.
We strongly recommend that you should update the expected performance

of the plant based on actual operating conditions. You should collect the
necessary data:
Water analysis (after pre-treatment)
Resin types and volumes
Regeneration method (co-flow, reverse flow, packed beds)
Regenerant quantities and concentrations
Salinity limits

FUNCTION - 2
Ion exchange is the perfect technology for low concentrations. At high
salinity, the cycles become very short, regenerant consumption increases
and in extreme cases the water required for regeneration may exceed the
volume of treated water. As a guideline, a salinity of 20 meq/L (1000 ppm as
CaCO3) seems to be the high limit, with some exceptions. Higher salinity
water is probably best treated with RO.
Sea water cannot be demineralized by ion exchange, as the resins would be

exhausted in less than 3 bed volumes.
High water level
With the exception of one or two operating standards,

the risks from a water level too high are treated very
lightly, if not ignored altogether.
The dangers of an excessively high water level in a

steam boiler include:
Increased carryover of water into the steam will

result in poor operation and / or malfunction of
the steam system components, due to dirt.
Wet and dirty steam can contaminate or spoil the product where it is
used directly. Wet steam can increase the water film thickness of the
heat transfer surface, lower processing temperatures, perhaps
interfering with proper sterilisation of food products or processing of
pharmaceuticals, and causing wastage. At best, lower process and
production efficiency will increase process time and unit costs.
Overfilling the boiler can lead to waterhammer in the steam system,
risking damage to plant and even injury to personnel.
All of these, taken together, can result in:
Spoilt product
Lower production rates
Poor product quality
Increased plant and component maintenance
Damage to the steam system
Risk to personnel

FUNCTION - 2
As can be seen, the dangers of an excessively high water level are too
serious to ignore, and deserve equal consideration to that given to low water
level conditions.
A high water condition could:
Simply sound an alarm if the boiler house is manned.

Shut-down the feed pump.
Lockout the burner
Close the feed water valve
The action to be taken largely depends on the individual plant requirements.
The reason for high pressure
Maximizing the efficiency of a heat engine depends fundamentally upon

getting the temperature at which heat is accepted (i.e. raising steam in
the boiler) as far as possible from the temperature at which it is rejected (i.e.
the steam when it leaves the cylinder). This was quantified by Nicolas
Lonard Sadi Carnot.
The oil pump in an internal combustion engine circulates engine oil under
pressure to the rotating bearings, the sliding pistons and the camshaft of the
engine. This lubricates the bearings, allows the use of higher-capacity fluid
bearings and also assists in cooling the engine.
As well as its primary purpose for lubrication, pressurized oil is increasingly

used as a hydraulic fluid to power small actuators. One of the first notable
uses in this way was for hydraulic tappets in camshaft and valve actuation.
Increasingly common recent uses may include the tensioner for a timing
belt or variators for variable valve timing systems
Boiler pressure high and low
Low-Pressure Boiler Definition

FUNCTION - 2
In a low-pressure boiler the pressure does not exceed 15 psi, and hot
water heating boilers are not designed to exceed over 260 psig. The
temperature in a low-pressure boiler will not rise above 250 degrees F.
Because these types of boilers operate at lower pressures, they don't need to
be monitored regularly and only have to be checked when the appliance
begins to break down.
Low-Pressure Boiler Uses
Low-pressure boilers are often used in buildings and designed to heat

rooms through radiators. Types of buildings may include restaurants,
hospitals, office buildings and schools. The boilers are able to heat the water
used in bathrooms and use steam to heat the different rooms throughout the
building, allowing them to become warm.
Following failure will have alarm , display and automatic shutdown

of boiler low water level, supply air pressure failure, ignition or
flame failure.
Start Up and Shut down of Auxiliary Machinery, including associated
system: Air compressors and compressed air systems, Hydraulic power
system, Types of auxiliary boilers, Auxiliary steam system, Safety valves,
Boiler water levels, Use of 'Sea water in Boilers', Use of 'Fresh Water in
Boilers', Boiler Water Testing, Boiler Water Treatment, Auxiliary Steam
turbines, Boiler defects, Boiler and Steam turbine survey and repairs,
Evaporators, Thermal fluid heating system
a) Safe and efficient operation, Surveillance & Performance assessment of
electrical machines and systems.
b) Requirements, including operations and maintenance of pumps and
pumping systems including bilge, fire main, ballast, sewage & sludge
systems.
c) Refrigeration, working principles of air conditioning, cargo and domestic
refrigeration plants. Refrigerants used in the marine refrigeration plants,
green house effects and future refrigerants. Air conditioning including
psychometric process for heating, cooling and humidification.
d) Steering gear systems, single failure criteria of steering gear Surveillance
& Performance assessment.
e) Operation and testing of pneumatic hydraulic and electric control
systems.
f)Functions and Mechanism of Automatic Control for auxiliary machinery:
Generator distribution system, Steam boiler, Oil purifier, Refrigeration
system, Pumping and piping system, Steering gear system, Cargo-
handling equipment and deck machinery.

FUNCTION - 2
g) Operation of cargo handling equipment and deck machinery.
h) Operation of fresh water systems, fresh water generating systems and its
performance assessment.
i) Shipboard Personnel & Resource Management & emergency preparedness.
All combustion requires the correct measure of oxygen; too much or too little
can cause undesirable effects. However, the error is almost always
intentionally on the high-side (too much oxygen) because the main effect on
the high side is low efficiency. Too little air results in carbon monoxide
formation, sooting and even explosion if accumulated soot and other non-
combusted suddenly get enough oxygen to rapidly burn.
Design features and System Configuration of Operational Control

Equipment for Electrical Motors
Three phase a.c motor
An induction or asynchronous motor[1] is

an AC electric motor in which the electric
current in the rotor needed to produce
torque is obtained by electromagnetic
induction from the magnetic field of
the stator winding. An induction motor
therefore does not require mechanical
commutation, separate-excitation or self-
excitation for all or part of the energy transferred from stator to rotor, as
in universal, DC and large synchronous motors. An induction motor's rotor
can be either wound type or squirrel-cage type.
Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used in industrial

drives because they are rugged, reliable and economical. Single-phase
induction motors are used extensively for smaller loads, such as household
appliances like fans. Although traditionally used in fixed-speed service,
induction motors are increasingly being used with variable-frequency
drives (VFDs) in variable-speed service. VFDs offer especially important
energy savings opportunities for existing and prospective induction motors in
variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump and compressor load applications.
Squirrel cage induction motors are very widely used in both fixed-speed and
VFD applications.
Synchronous motor

FUNCTION - 2
A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor in which, at steady state,
[1]
the rotation of the shaft is synchronized with
the fre quency of the supply current; the rotation
period is exactly equal to an integral number
of AC cycles. Synchronous motors
contain electromagnets on the stator of the
motor that create a magnetic field which
rotates in time with the oscillations of
the line current. The rotor turns in step with
this field, at the same rate.
The synchronous motor and induction motor are the most widely used types
of AC motor. The difference between the two types is that the synchronous
motor rotates in exact synchronism with the line frequency. In contrast the
induction motor requires "slip", the rotor must rotate slightly slower than the
AC current alternations, to develop torque. Therefore small synchronous
motors are used in timing applications such as in synchronous
clocks, timers in appliances, tape recorders and precision
servomechanisms in which the motor must operate at a precise speed.
Varying frequency of A.C. Motor
The first stage of a Variable Frequency AC

Drive, or VFD, is the Converter. The converter
is comprised of six diodes, which are similar to
check valves used in plumbing systems. They
allow current to flow in only one direction; the
direction shown by the arrow in the diode
symbol. For example, whenever A-phase
voltage (voltage is similar to pressure in
plumbing systems) is more positive than B or
C phase voltages, then that diode will open
and allow current to flow. When B-phase becomes more positive than A-
phase, then the B-phase diode will open and the A-phase diode will close.
The same is true for the 3 diodes on the negative side of the bus. Thus, we
get six current pulses as each diode opens and closes. This is called a six-
pulse VFD, which is the standard configuration for current Variable
Frequency Drives.

FUNCTION - 2
Let us assume that the drive is operating on a 480V power system. The 480V
rating is rms or root-mean-squared. The peaks on a 480V system are 679V.
As you can see, the VFD dc bus has a dc voltage with an AC ripple. The
voltage runs between approximately 580V and 680V.

FUNCTION - 2
We can get rid of the AC ripple on the DC bus by adding a capacitor. A

capacitor operates in a similar fashion to a reservoir or accumulator in a
plumbing system. This capacitor absorbs the ac ripple and delivers a smooth
dc voltage. The AC ripple on the DC bus is typically less than 3 Volts. Thus,
the voltage on the DC bus becomes approximately 650VDC. The actual
voltage will depend on the voltage level of the AC line feeding the drive, the
level of voltage unbalance on the power system, the motor load, the
impedance of the power system, and any reactors or harmonic filters on the
drive.
The diode bridge converter that converts AC-to-DC, is sometimes just

referred to as a converter. The converter that converts the dc back to ac is
also a converter, but to distinguish it from the diode converter, it is usually
referred to as an inverter. It has become common in the industry to refer
to any DC-to-AC converter as an inverter.

FUNCTION - 2
Note that in a real VFD, the switches shown would actually be transistors.
When we close one of the top switches in the inverter, that phase of the
motor is connected to the positive dc bus and the voltage on that phase
becomes positive. When we close one of the bottom switches in the
converter, that phase is connected to the negative dc bus and becomes
negative. Thus, we can make any phase on the motor become positive or
negative at will and can thus generate any frequency that we want. So, we
can make any phase be positive, negative, or zero.

FUNCTION - 2
Voltage of A.C. Motor

The motor nameplate voltage is determined by the available power supply
which must be known in order to properly select a motor for a given
application. The nameplate voltage will normally be less than the nominal
distribution system voltage.
The distribution voltage is the same as the supply transformer volt-age

rating; the utilization (motor nameplate) voltage is set at a slightly lower
level to allow for a voltage drop in the system between the transformer and
the motor leads. Some specifications still call for 220, 440 or 550 volt motors
which were the long accepted standards. However, modern distribution
systems have transformers located adjacent to secondary unit sub-stations
or load centers, plant wide power factor correction and shorter power line

FUNCTION - 2
runs. The result is a stiffer distribution system which delivers higher voltage
at the motor. The following motor name plate voltages provide the best
match to distribution system voltages and meet current motor design
practices.
Motor control
Motor control is the process by which humans and animals use their
neuromuscular system to activate and coordinate the muscles and limbs
involved in the performance of a motor skill. Fundamentally, it is
the integration of sensory information, both about the world and the current
state of the body, to determine the appropriate set of muscle forces and joint
activations to generate some desired movement or action. This process
requires cooperative interaction between the central nervous system and
the musculoskeletal system, and is thus a problem of information
processing, coordination, mechanics, physics, and cognition.[1][2] Successful
motor control is crucial to interacting with the world, not only determining
action capabilities, but regulating balance and stability as well.
The organization and production of

movement is a complex problem, so
the study of motor control has been
approached from a wide range of
disciplines,
including psychology, cognitive
science, biomechanics and neuroscienc
e. While the modern study of motor
control is an increasingly
interdisciplinary field, research
questions have historically been
defined as
either physiological or psychological,
depending on whether the focus is on
physical and biological properties, or
organizational and structural rules.[3] Areas of study related to motor control
are motor coordination, motor learning, and signal processing.
Fig. 6.99. Impulse controlled contactor with thermal relay

FUNCTION - 2
Fig. 6.100. Contactor combination for direction change
We discuss three basic circuits appropriate for the switching of three-phase

asynchronous motors, and including overload protection. The overload
protection is based on monitoring the motor current.
In the first case, the impulse controlled circuit of Fig. 6.94 is complemented
with a thermal relay (Fig. 6.99). In the other two cases, combinations of two
and three contactors provide the control of the motor. The circuit in Fig.
6.100 is appropriate for the direction change and switching on or off three-
phase motors. The direction of the rotation can be changed only, if the motor
has been turned off previously by the "Off" button. This method is
advantageous, because the arc between the contacts of the contactor can
die out during the relatively long time of the switching process, therefore a
possible fault is eliminated.
Figure 6.101 shows a circuit, with which the star-delta starting of motors can
be accomplished. The main and control circuits are shown separately. Three
contactors are used: the main contactor K, the contactor providing the star
connection Y, and the contactor implementing the delta connection, denoted
by . By pressing the "On" button, the motor starts in star connection,
because contactor K connects the supply voltage across the coils after
contactor Y has been energized. An interlock ensures that this can happen
only if contactor is off. At the same time, the NO auxiliary contact of the
main contactor closes providing self holding for both contactors K and Y.
Furthermore, the time relay TR starts. After the delay time is over, an NC
contact of the time relay opens the holding circuit of contactor Y, and its NO
contact closes and energizes contactor . Again, an interlocking circuit
inhibits the simultaneous operation of contactors Y and .

FUNCTION - 2
Fig. 6.101. Contactor combination for star-delta starting
The operation method of the overload thermal relay implies that the
temperature rise of the bimetallic strips reflects only the average
temperature rise of the motor. Therefore, the hottest parts of the motor can
remain without protection. Bimetallic strips heated indirectly can follow even
the current proportional to the average motor temperature only with a delay.
With indirect heating, the heat is transmitted from the heating wire to the
bimetal through an insulating layer. Even in this thin layer, the heat
conduction is so low that it can cause a delay in the temperature rise of the
bimetal, when an overload occurs. If the load drops rapidly, the hot heating
wire might heat the bimetal further, resulting in false tripping. Although the
motor is not in danger, the protection disconnects it from the supply.
Consequently, thermal relays are not appropriate for the protection of large
motors and/or motors with frequently varying load
PROTECTION OF MOTOR CONTROL
Circuit breaker

FUNCTION - 2
A circuit breaker is an automatically
operated electrical switch designed to protect
an electrical circuit from damage caused
by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to
detect a fault condition and interrupt current flow.
Unlike afuse, which operates once and then must be
replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either
manually or automatically) to resume normal
operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes,
from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to
large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire
city.
Fuse
In electronics and electrical engineering, a fuse (from the
French fuser, Italian fuso, "spindle"[1]) is a type of low
resistance resistor that acts as a sacrificial device to
provide overcurrent protection, of either the load or
source circuit. Its essential component is a metal wire or
strip that melts when too much current flows through it,
interrupting the circuit that it connects. Short circuits,
overloading, mismatched loads, or device failure are the
prime reasons for excessive current. Fuses are an
alternative to circuit breakers.
Overload relays
A starter will contain protective devices for the motor. At a minimum this
would include a thermal overload relay. The thermal overload is designed to
open the starting circuit and thus cut the power to the motor in the event of
the motor drawing too much current from the supply for an extended time.
The overload relay has a normally closed contact which opens due to heat
generated by excessive current flowing through the circuit. Thermal
overloads have a small heating device that increases in temperature as the
motor running current increases.

FUNCTION - 2
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) motor speed

control
The insulated gate bipolar transistor or IGBT is a

three-terminal power semiconductor device, noted for
high efficiency and fast switching. It switches electric
power in many modern appliances: electric cars, trains,
variable speed refrigerators, air-conditioners and even
stereo systems with switching amplifiers. Since it is
designed to rapidly turn on and off, amplifiers that use it
often synthesize complex waveforms with pulse width
modulation and low-pass filters.
The IGBT combines the simple gate-drive characteristics of the MOSFETs with
the high-current and lowsaturation-voltage capability of bipolar transistors
by combining an isolated gate FET for the control input, and a bipolar
power transistor as a switch, in a single device. The IGBT is used in medium-
to high-power applications such as switched, traction control and induction
heating. Large IGBT modules typically consist of many devices in parallel and
can have very high current handling capabilities in the order of hundreds
of amperes with blocking voltages of 6000 V.
The IGBT is a fairly recent invention. The first-generation devices of the

1980s and early 1990s were relatively slow in switching, and prone to failure
through such modes as latch up and secondary breakdown. Second-
generation devices were much improved, and the current third-generation
ones are even better, with speed rivaling MOSFETs, and excellent ruggedness
and tolerance of overloads.[1]
The extremely high pulse ratings of second- and third-generation devices

also make them useful for generating large power pulses in areas
like particle and plasma physics, where they are starting to supersede older
devices like thyratrons and triggered spark gaps.
Their high pulse ratings, and low prices on the surplus market, also make
them attractive to the high-voltage hobbyist for controlling large amounts of
power to drive devices such as solid-state Tesla coils and coil guns.

FUNCTION - 2
Motor speed controller by thyristor
Thyristor drives are very simple and were first

introduced in the 1960s. They remained the
predominant type of industrial motor
controller until the end of the 1980s when the
availability of low cost electronics led to their
replacement by chopper drives for high
performance systems and inverters for high reliability with AC motors.
They are still employed in very high power applications, such as locomotives,
where the high power capability of the thyristors and the simplicity of the
design can make them a more attractive proposition than transistor based
controllers.
A derivative of the thyristor drive is the simple AC phase controller. This uses
a single phase controlled triac to provide a variable voltage AC output for
regulating a universal motor. This is the type of motor speed control most
commonly used in domestic appliances, such as food mixers, and small AC
powered tools, such as electric drills.

FUNCTION - 2
Three
phase generator
Large commercial power stations generate 3

alternating currents simultaneously
from the same machines each
differing in timing from each other
by 1/3 of the period. As can be
seen from the animation, the
three currents, "phases" are
0
mathematically 120 apart from
each other in phase. In the
animation, the sets of wiring are
1200around the generator.
If the first phase has a voltage given by V=V0 sint, then the second is
V=V0 sin(t +1200) and the third V=V0 sin(t + 2400).
The magnet is usually an electromagnet requiring brushes to provide the

current to the rotating magnet's wiring.
The potential differences generated is often fairly low but high currents are
created. These are usually sent to a transformer in a switchyard which
changes the AC currents to very high voltage and low current for long
distance transmission. ( Reason, power =VI, if we are to transmit say 100MW
to a place several hundred kilometers away, we don't want ohmic heating of
the cables. This is caused by high currents in the cables! So - low currents,
meaning high PDs. ) High voltage transmission towers only carry groups of
three cables - the 3 phases. The return cable is the Earth itself.
FUNCTION - 2
At the other end, the PDs are transformed to low values and eventually the
individual phase cables go to consumers, eg your house! Big energy
consumers eg businesses may require all three phases into their
places. Households usually need only one phase.
A happy quirk of the three phases is that if the return cables are all joined,
the three voltages add TO NOTHING! So at the generator and every
transformer one cable of every phase is joined and stuck in the ground! This
can be seen in Australia at the power poles holding a transformer in the
streets providing power to houses. Down one side is a massive cable sunk
into the ground. Houses get one phase each with a return line, these return
lines are joined into the Earth.
Three phase transformer
Since three-phase is used so often for power distribution systems, it makes

sense that we would need three-phase transformers to be able to step
voltages up or down. This is only partially true, as regular single-phase
transformers can be ganged together to transform power between two three-
phase systems in a variety of configurations, eliminating the requirement for
a special three-phase transformer. However, special three-phase
transformers are built for those tasks, and are able to perform with less
material requirement, less size, and less weight than their modular
counterparts

FUNCTION - 2
Distribution
A ship can be considered as a mobile power plant. Most of the machinery is

driven electrically, which thus makes for a huge electrical power demand.
This makes a shipboard electrical power distribution system very important.
This article is about the layout of the main switch board and the bus bar.
Basic Power Generation and Distribution
Emergency power distribution

FUNCTION - 2
The purpose of the emergency power system is to furnish an immediate,

automatic source of electric power to a limited number of selected vital
circuits. It includes one or more diesel-driven emergency generators,
the emergency switch-boards, and a distribution system, which is
separate from the ships service electric plant and distribution system.
Emergency feeders run from the emergency switchboards to at least one and
usually to two different ships service switch-boards. Emergency power
feeders for certain vital auxiliaries are also run to control panels. The
emergency power system, with the use of transformers, is also used
for furnishing emergency lighting.
Emergency generator diagram
Design features of high-voltage installation

Design features of high-voltage installations

FUNCTION - 2
Generation and distribution of high voltage on ships
If a ship is steam propelled, it might have steam turbine driven
alternators and a diesel driven alternator as a back-up. If the
propulsion is by electric motors, then the vessel might require huge
diesel driven generators which usually operate at 6.6kV.
Ship Type -------------------------------------------------------Power Requirement
A 10,000 dwt general cargo ship-----------------------------1 MW.
Tankers---------------------------------------------------------- 1.5 to 5 MW.
Containerships (10000 TEU) (3.3kV)-----------------------8 MW
A Modern LNG carrier (Q-max/Q-flex) (6.6kV)------------12 MW
The main bus bar has three heavy, thick bars of conductor (usually copper),
running horizontally throughout the length of the main switch board. Each of
the conductors is insulated between each other and wherever it is supported
or clamped to the switchboard. The bus bar lies at the bottom most portion
of the switchboard such that it can be easily supported and insulated. At
times, there may be two divisions of the bus bar which are connected to
each other by either a circuit breaker or a clamping (sliding contact) device.
The main switchboard is the main power distribution center of the ship. Thus
the main bus bars are contained within the switchboard feeding various ship
board auxiliaries. A ship may contain two or more generators connected to
the main bus bar via the circuit breaker.
Various protection for the generators like overload, reverse power, etc. are
connected to circuit breaker such that the faulty generator is electrically
isolated from the main bus bar.

FUNCTION - 2
From the main bus bar, the electrical power is supplied to various ship board
auxiliaries like pumps, blowers, compressors, etc. The main switch board has
various measuring and monitoring devices like ammeters, voltmeters,
frequency meters, watt meters, synchroscope, and power factor meters.
A generic layout of a shipboard distribution system is attached here. Refer to

the diagram below for the following explanation; however this is just a
simplified version of the main power distribution. This may become complex
as the size of the vessel and amount of machinery increase in number.
The main switch board gets its supply from the main generators located in
the engine room. The distribution system can be divided into Feeder side and
the Load side. The feeders are the generators and the loads are various ship
board auxiliary machineries. The Load side is further divided into Essential
and Non-Essential services. Essential services are very critical auxiliaries
which are directly affecting the safety of personnel, ship in terms of
navigation and propulsion. They include supply to navigational aids like
radars, communication equipment, navigational lights, and steering gear
motors. These essential services may be supplied directly from the main
switch board or via sectional boards or distribution boards. Non-essential
services are those that do not affect the safety of ship and personnel. For
example, air conditioning compressors and fans are non-essential services as
they dont affect the safety of the ship or personnel
.
The operating voltage is stepped down to 220 volts and this voltage
is given to the 220 Volts auxiliaries panel. From this panel, the supply
goes for various lighting systems and other sockets for accommodation and
galley for domestic use.

FUNCTION - 2
Distribution Boards/Group Start Panels

Shipboard machinery may not be connected to the main switchboard
directly. There are small motors and other devices that consume very
little power and thus they may be grouped together. Instead of

providing cables for every such individual motor, a single cable is taken
out from the main switch board, supplying the distribution board which
has a small bus bar (equivalent to supply the motors). From this small
bus bar, the supply is provided for various starters of these motors via
the circuit breakers. In this way, the protection for the machinery is
also precise, as a small fault in such small motors will not operate the
protection devices on the main switch board.

FUNCTION - 2
Emergency Switch Board

As the name indicates, it supplies to equipment and machinery that
are essential during any emergency like fire, flooding, etc. One
important aspect about the emergency switch boards is that it is
located above the load water line or the upper most continuous deck,
where as the main generators and main switchboards are located
below the weather deck or the load water line. Thus this ensures that
the emergency supply is maintained when the vessel is flooded with
water to the weather deck.
During normal operation, power is supplied from the main generators

to the main switch board. The emergency switch board gets it supply
from the main switch board. When the main generators fail, the main
switch board looses its supply and this causes the emergency
generator to start automatically, which will supply the emergency
switchboard that is connected to various ship board auxiliaries. Thus
critical equipment and machinery (essential services) are supplied
always to maintain the safety of the ship and personnel.

FUNCTION - 2
Electric propulsion system

Integrated electric propulsion (IEP) or full electric propulsion (FEP) or
integrated full electric propulsion (IFEP) is an arrangement of marine
propulsion systems such that gas turbines or diesel generators or both
generate three phase[1]electricity which is then used to power electric
motors[2]turning either propellers or water jets. It is a modification of
the combined diesel-electric and gas propulsion system for ships which
eliminates the need for clutches and reduces or eliminates the need
for gearboxes[2][3] by using electrical transmission rather than
mechanical transmission of energy.
Eliminating the mechanical connection between the engines and the

propulsion has several advantages including increased freedom of
placement of the engines,[3] acousticalde coupling of the engines from
the hull which makes the ship less noisy, and a reduction of weight and
volume.[3] Reducing noise is particularly important to naval
vessels seeking to avoid detection and to cruise ships seeking to
provide passengers with a pleasant voyage, but is of less benefit
to cargo ships. Because ships anyway require electricity even when not
underway, having all of the engines produce electricity reduces the
number of engines needed compared to more traditional arrangements
in which one pool of engines provides electricity and another pool of
engines provides propulsion, reducing capital costs and maintenance
costs.[1][3]
Synchro-conventors and cyclo-conventors

A "Synchro Converter" is used to convertSynchro (or Resolver) "analog" shaft
angle information to a "digital" angle format. The "Synchro Converter", is
often used as a generic term for a variety of similar Synchro/Resolver
Conversion functions:

FUNCTION - 2
Synchro to Digital Converter (S/D)
Resolver to Digital Converter (R/D)
Digital to Synchro Converter (D/S)
Digital to Resolver Converter (D/R)
Synchro Converters come in a variety of physical

configurations including Module, Hybrid and
Monolithic. Hybrid and Module types provide more
complete "Plug and Play" solutions, whereas the
Monolithic (IC) type provides a "roll your own" solution
requiring external components and signal
conditioning circuitry to complete the converter
system.
A cycloconverter (CCV) or a cycloinverter converts a

constant voltage, constant frequency AC waveform to
another AC waveform of a lowerfrequency by synthesizing the
output waveform from segments of the AC supply without an
intermediate DC link (Dorf 1993, pp. 22412243 and Lander 1993, p. 181).
There are two main types of CCVs, circulating current type or blocking mode
type, most commercial high power products being of the blocking mode
type.
Functional, operation and safety requirements for marine high-
voltage system
Operators of such equipment require to be well trained in all

aspects of High Voltage Safety.
For the first time in the Indian subcontinent, customized training is now
available to the Maritime sector. Designed and developed by IMTC, the High-
Voltage Safety Course offers invaluable benefits to Marine Engineers and
Electrical Officers.

FUNCTION - 2
The Course includes practical hands-on exercises on an actual High Voltage
Panel comprising of Vacuum Circuit Breaker, Earthing switch along with the
associated interlocks, Potential and Current transformers, Bus Bar chamber
and Low Voltage Safety Relay panel, thus familiarizing the participants with
High-Voltage equipment and the various safety procedures for handling the
same.
The course contents are based on the guidelines as mentioned in

Section B-III/2 of the STCW Code 2010 (Manila Amendments).
Course Objectives:
To enable the Participants to:
Understand the working of the various specialized components &
equipment used in High Voltage installations.
Operate, maintain & troubleshoot High Voltage installations safely &
efficiently.
Learn through sharing of experience amongst participants.
Duration: 3 days
Target Group: All Electrical Officers & Marine Engineers.
Course Contents:
Familiarization lay out and safety features of high voltage power plant
on board.
The functional, operational and safety requirements for a marine high
voltage system.
Assignment of suitably qualified personnel to carry out maintenance
and repair of high voltage switch gear of various types.
Producing a switching strategy for isolating components of high
voltage system.
Selecting suitable apparatus for isolation and testing of high voltage
apparatus.
Carrying out a switching and isolation procedure on a marine high
voltage system complete with safety documentation.
Performing test of insulation resistance and polarization index on high
voltage equipment.
Taking remedial action necessary during faults in high voltage system.
Risks & hazards associated with High Voltage.
High voltage alternators safety features.
Earthing and key interlocks for isolation of high voltage equipment
Legislative background and Code of Safe Working Practices and PPE.
High Voltage switch gear, SF 6,Vacuum circuit breakers and contactors,
construction, operation, maintenance and tests.

FUNCTION - 2
Fault levels at different locations and protection system topology. PTs ,
CTs and an overview of protection relays. IDMTL characteristics
Non relay operated protection
Generator, Motor and Transformer protection
An introduction to High Voltage Variable Frequency Drive ( PWM) and
soft starters.
110 Volt DC for control of High Voltage Switchgear.
Practical exercises on High Voltage Panel in disconnecting, isolating
and earthing the circuit breaker and Prove Dead the place of work.
Table top exercises on High Voltage Switchboard circuits.
Assigning qualified personnel to carry out maintenance and repair

of high-voltage switchgear of various type
On completion of training, trainees will have sufficient knowledge and
understanding to enable them to:
Understand the functional, operational and safety requirements

for a marine high voltage system
Assist suitably qualified personnel to carry out maintenance and repair
of high voltage switchgear of various types
Take remedial action necessary during system faults
Produce a switching strategy for isolating HV system components
Select suitable apparatus for isolation and testing HV equipment
Carry out a switching and isolation procedure on a marine HV system
complete with safety documentation
Perform 5kV insulation resistance and polarization index tests on HV
equipment
High voltage system advantages

Advantages:
For a given power, Higher voltage means Lower current, resulting in:
Reduction in size of generators, motors, cables etc.
Saving of Space and weight
Ease of Installation

FUNCTION - 2
Reduction in cost of Installation
Lower losses more efficient utilization of generated power
Reduction in short circuit levels in the system which decides the design and
application of the electrical equipment used in the power system.
Advantage of an insulated system
Insulated Neutral System--The Reason for Using it Onboard for Ship
grounding
The requirement ashore is the safety of human beings. So, inorder to prevent
human-electrical accidents, the neutral is earthed. The priority is neither the
safety of the machinery nor the continuous necessary operation of the
machinery. But the scenario onboard ship is totally different. The priority is
the continuous operation of the machineries which are classed "essential".
The distribution system followed onboard is "insulated neutral" system. The
main priority onboard is the safety of ship which includes navigation & fire
safety..etc. If due to earth fault, the machinery classed as"essential" gets
isolated, say for eg: steering gear, then the safety of ship is at question,
which may lead to collison, grounding, fire & pollution etc..So the priority
onboard ship is to maintain the continuity of the supply to the machinery in
the event of "single earth fault occurring".
High voltage breakers

FUNCTION - 2
Probably the main difference between a HV
and an LV system occurs at the HV main
switchboard. For HV, the circuit breaker types
may be air-break, oil-break, gas-break using
SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride) or vacuum-break.
Of these types, the most popular and reliable
are the vacuum interrupters, which may also
be used as contactors in HV motor starters.
Each phase of a vacuum circuit breaker or
contactor consists of a fixed and moving
contact within a sealed, evacuated envelope
of borosilicate glass. The moving contact is
operated via flexible metal bellows by a
charging motor/spring or solenoid operating
mechanism. The high electric strength of a
vacuum allows a very short contact separation, and a rapid restrike-
free interruption of the arc is achieved.
High voltage cable
A high-voltage cable, also called HV

cable, is used for electric power
transmission at high voltage.
A cable includes a conductor and insulation,
and is suitable for being run underground or
underwater. This is in contrast to a
conductor, which does not have insulation.
High-voltage cables of differing types have a
variety of applications in instruments,
ignition systems, AC and DC power
transmission. In all applications, the
insulation of the cable must not deteriorate
due to the high-voltage stress, ozone
produced by electric discharges in air, or
tracking. The cable system must prevent
contact of the high-voltage conductor with
other objects or persons, and must contain and control leakage
current. Cable joints and terminals must be designed to control the
high-voltage stress to prevent breakdown of the insulation. Often a
high-voltage cable will have a metallic shield layer over the insulation,
connected to earth ground and designed to equalize the dielectric
stress on the insulation layer.
Segments of high-voltage cables
High-voltage cables may be any length, with relatively short cables

used in apparatus, longer cables run within buildings or as buried
FUNCTION - 2
cables in an industrial plant or for power distribution, and the longest
cables are often run as submarine cables under the ocean for power
transmission.
High voltage fuses

High voltage fuses are used to protect the electrical system in a
substation from power transformer faults. They are switched for
maintenance and safety.
In electronics and electrical engineering, a fuse (from the French fuser,
Italian fuso, "spindle"[1]) is a type of low resistance resistor that acts as
a sacrificial device to provide overcurrent protection, of either the load
or source circuit. Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that
melts when too much current flows, which interrupts the circuit in
which it is connected. Short circuit, overloading, mismatched loads or
device failure are the prime reasons for excessive current.
Remedial action necessary during faults in high-voltage system

As an example of safety procedures we will discuss the safe working
procedures used by ABB HV field technicians these procedures are known
under the name Seven steps that save lives. These steps are in a line with
common standards for safe working procedures. It is recommended to do risk
assessment throughout the work. The step order can vary according to the
procedure used (for example issuing permit to work).
1. Identification of the work location

2. Disconnection and securing against reconnection
3. Protection against any other live parts
4. Special precautions close to bare conductors
5. Proving the installation dead
6. Carrying out earthing and short-circuiting
7. Issuing a permit to work
Identification of the work location

FUNCTION - 2
Identify the right work location and mark it clearly. The work location should
have appropriate access and lighting. Non-authorized persons shall be
restricted from entering the work location.
Disconnect and secure against reconnection

Disconnect all possible points of power supply. Secure the reconnection
by means of a lock out and tag out procedure to ensure that electric
equipment does not accidentally come alive. Take special care with
transformers of which the secondary may be alive.
Protection against any other live parts

Put formal warning notices on panels or cabins you are not working on.
Additional physical barriers must be applied (locks etc.) when live
equipment is exposed. Recheck that you have the correct point of
work. (When multiple cabinets are open you might by accident start
working on the wrong cabinet)
Special precautions when close to bare conductors
There might arise a situation where you are working near potentially
live parts, or there might be a situation where you can accidently touch
live parts when putting safety barriers. Take special precautions
(insulation gloves and or safety mats), especially if you are in a meter
of a live connection. Take very special care on a moving vessel as the
ship may be suddenly start rolling, so never use a safety stool as is a
standard practice ashore.
Proving the installation is dead
The installation needs to be checked with appropriate testing gear. Test
the instrument as for proper functioning first. Then verify with the test
instrument that the installation is dead. Recheck the test instrument,
only then you are sure your installation is dead.
Carrying out earthing and short circuiting
Earthing makes the installation free of residual charges and short-
circuits the system in case of a fault current. Use only equipment
designed for this purpose.
Issue a permit to work
A permit to work is formalizing the safe working procedure. With
writing there signature all personnel involved in the work are
confirming they know the safety procedures and the correct working
area. There might be small differences in the procedure, as who is to

FUNCTION - 2
sign the work permit. This step could also be considered as the first
step of a safe working procedure.
Switching strategy for isolating components of high-voltage system
Adequate isolation between a power source and a user of electronic
equipment ensures the safety of that equipment. Given the high
voltages that exist in modern electronic equipment, proper isolation
protects an operator from contact with excessive electrical energy
should a short circuit occur in the equipment? Isolation transformers
have represented a traditional solution for providing high isolation in
electronic circuitry. Even with the increased use of efficient, switched-
mode power supplies (SMPS), isolation transformers can improve the
overall isolation of an electronic design without severe penalties in
added size, weight, and cost.
Power-system protection is a branch of electrical power
engineering that deals with the protection of electrical power systems
from faultsthrough the isolation of faulted parts from the rest of
the electrical network. The objective of a protection scheme is to keep
the power system stable by isolating only the components that are
under fault, whilst leaving as much of the network as possible still in
operation. Thus, protection schemes must apply a very pragmatic and
pessimistic approach to clearing system faults. For this reason, the
technology and philosophies utilized in protection schemes can often
be old and well-established because they must be very reliable.
Selection of suitable apparatus for isolation and testing of high
voltage equipment
Tagout - The placement of a tagout device on an

energy-isolating device according to procedure to
indicate that the equipment may not be operated
until the tagout device is removed.

FUNCTION - 2
A.C. High Voltage Test Sets
AC high voltage test sets are designed for testing various electrical
equipment and consist of a double wound HV transformer with the high
tension end is brought down and ended on a spring loaded rod for testing up
to the rating of 5 KV.
Switching and isolation procedure on a marine high-voltage system,

complete with safety documentation
High voltage system training is now a part of the Standards of Training

Certification and Watch keeping convention (STCW) following the 2010
Manila amendments for senior engineering staff that have responsibility for
operating and maintaining electrical power plants above 1,000 volts.
However, existing officers will not have this training until their certificates
are revalidated.
This training includes:
operational and safety requirements for high voltage systems
maintenance and repair of high voltage switchgear
taking appropriate action when dealing with faults in a high voltage
system
switching strategies for isolating components of a high voltage system
using suitable apparatus for isolation and testing of high voltage
equipment
switching and isolation procedures on a marine high voltage system
understanding safety documentation for high voltage systems
testing of insulation resistance and polarization index on high voltage
equipment
RISK ASSESSMENT
The access to high voltage switchboards and equipment must be strictly
controlled by using a risk assessment and a permit to work system. Isolation
procedures must involve a safety key system and earthing down procedures.
Remember the acronym:
Disconnect
Isolate
Earth
To help identify high voltage system work precautions, a risk assessment
must be completed by the Chief Engineer or Chief Electrical officer before
work begins, and this should consider:
How familiar are the personnel with the high voltage system and
equipment?
FUNCTION - 2
Can the work be done with the equipment dead?
Is it necessary for someone to work on or near live high voltage
equipment?
What precautions have been taken to avoid danger and prevent injury?
Is the person(s) carrying out the work competent or adequately
supervised?
Performance of insulation resistance and polarization index on high-

voltage equipment
The insulation resistance of a monolithic ceramic capacitor represents the

ratio between the applied voltage and the leakage current after a set time
(ex. 60 seconds) while applying DC voltage without ripple between the
capacitor terminals. While the theoretical value of a capacitor's insulation
resistance is infinite, since there is less current flow between insulated
electrodes of an actual capacitor, the actual resistance value is finite. This
resistance value is called "insulation resistance" and denoted with units such
as Meg Ohms [M] and Ohm Farads [F].
Behavior of insulation resistance value
Directly after DC voltage is applied to

a capacitor, the rush current, which is
also called the charge current flows
as shown in Figure 1. As the capacitor
is gradually charged, the current
decreases exponentially.
Figure 1
Safe operation and maintenance of high voltage systems
Personal protective equipment (PPE) refers to protective clothing,

helmets, goggles, or other garments or equipment designed to protect
the wearer's body from injury. The hazards addressed by protective
equipment include physical, electrical, heat, chemicals, biohazards,
and airborne particulate matter. Protective equipment may be worn for
job-related occupational safety and health purposes, as well as
for sports and other recreational activities. "Protective clothing" is
FUNCTION - 2
applied to traditional categories of clothing, and "protective gear"
applies to items such as pads, guards, shields, or masks, and others.
The purpose of personal protective equipment is to reduce employee

exposure to hazards when engineering and administrative controls are
not feasible or effective to reduce these risks to acceptable levels. PPE
is needed when there are hazards present. PPE has the serious
limitation that it does not eliminate the hazard at source and may
result in employees being exposed to the hazard if the equipment fails.
Know how to use HV personal protection equipment (PPE): insulated gloves,

goggles, insulating bars, insulating footwear, mates earthing cables, HV
tester
PPE, Personal Protective Equipment, are the tools that ensure the basic
health protection and safety of users. PPE is any device or appliance
designed to be worn by an individual when exposed to one or more health
and safety hazards. PPE includes all clothing and other work accessories
designed to create a barrier against workplace hazards, and using PPE
requires hazard awareness and training on
the part of the user. Employees must be
aware that the equipment does not eliminate
the hazard; if the equipment fails, exposure
will occur. To reduce the possibility of failure,
equipment must be properly fitted and
maintained in a clean and serviceable
condition.
Employers are required to assess the

workplace to determine if hazards that
require the use of head, eye, face, hand, or
foot protection are present or are likely to be present. If hazards or the
likelihood of hazards are found, employers must select, and have affected
employees use, properly fitted PPE suitable for protection from these
hazards. Before doing work requiring the use of PPE, employees must be
trained to know when PPE is necessary, what type is necessary, how it is to
be worn, and what its limitations are, as well as its proper care, maintenance,
useful life, and disposal.

FUNCTION - 2
Head Protection
Protective hats for head protection against impact blows must be able to
withstand penetration and absorb the shock of a blow. In some cases, hats
should also protect against electric shock. Recognized standards for hats
have been established by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
Each type and class of head protector is intended to provide protection

against specific hazardous conditions. An understanding of these conditions
will help in selecting the right hat for the particular situation.
The wearer should be able to identify the type of helmet by looking inside
the shell for the manufacturer, ANSI designation and class. Protective hats
are made in the following types and classes:
Type 1 - helmets with full brim, not less than 1 and 1/4 inches wide;
Type 2 - brimless helmets with a peak extending forward from the
crown.
For industrial purposes, three classes are recognized:
Class A - general service, limited voltage protection;

Class B - utility service, high-voltage protection; and
Class C - special service, no voltage protection.
Hats and caps under Class A are intended for protection against impact
hazards. They are used in mining, construction, shipbuilding, tunneling,
lumbering, and manufacturing.

FUNCTION - 2
Class B utility service hats and caps protect the wearer's head from impact
and penetration by falling or flying objects and from high-voltage shock and
burn. They are used extensively by electrical workers.
The safety hat or cap in Class C is designed specifically for lightweight

comfort an impact protection. This class is usually manufactured from
aluminum and offers no dielectric protection. Class C helmets are used in
certain construction and manufacturing occupations, oil fields, refineries, and
chemical plants where there is no danger from electrical hazards or
corrosion. They also are used on occasions where there is a possibility of
bumping the head against a fixed object.
Foot and Leg Protection
According to one survey, most of the workers in selected occupations who

suffered foot injuries were not wearing protective footwear. Furthermore,
most of their employers did not require them to wear safety shoes. The
typical foot injury was caused by objects falling fewer than 4 feet and the
median weight was about 65 pounds. Most workers were injured while
performing their normal job activities at their worksites.
For protection of feet and legs from falling or rolling objects, sharp objects,
molten metal, hot surfaces, and wet slippery surfaces, workers should use
appropriate foot guards, safety shoes, or boots and leggings. Leggings
protect the lower leg and feet from molten metal or welding sparks. Safety
snaps permit their rapid removal.
Aluminum alloy, fiberglass, or galvanized steel foot guards can be worn over
usual work shoes, although they may present the possibility of catching on
something and causing workers to trip. Heat-resistant soled shoes protect

FUNCTION - 2
against hot surfaces like those found in the roofing, paving, and hot metal
industries.
Safety shoes should be sturdy and have an impact-resistant toe. In some

shoes, metal insoles protect against puncture wounds. Additional protection,
such as metatarsal guards, may be found in some types of footwear. Safety
shoes come in a variety of styles and materials, such as leather and rubber
boots, oxfords, and even tennis shoe models.
Safety footwear is classified according to its ability to meet minimum

requirements for both compression and impact tests. These requirements
and testing procedures may be found in American National Standards
Institute standards. Protective footwear purchased prior to July 5, 1994, must
comply with ANSI Z41.1-1967, USA Standard for Men's Safety-Toe Footwear.
Protective footwear purchased after July 5, 1994, must comply with ANSI
Z41-1991, American National Standard for Personal Protection-Protective
Footwear.
Eye and Face Protection
Suitable eye protectors must be provided where there is a potential for injury
to the eyes or face from flying particles, molten metal, liquid chemicals,
acids or caustic liquids, chemical gases or vapors, potentially injurious light
radiation, or a combination of these. Every protector shall be distinctly
marked to facilitate identification of the manufacturer and must meet the
following minimum requirements:
Provide adequate protection against the particular hazards for which

they are designed
Be reasonably comfortable when worn under the designated conditions
Fit snugly without interfering with the movements or vision of the
wearer
Be durable
Be capable of being disinfected
Be easily cleanable
Be kept clean and in good repair.
Ear Protection
Exposure to high noise levels can cause hearing loss or impairment. It can
create physical and psychological stress. There is no cure for noise-induced

FUNCTION - 2
hearing loss, so the prevention of excessive noise exposure is the only way
to avoid hearing damage. Specifically designed protection is required,
depending on the type of noise encountered and the auditory condition of
employee.
Disposable earplugs should be used once and thrown away; non-disposable

ones should be cleaned after each use for proper maintenance. Earmuffs
need to make a perfect seal around the ear to be effective. Glasses, long
sideburns, long hair, and facial movements, such as chewing, can reduce
protection. Special equipment is available for use with glasses or beards.
Arm and Hand Protection
Burns, cuts, electrical shock, amputation and absorption of chemicals are

examples of hazards associated with arm and hand injuries. A wide
assortment of gloves, hand pads, sleeves, and wristlets for protection from
these hazards is available.
The devices should be selected to fit the specific task. Rubber is considered
one of the best materials for insulating gloves and sleeves and must conform
to ANSI standards (copies available from ANSI, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY
10018). Other glove and clothing materials such as latex, nitrile, butyl
rubber, neoprene, etc. are available. Each material is thoroughly tested and
rated against specific chemical compounds. You need to know what hazard
you are protecting against to choose the correct material.
Knows terms of certification of personal equipment

FUNCTION - 2
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), prior to its introduction to the market,

is subject to mandatory conformity assessment in terms of its safety. The
basic requirements for personal protective equipment are defined by Council
Directive 89/686/EEC. The PPE, in accordance with the risk analysis, is
divided into 3 categories within the prescribed manner for the EC conformity
assessment. For the categories with a higher level of risk (categories II and
III) the compulsory participation of the authorised person (notified body) is
prescribed; for a simpler type (category I), the manufacturer may conduct
the EC conformity assessment itself, without the participation of the
authorised person. Every item of PPE is labelled with the CE marking and the
manufacturer or the authorised representative issues an EC declaration of
conformity.
Helmets
Head protection covers a wide range of products. This ranges from a basic
impact helmet such as used by a pedal cyclist, to a sophisticated helmet with
integrated respiratory and communications equipment.
Body Armour
When a product is called into action that saves limbs, vital organs and other
body parts knowing that the product has been tested to conventional limits
means everything.
Respiratory equipment (RPE) test for protection against smoke, dust to
vapours and oxygen deficiency.
Hearing protection BSI has a notified body status and can test earmuffs,
earplugs, earmuffs with electrical audio input, level dependant earmuffs.
Eye protection
Testing for personal eye protection equipment, welding filters, mesh face
screens, sunglasses & swimming goggles.
Protective Clothing
BSI testing against combined risks, flame retardant and high visibility
warning clothing. Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN)
protection clothes.
Glove and Footwear

BSI test protective gloves for firefighters, chemicals & microorganisms,
footwear for firefighters, safety & occupational footwear.
Explain HV safety procedures

Permission and coordination of HV works
FUNCTION - 2
The risk assessment should inform managers and supervisors
whether it is reasonable in all the circumstances to work live. The decision
should not be taken lightly. At this stage the economic and operational
factors should be evaluated against the risks involved before making a
decision, bearing in mind that the risks associated with working live can be
very serious. Minor inconveniences arising from working with the equipment
dead, sometimes arising from commercial and time pressures, will very
rarely outweigh the risks associated with live work.
Confined space - An enclosed space which has limited egress and access,
and has an atmospheric hazard (e.g., explosive atmosphere or asphyxiating
hazard) and/or other serious safety hazards (e.g., electrical hazard).
Damp location - Partially protected locations subject to moderate degrees

of moisture, such as some basements.
De-energized electrical work - Electrical work that is performed on

equipment that has been previously energized and is now free from any
electrical connection to a source of potential difference and from electrical
charges.
Disconnecting (or Isolating) switch - A device designed to close and/or open

an electric circuit.
Dry location - Locations not normally subject to dampness or wetness, as in

the case of a building under construction.
Energized electrical work - Repair, maintenance, troubleshooting, or

testing on electrical circuits, components, or systems while energized (i.e.,
live). Only Qualified High Voltage Electrical Workers are permitted to work on
energized circuitry of 50 volts/25 amps to ground or greater.
Energy source - Any source of electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic,

chemical, thermal, or other energy.
Exposed electrical parts - Energized parts that can be inadvertently

touched or approached nearer than a safe distance by a person. Parts not
suitably guarded, isolated, or insulated. Examples include terminal contacts
or lugs, and bare wiring.
Ground fault circuit interrupt (GFCI) - A device whose function is to

interrupt the electric circuit to the load when a fault current to ground
exceeds a predetermined value that is less than that required to operate the
over-current protective device of the supply circuit.

FUNCTION - 2
Ground - A conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental,

between an electrical circuit or equipment and the earth or to some
conducting body that serves in place of the earth.
Hazardous location - An area in which an airborne flammable dust, vapor

or gas may be present and would represent a hazard if a source of ignition
were present (see National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Class I & II and
Division 1 & 2).
High voltage - Circuits with a nominal voltage more than 600 volts.
Interlock - An electrical, mechanical, or key-locked device intended to

prevent an undesired sequence of operations.
Isolating switch - A switch intended for isolating an electric circuit from the
source of power. It has no interrupting rating, and is intended to operate only
after the circuit has been opened by some other means.
Life safety equipment - Equipment that provides critical protection for

safety in the event of an emergency or other serious hazard. Life safety
equipment, which is electrically energized, should be worked on using
Energized Electrical Equipment (EEW) procedures to ensure that the
protection provided by the equipment is not lost (e.g., fire alarm and
evacuation).
Lockout - The placement of a lock on an energy-isolating device according

to procedure, ensuring that the energy isolating device and the equipment
being controlled cannot be operated until the lockout device is removed.
Lockout / tagout - A standard that covers the servicing and maintenance of

machines and equipment in which the unexpected re-energization of the
equipment or release of stored energy could cause injury to employees. It
establishes performance requirements for the control of such hazardous
energy.
Low voltage - Circuits with a nominal voltage less than or equal to 600
volts.
Switching devices - Devices designed to close and/or open one or more
electric circuits. Included in this category are circuit breakers, cutouts,
disconnecting (or isolating) switches, disconnecting means, interrupter
switches, and oil (filled) cutouts.

FUNCTION - 2
Qualified High Voltage Electrical Worker A qualified person who by
reason of a minimum of two years of electrical training and experience with
high voltage circuits and equipment, who has demonstrated by performance
familiarity with the work to be performed and the hazards involved, and has
successfully completed the following training:
Core Safety Training;
Advanced Electrical Safety and Lockout/Tagout training;
Hazardous Electrical High Voltage training (Appendix E) ; and
Demonstrated a minimum of two years experience working on the
specific equipment under the oversight of another Qualified High
Voltage Electrical Worker.
Operating Procedures
Qualified High Voltage Electrical Worker
Energized electrical work on systems shall only be performed by a UC Irvine
Qualified High Voltage Electrical Worker. UC Irvine is responsible for
determining whether an employee is qualified to perform energized electrical
work. This qualification shall be made based on completion of applicable
training and experience.
Only Qualified High Voltage Electrical Workers shall work on energized

conductors or equipment connected to energized high voltage systems.
Except for replacing fuses, operating switches, other operations that do not
require the employee to contact energized high voltage conductors or
energized parts of equipment or clearing trouble or emergencies involving
hazard to life or property, no such employee shall be assigned to work alone.
Observers
During the time that work is being performed on any exposed conductors or
exposed parts of equipment connected to high voltage systems, a Qualified
High Voltage Electrical Worker, or an employee in training, must be in close
proximity at each work location to:
Act primarily as an observer for the purpose of preventing an accident
Render immediate assistance in the event of an accident.
Tools and Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Employees working in areas where there are potential electrical hazards
must be provided with and use personal protective equipment (PPE) that is
appropriate for the specific work to be performed. The electrical tools and
protective equipment must be specifically approved, rated, and tested for
the levels of voltage of which an employee may be exposed.

FUNCTION - 2
Insulating equipment made of materials other than rubber shall provide
electrical and mechanical protection at least equal to that of rubber
equipment.
PPE must be maintained in a safe, reliable condition and be inspected for

damage before each day's use and immediately following any incident that
can reasonably be suspected of having caused damage.
UC Irvine employees must use insulated tools and handling equipment that
are rated for the voltages to be encountered when working near exposed
energized conductors or circuit. Tools and handling equipment should be
replaced if the insulating capability is decreased due to damage. Protective
gloves must be used when employees are working with exposed electrical
parts above fifty (50) volts.
Fuse handling equipment (insulated for circuit voltage) must be used to

remove or install fuses when the fuse terminals are energized. Ropes and
hand lines used near exposed energized parts must be non-conductive.
Protective shields, barriers or insulating materials must be used to protect

each employee from shock, burns, or other electrical injuries while that
person is working near exposed energized parts that might be accidentally
contacted or where dangerous electric heating or arcing might occur.
Precautions about Arcing and Flashes

Employees must wear protective equipment for the eyes or face wherever
there is a potential danger of electric arcs, flashes or flying objects resulting
from electric explosion. This should include polycarbonate safety glasses
with side shields and a full-face shield. The following scenarios are examples
of situations with the potential for arcs:
Working with a metal or conductive tool near a live electrical contact
point with voltages above 600 volts;
Accidentally making contact across two live electrical contact points
with a metal or conductive tool; and
Utilizing conductive materials or tools to connect a circuit in place of
properly rated fuses or circuit breakers.
Precautions to prevent arcs or flashes include the following:
Keep covers over live electrical contact points closed;
Avoid using metal or conductive tools around live electrical
contact points, when possible;
Avoid pointing or placing metal tools near live electrical
contact points in equipment with voltages above 600 volts;

FUNCTION - 2
Verify the voltages present when working near live electrical
contact points;
Utilize test fixture boxes while performing adjustments,
calibrations, or function tests of energized parts; and
Use properly rated fuses for the capacity of the line or
protection needed for the equipment in question.
At least one entrance not less than 24 inches wide and six (6) and a half
(1/2) feet high must be provided to give access to the working space around
energized electrical equipment. When uninsulated energized parts are
located adjacent to such entrance, they must be guarded.
The area in the immediate vicinity of the workspace must be surveyed and
all potential hazards such as ladders, stacked boxes, ceiling tiles, or doors
that may fall or swing into the workspace must be secured to prevent
interference with the work being performed.
A clear escape path must be maintained from the work space to an exit from
the area.
Special Requirements
High Voltage
Work on systems greater than 600 volts must be performed using de-
energized electrical work practices, whenever possible. Energized electrical
work on greater than 600 volt electrical systems must only be performed by
a Qualified Electrical Worker. The following work practices are required, in
addition to the requirements described above, for energized electrical work.
Work Practices
Work on greater than 600 volts must be performed following the same
requirements as described above under Operating Procedures, including the
use of permits, Qualified High Voltage Electrical Workers, tools, PPE, and
safety observers.
Voltage Detection
The operating voltage of equipment and conductors must be determined
before performing any energized electrical work on high voltage systems.
This should be performed using a calibrated and working high voltage probe
designed for high voltage circuits at the level of voltage to be encountered.

FUNCTION - 2
Tools and Probe
Insulating gloves and blankets shall be visually inspected before each use,
electrically re-tested in accordance with ASTM standards (every six (6)
months for gloves and sleeves and every twelve (12) months for blankets).
Gloves and blankets shall be marked with either the date tested or with the
date the next test is due. Whenever rubber gloves are used, they must be
protected by outer canvas or leather gloves. Insulating protective equipment
found to be defective or damaged must be immediately removed from use.
When not in use, protective equipment must be stored in suitable containers

and stored away from direct sunlight, steam pipes, sources of excessive
heat, and protected from physical damage.
Overhead Voltage Lines

Special requirements are required for work on overhead voltage lines. In
general, this work should only be performed by personnel (e.g., outside
vendors) who are experienced in this type of electrical work and have the
appropriate tools including hoists and fall protection.
Information, warnings and protection against unauthorized

influence on safety

FUNCTION - 2
Assistance during HV works

deciding whether to work dead or work live (coloured orange),
see Figure2;
planning and preparation for actions which are common to
both dead and live working (coloured blue), see Figure 3;
procedures for working dead (coloured green), see Figure 4;
procedures for working live (coloured red), see Figure 5.
Checking for voltage presence before any work starts
Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace both direct workers to de-
energize all live parts to which an employee may be exposed, unless live
conditions are required for troubleshooting.
Placing electrical equipment or systems in an electrically safe work condition
might seem simple, but there are several factors to consider.
Proper planning and preparation will make any type of testing simpler
and safer.
Having to stop work to fetch other tools or testers interrupts focus and
can contribute to an accident.
Before you take a single measurement, first determine:
Will you be troubleshooting or testing for the absence of voltage?
What tools will you use to verify the energized or de-energized state?
What personal protective equipment (PPE) will be required?
o What is the voltage of the circuit?
o What is the Flash Protection Boundary?
o How much incident energy is possible at your working distance?
Is your lockout/tagout complete?
Is your test tool functioning properly?

FUNCTION - 2
If youre testing for the absence of voltage, that is, to verify there is no
voltage present before beginning work, you might consider using a
non-contact proximity tester (Figure 1), an electrical tester (Figure 2) or
a multimeter (Figure 3).
Figure1. Use a non-contact voltage tester for your first test
Figure2. For your second test, pick a digital, not solenoid, electrical
tester.

FUNCTION - 2
Figure3. A DMM with a low-impedance option is the smartest pick
for a live-dead-live test. Tools to use
A) Low-voltage proximity or non-contact voltage testers
These little tools are good for a first test, but should always be followed up
with a direct-contact meter. At Shermco Industries, we issue each of our
technicians a proximity tester like the one shown in Figure 1 to keep in their
top pocket or somewhere it can be easily seen, if it lights up in the presence
of voltage.
Keep in mind that proximity tester readings can be thrown off if:
the insulated test point touches grounded metal;
the cable being tested is partially buried;
the user is isolated from ground;
it is used inside a metal enclosure.
Proximity testers also wont detect shielded cable. To better understand why
proximity testers have these limitations, read the Fluke application note on
the subject, Understanding capacitive voltage sensors. The key word is
proximity.
Proximity varies not just by distance, but also by the strength of the voltage
field. And distance has to account for everything between the tester and
FUNCTION - 2
the electrical source, including the air, insulation, breaker material, twist
locks and so forth. The real issue is that proximity testers may indicate
voltage, or they may not, depending on specific circumstances. For absence
of voltage testing, a different, completely reliable test method is required.
B) Electrical testers (previously solenoid)

Back in the day, solenoid testers were the weapon of choice, mostly because
everything else was so expensive. There are a couple of big issues with
these.
If the voltage drops below about 70 to 90 volts, depending on the

specific tester used, the tool doesnt indicate voltage is present. Ive
been nailed more than once because of this. Once I was testing a
motor controller that had a blown fuse. That phase was being back-fed
through a control power transformer (CPT) and should have shown
voltage. Due to the impedance of the CPT and the tester, I received no
indication. I screamed like a chicken when I made contact.
Even solenoid units with indicator lights stop lighting up at about 30

volts or so. This wont send a person into fibrillation, but it could cause
them to back into something that could.
Solenoid testers wear out and the voltage scale becomes scarred up. If
you cant read the voltage indicator and the solenoid is so weak that it
barely vibrates, its not reliable to use.
Solenoid testers arent fused and dont comply with CAT safety rating
requirements. If a transient hits the system while youre connected,
theres nothing to protect you from serious injury.
Fluke strongly recommends using the newer generation of fused, electronic

testers. They still vibrate and light up, but theyre much more accurate, they
measure to 10 volts and theyre fused for transient protection.
C) Digital multimeter
Multimeters are the best standard tool for making accurate contact
measurements to determine if a circuit is live. However: Turning the
multimeter dial to the wrong function (amps instead of volts, for example) is
one of the most common mistakes people make when using a multimeter.
Older models that are not auto-ranging could be put into a range that is too
high, making the voltage appear much smaller than it really is. Someone in a

FUNCTION - 2
hurry, stressed or not careful could get in trouble. Using newer meters
resolves the issue, as well as bringing new features in.
The Fluke Model 117 for example, has a low impedance function for voltage
testing that can be a great safety feature. The Fluke 117 also has a built-in
non-contact voltage test function, for people who want to start with a
proximity test and then move to a contact test, with the same instrument.
Any direct-contact meter can be dangerous if connected to a circuit higher

than it is rated for. In my travels around the country, several facilities have
had fatalities due to an electrical worker troubleshooting a 2.3- or 4.16-
kilovolt motor starter control circuit. The CPT is often mounted on the side of
the drawout unit and the terminals cannot be seen clearly. The technician is
trying to test the 480-volt circuit and comes into contact with the medium-
voltage circuit instead. Bad things happen when this occurs.
OSHA states that test equipment, and their accessories, shall be rated for
the circuits theyll be connected to. The NFPA 70E contains similar
statements.
Personal Protective Equipment
Does it sound strange to require PPE for a non-energized test? Until an

electrical circuit or parts are tested and found absent of voltage, they must
be presumed to be energized. Wear the appropriate PPE for the environment
until it is proven de-energized. Before working for Shermco, I was the
electrical field services manager and compliance manager for SUNOHIO.
Early one morning, I took a crew out to test a power transformer that was
having problems at an industrial customers facility. Upon arrival, I asked for
a one-line to write the lockout/tagout procedure. The drawing I was given
was so old it was yellowed. I was assured by both the plant manager and the
electrical supervisor that the one-line was fine and no changes had ever
been made to the 4.16 kV system.
My crew proceeded to lock and tag the system and, since it was a double-
ended substation, it was fairly easy to isolate the problem transformer. The
terminal chamber cover was removed and, being
completely certain the circuit was de-energized, I was about to untape the
connections in preparation for testing. At the last moment, I decided to follow

FUNCTION - 2
good safety practice and test the circuit, even though I knew it was dead.
The voltage detector lit up and I almost fainted. Another lesson learned. An
alternate circuit had been installed at some time in the past and no one
working there was aware (or remembered) it. Take my word for it, its not
dead until it is proven dead. Dont make my mistake. There was nothing
funny about this incident.
Verifying the operation of the voltage tester

Before beginning the absence of voltage test, check the test instrument to
ensure it is working properly.
Wearing proper PPE, measure a voltage similar to the voltage of the

equipment about to be tested. This would include whether it is AC or
DC and approximately the same magnitude.
Now test the circuit that is supposed to be de-energized.
Once testing is complete, re-verify the meter is still functioning

properly by going to the same known voltage source and making
another measurement.
Features of Hydraulic and Pneumatic Control Equipment

Hydraulic Control Equipment
Hydraulics is a topic in applied science and engineering dealing with the
mechanical properties of liquids. At a very basic level hydraulics is the liquid
version of pneumatics. Fluid mechanics provides the theoretical foundation
for hydraulics, which focuses on the engineering uses of fluid properties.
In fluid power, hydraulics is used for the generation, control, and
transmission of power by the use of pressurized liquids. Hydraulic topics
range through some part of science and most of engineering modules, and
cover concepts such as pipe flow, dam design, fluidics and fluid control
circuitry, pumps, turbines, hydropower, computational fluid dynamics, flow
measurement, river behavior and erosion.
A hydraulic circuit is a system comprising an interconnected set of discrete
components that transport liquid. The purpose of this system may be to
control where fluid flows (as in a network of tubes of coolant in a
thermodynamic system) or to control fluid pressure (as in hydraulic
amplifiers). The approach of describing a fluid system in terms of discrete
components is inspired by the success of electrical circuit theory. Just as
electric circuit theory works when elements are discrete and linear, hydraulic
circuit theory works best when the elements (passive component such as
pipes or transmission lines or active components such as power packs

FUNCTION - 2
or pumps) are discrete and linear. This usually means that hydraulic circuit
analysis works best for long, thin tubes with discrete pumps,
as found in chemical process flow systems or microscale
devices.
Hydraulic system
A hydraulic drive system is a drive

or transmission system that uses pressurized hydraulic
fluid to drive hydraulic machinery. The term hydrostatic
refers to the transfer of energy from flow and pressure,
not from the kinetic energy of the flow.
A hydraulic drive system consists of three parts: The generator (e.g.

a hydraulic pump), driven by an electric motor, a combustion engine or
a windmill; valves, filters, piping etc. (to guide and control the system); the
motor (e.g. a hydraulic motor or hydraulic cylinder) to drive the machinery.
Hydraulic maintenance
Hydraulic fluids are the life blood of the hydraulic system. The hydraulic fluid
transmits pressure and energy, seals close-clearance parts against leakage,
minimizes wear and friction, removes heat, flushes away dirt and wears
particles, and protects surfaces against rusting. Conventional petroleum
FUNCTION - 2
(mineral) oils are normally used in hydraulic systems,
but fire-resistant, synthetic, and biodegradable fluids
are used in other situations.
There are four key objectives that are essential to
gaining optimum service life of hydraulic fluids:
Control the Temperature Heat develops in the fluid as

it is forced through the pumps, motor tubing, and
relief valves. In conventional systems, excessive temperatures will
oxidize the oil and can lead to varnish and sludge deposits in the system.
Conversely, running the temperature too low will allow condensation in the
reservoir and increase the likelihood of pump cavitation. Typical industrial
hydraulic system temperatures often range between 110 to 150F. Mobil
hydraulic system temperatures can operate up to 250F. Selection of the
proper grade of hydraulic oil is critical to ensure cold start, high temperature
protection and to obtain the optimum system efficiency. Keep systems which
operate on water based fluid below 140F to prevent the water from
evaporating. The deposits caused by oil degradation can plug valves and
suction screens and cause high-tolerance servo valves to seize and/or
operate sluggishly. To allow heat to radiate from the system, keep the outside
of the reservoir clean and the surrounding area clear of obstructions. Make
sure the oil cooler is functioning properly and keep air-cooled radiators free
of dirt. Normal temperature drop for most oil coolers is 5 to 10F. Reservoirs
should be filled to the proper level to allow enough fluid residence time for
the heat to dissipate and to shed water and dirt.
In modern equipment using servo valves, oil degradation can be even more
damaging. High pressure (up to 4000 psi), high temperatures, and small
reservoirs stress the fluid. With minimal residence time and high pressures,
entrained air bubbles can cause extreme localized heating of the hydraulic
fluid. This results in nitrogen fixation that, when combined with oil oxidation,
can form deposits which will plug oil filters and cause servo valves to stick.
Keep Systems Clean even new systems may be contaminated and

should be cleaned before use. Prevent contaminants such as dirt, water,
cutting fluids, and metal particles from entering the system around the
reservoir cover, openings for suction and drain lines, through breather fill
openings, past piston rod packing, and through leaks in pump suction lines.
Keep the Fluid Clean keeping hydraulic fluids clean begins with good
storage and handling practices. To prevent contamination before use, store
new fluid in a protected area and dispense it in clean, DEDICATED containers.
Clean the fill cap before removing it to add hydraulic fluid. On critical NC

FUNCTION - 2
systems, use quick disconnect hoses and filter all oil added to the reservoir
through a 5 micron filter. Full-flow filters designed into the system keep the
fluid clean while in service. These filters are often forgotten and go into
bypass mode, thus allowing dirty oil to circulate. Inspect fluid filters
frequently and change or clean them before they go into by pass mode.
Portable filters will supplement permanently installed filters and should be
constantly rotated from system to system regardless if you think the system
requires filtering or not. Systems should be filtered long enough to pass the
total volume of oil through the filter at least 10 times. Portable filters should
be used when transferring new oil from drums or storage tank to a
www.mobilindustrial.com 2009 Exxon Mobil Corporation Mobil and the
Pegasus design are registered trademarks of Exxon Mobil Corporation or one
of its subsidiaries system especially for NC machines.
Keep an Oil Analysis Program OEMs generally specify that system

hydraulic oil be drained annually. However, with an effective oil analysis
program, you can safely increase that interval while at the same time
provide yourself with an early warning of possible mechanical problems. At
minimum, check your critical and large volume hydraulic systems at least
annually by oil analysis. Semi-annual or even quarterly sampling intervals
may be required for extremely critical machines. Consult your ExxonMobil
lubrication engineer and machine OEM for the best sampling interval and the
parameters you should be testing. Also, please refer to our Technical
Information Sheet titled Oil Analysis The Basics for a more in-depth
discussion on this topic. Hydraulic System Care Hydraulic system
maintenance is just as important, and directly related to, hydraulic oil
maintenance. All the filtering and analysis had done on hydraulic oil would
be meaningless and futile if the system itself is in a shambles.
A 10 Point Check a lubrication technician or operator responsible for

hydraulic system maintenance should, at minimum, perform the following 10
point checklist as part of a routine weekly quick scan of a hydraulic
system:
1. Check fluid levels. Add oil (if needed) via portable filtration (if available).
DO NOT MIX OILS! Use the same oil brand and viscosity grade that is being
used in the system.
2. Inspect breather caps, breather filters and fill screens DO NOT punch
holes in screens in order to expedite adding oil.
3. Check filter indicators and/or pressure differential gages.
4. Visually inspect all system hoses, pipes, pipe connections for leaks and
frays. Hydraulic fluid leakage is a common problem for industrial systems.
Excessive leakage is an environmental and safety hazard, increases waste
streams and oil consumption, and, if ignored, can reduce the system
capacity enough to overheat the system.

FUNCTION - 2
5. Check system temperature via built-in thermometers or hand-held infrared
detectors. Normal temperature range for most systems is 110-140F. If
temperatures are high, check cooler operation and relief valve settings.
6. Visually inspect the inside of the reservoir for signs of aeration (via the fill
hole using a flashlight). Aeration is a condition in which discrete bubbles of
air are carried along in the stream of oil as it enters the pump. Visual signs of
aeration in the reservoir are generally foaming and/or little whirlpools taking
small gulps of air into the suction strainer. Causes of aeration include: low
fluid levels; air leaks in the suction line; low fluid temperature; fluid is too
viscous to release air or maintain suction at the pump; or faulty shaft seals.
When air leaks are suspected on the suction line, smothering these points
with oil will usually pinpoint the leaks by creating a marked change in pump
noise. A pump ingesting air sounds as if it were gargling marbles.
7. Listen to the pump for the signs of cavitation. Cavitation is slightly more
complicated than aeration, but bares some similarities. Cavitation occurs
when air is released from the hydraulic oil during momentary
depressurization at the pump suction and then imploded onto metal
surfaces upon discharge. These implosions are extremely destructive to
pump surfaces. A cavitating pump will emit a high-pitched whine or scream.
Causes of cavitation are the same as those of aeration with the exception of
suction side air leaks. How do you discern aeration from cavitation? One way
is to install a vacuum gage on the suction side and make sure the pressure is
equal too or greater than that prescribed by the pump manufacturer.
Foaming in the reservoir is usually the telltale sign of aeration.
8. Inspect a small sample of fluid for color, signs of contamination and odor.
Keep in mind that visual inspection is limited in that it will only detect signs
of excess contamination.
9. Scan electrically controlled servo valves with an infrared thermometer.
High valve and solenoid temperatures (over 150F) usually indicate the valve
is sticking.
10. Scan the electric drive motor with for housing hot spots and rotor
bearing temperatures using an infrared thermometer.
Fluid Change-Out Recommendations these are the proper steps to

follow when changing the hydraulic fluid in a system.
1. Drain the system while the fluid is hot to keep contaminants in
suspension.
2. Empty fluid from cylinders, accumulators and lines that might not drain
properly.
3. Mop, siphon, or pump out oil left in the reservoir.
4. Wipe reservoir clean with lint free rags and remove rust and free paint.
5. Replace or clean filter elements and strainers and clean filter housings.
6. Refill the system with new fluid making sure to vent high points.
7. Restart and check system for proper operation.
FUNCTION - 2
For systems that exhibit high deposit, sludge and/or varnish formation: a
petroleum based cleaner (such as Mobil System Cleaner) may be required.
Follow manufacturers recommendations.
Safety Precautions
Hydraulic systems operate under very high pressures. Shut the system down
and relieve system pressure before opening any part of the system that is
under pressure. Do not allow spray from any high pressure leak to contact
any part of the body, as serious injection injuries may result. Pumps, valves
and motor may become hot; be cautious of incidental contact between bare
skin and hot surfaces. Keep hands and clothing away from moving parts of
the
system.
Symbols for Fitting and Representations
Pneumatic control equipment
In physics, a fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an

applied shear stress. Fluids are a subset of the phase of matter and
includeliquids, gases, plasmas and, to some extent, plastic solids.

FUNCTION - 2
A pneumatic circuit is an interconnected set of components that convert
compressed gas (usually air) into mechanical work. In the normal sense of
the term, the circuit must include a compressor or compressor-fed tank.
Example circuits:
A time delay in a pneumatic circuit provides a delay between the operation
of a valve and the movement of a piston. Time delays are achieved by
connecting aunidirectional-flow control valve and a reservoir in series.
A pneumatic circuit with a time delay is shown in the diagram and explained
below.
The time-delayed pneumatic circuit works like this:

1. When the push-button on the three-port valve on the left is pressed,
the air flow is restricted by the unidirectional-flow control valve and
slowly enters the reservoir.
2. The pressure builds in the reservoir slowly, causing the time delay.
3. Only when the pressure in the reservoir is high enough will it operate
the five-point valve, triggering the release of air and causing the piston
to outstroke.
4. When the push button is pressed on the second three-port valve (on
the right), the five-point valve will switch, triggering the release of air
and causing the piston to in stroke.
Pneumatic Pipes, Tubes, and Hoses

FUNCTION - 2
It is important to distinguish what types of vessels are being connected in

the system to determine what fittings are appropriate.
Hoses are flexible vessels that are constructed of multiple layers of

different materials. Fittings for hoses are often not permanent, since
the hose itself is often replaced in time due to wear.
Pipes are rigid vessels constructed of one solid material. Generally,
pipes are defined by their inner diameter dimension.
Tubes are fairly rigid vessels constructed of one solid material.
Generally, tubes are defined by their outside diameter dimension.
Types of Fittings
Pneumatic fittings are distinguished based on the connection type and

function it performs.
Connection Type
Pneumatic fittings are attached via a number of different connection

methods, each with its own conveniences and advantages.
Ball and Sleeve Fittings

Ball and sleeve fittings connect an outer sleeve to an inner (ball) fitting. The
sleeve retracts to connect and disconnect the two ends of the fitting. Some
ball and sleeve fittings function as push-to-connect fittings which are
convenient for applications requiring frequent disconnection and
reconnection of the hose section.
Ball and sleeve quick couplers (Image Credit: MISUMI USA)

FUNCTION - 2
Compression Fittings
Compression fittings include all types of fittings which use compressive force
to connect the vessel to the fitting.
Standard compression fittings use metal gaskets, rings, or ferrules which

form a seal on the vessel through compression. The compression is typically
made by tightening a nut onto the fitting over the piping and ferrule,
compressing and securing the vessel inside. Standard compression fittings
do not require tools to assemble, making them convenient for quick field
installations.
Tee with compression fitting nuts on each end. Image Credit: Parker
Hannifin
Bite-type fittings are compressive fittings with a sharpened ferrule that

"bites" the vessel when compressed and provides the seal. Bite-type fittings,
like standard compressive fittings, require no special tools to assemble, but
provide a stronger, higher pressure connection.
Mechanical grip fittings are two-ferrule assemblies. The back ferrule grips
the vessel while pressing up against the front ferrule, which spring-loads the
front ferrule and creates a seal between the piping and fitting body. These

FUNCTION - 2
fittings can be reassembled multiple times without damaging components or
piping. They have good resistance to mechanical vibration.
Flare fittings consist of a body with a flared or coned end.

Special flaring tools are used to install the vessel inside the
flared end, providing a deep seal. Flare fittings can handle
higher pressures and a wider range of operating parameters
than standard compression fittings.
Flared fitting Image Credit: Parker Hannifin
Crimp Fittings
Crimp fittings involve placing hose over a tubular end

and crimping against it with a sleeve, ring, or crimp
socket. These fittings typically require crimping tools or
machines to make the connections.
Image Credit: Parker Hannifin
End Fittings
End fittings provide specific surfaces for connecting vessels

in pneumatic systems.
Clamp ends are fittings which allow hoses or tubes to be
clamped over the part.
Plain ends are fittings with surfaces which allow pipes or tubes to be
connected by adhesive, solder, welding, or other permanent means.
Push-to-Connect
Push-to-connect fittings have ends that are designed to accept tubing by

pushing it into the end. These fittings typically disconnect via some type of

FUNCTION - 2
collar retraction. These connections are convenient for sections of the
system requiring frequent disconnection and reconnection.
Image Credit: Staubli Corporation
Threaded Fittings
Threaded fittings have screw threads (built-in grooves) on their inner

(female) or outer (male) surfaces designed to accept connections with
matching threads. Threads which provide a simple connection but no
guaranteed seal are called straight threads. Tapered threads are designed to
provide a tight seal which is important for pneumatic applications. These
precise threads create a "dry fit", meaning they seal without the need for an
additional sealant, which is important in applications where sealant addition
could cause contamination or corrosion.
Design Tip: Especially in the case of pneumatic fittings, straight threads

should be improved by adding a coating or seal tape (Teflon). In applications
where adding a coating could cause contamination or corrosion, use tapered
threads.
Image Credit: Parker Hannifin

FUNCTION - 2
The thread size is measured and based on the inside of the vessel. Thread
size standards include NPT (National Pipe Thread) and BSP (British Standard
Pipe), though many other standards exist and usage often
varies by country and industry. Each thread size corresponds to a particular
number of threads per inch (TPI). Plumbingsupply.com provides an excellent
overview on pipe thread sizing. Below is a chart depicting nominal thread
sizes and their corresponding values.
Thread
Designati
OD OD Actual on - Thread per inch
Nominal
Size
(fraction
(inches) (inches) NPT BSP
inch)
5/16 0.3125 1/16 27 28
13/32 0.405 1/8 27 28
35/64 0.540 1/4 18 19
43/64 0.675 3/8 18 19

FUNCTION - 2
27/32 0.840 1/2 14 14
1-3/64 1.050 3/4 14 14
1-5/16 1.315 1 11-1/2 11
1-21/32 1.660 1-1/4 11-1/2 11
1-29/32 1.900 1-1/2 11-1/2 11
2-3/8 2.375 2 8 11
2-7/8 2.875 2-1/2 8 11
3-1/2 3.5 3 8 11
4 4.0 3-1/2 8 11
4-1/2 4.5 4 8 11
5-5/8 5.563 5 8 11
6-5/8 6.625 6 8 11

FUNCTION - 2
Function
There are a vast number of types of fittings installed in pneumatic

systems which perform different functions. The most common types are
described in the table below:
Fittings which extend or terminate pipe lengths:
Connects two dissimilar pipes to each

Adapte
other via solvent welding, soldering, or
r
threading.
Image Credit:
Automationdir
ect.com
Connects two similar pipes to each

Coupli
other via solvent welding, soldering, or
ng
threading.
Image Credit:
DME Company
Union Couplings which can be disconnected

without cutting. Their connection
(typically threading) allows for easy
release.

FUNCTION - 2
Image Credit:
Parker
Hannifin
Covers the end of a section,

Cap attaching around the pipe via a weld,
thread, solvent, or solder. Image Credit:
Parker
Hannifin
Image Credit:
Parker
Hannifin
Closes off flow at the end of a section,

Plug attaching inside the pipe via a weld,
thread, solvent, or solder.
Fittings which add or change direction:

FUNCTION - 2
Changes the direction flow to various

angles. The most common angles are
Elbow
90 and 45, but 22.5 elbows are also
made.
Image Credit:
Automationdir
ect.com
Connects three flow sections in a T-

Tee shaped intersection. This allows fluid
flow to be combined or split apart.
Image Credit:
Automationdir
ect.com
4-way connections, providing one inlet

Cross
and three outlets or vice versa. Image Credit:
Clippard
Instrument
Laboratory,
Inc.

FUNCTION - 2
Fittings which connect pipes of smaller size:
Red Includes all connections which connect Image Credit:

uce between two or more vessels of different Parker
r sizes. Hannifin
Fittings which provide special connections or functions:
Allows two separate fittings to be

Nip connected to each other. Standard
ple nipples are straight with male threads on
both ends. Image Credit:
Parker
Hannifin
Connects vessels together with the

Valv addition of a valve for the control of flow.
e For more information on types of valves,
visit the Industrial Valves Selection
Guide on Global Spec.

FUNCTION - 2
Image Credit:
Taiwan Chelic
Corporation
Specifications
Sizing
Once the type of fitting required has been determined, the most fundamental
aspect of pneumatic fittings can be addressed: proper sizing. Proper sizing is
essential to successful fitting selection, as oversized or undersized parts will
either be completely incompatible or will seal or connect inadequately.
The two systems of measurement are Metric (mm) and English ("). The first
step to proper sizing is selecting the appropriate measurement
system for compatibility with the equipment or assembly being fitted.
The sizing of a pneumatic fitting is defined by the size of vessels it connects

to. Tubes, hoses, and pipes are sized based on inside diameter (ID) and
outside diameter (OD), measured in inches (in) or millimeters (mm). A fitting
designed to connect to a tube with a 2" OD is rated as a 2" OD fitting. Inside
diameter measures the diameter of the empty portion of the cylinder, while
outside diameter includes the thickness of the tubing wall.

FUNCTION - 2
Operation
Pneumatic fittings often are rated for certain temperature and pressure
ranges based on what they are designed to handle.
Operating pressure range is the working range of pressures or the

pressure ratings at which the fitting was designed to operate, typically
measured in pounds per square inch (psi). Operating above or below this
rating could cause the fitting to fail (i.e. break, leak, lose its seal).
Operating temperature range is the working range of temperatures or

the temperature ratings at which the fitting was designed to operate,
measured in degrees Fahrenheit (F) or degrees Celsius (C). Operating
above or below this rating could cause the fitting to fail.
Materials
Fitting material is important for determining various physical properties of

the part as well as gas compatibility. Material choices include metals,
plastics, and composites.
Metals
Aluminum - lightweight and corrosion resistant. By itself, aluminum has low
tensile strength and is used for its corrosion resistance and low density in
low pressure applications. It is alloyed with zinc, copper, silicon, manganese,
and/or other metals to improve its strength and hardness.

FUNCTION - 2
Brass - strong, durable, and corrosion resistant, with high temperature
ductility and good conductivity. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. It is the
most common metal for smaller compression and threaded fitting typical of
pneumatic systems because of its machinability and its excellent
performance properties.
Steel - durable and strong, with a high resistance to heat. Steel is an alloy of
iron and carbon; it is typically alloyed with other metals to improve its
corrosion resistance. Galvanized steel is coated with zinc for added rust
protection and chemical resistance.
Stainless steel - strong with excellent chemical and corrosion resistance.

Stainless steel is an alloy of steel that contains over 10.5% chromium. It has
the strength and durability of steel while also providing excellent corrosion
resistance, albeit typically at a higher cost.
Plastics
Fluororesins such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and polyvinylidene
fluoride (PVDF) are fluorocarbon-based polymers typically used for
temperature requirements above 500F (250C). They exhibit very good
chemical resistance and dielectric properties.
Polypropylene is a thermoplastic material used widely for pneumatic

fittings because of its price, broad material compatibility, and durability.
It exhibits excellent cold flow, bi-axial strength, and yield elongation
properties and can be used in exposed applications because of its resistance
to UV, weathering, and ozone.
Composites
Composite fittings include those made from combinations of materials, such

as carbon, fiberglass, and graphite. These materials have high melting points
and are used as fittings for applications that require high temperature
durability and chemical resistance. They also exhibit low electrical and
thermal conductivity.
Features
Pneumatic fittings may have other features which add functionality needed
for certain applications.

FUNCTION - 2
Bulkhead fittings are designed to be mounted in a wall or bulkhead to
allow tube connections on either side of a barrier.
Connect-under-pressure fittings are designed to allow installation or

connection of the fitting while the system is under pressure.
Expansion joints and couplings connect sections of tube and provide

allowance for movement due to service load, shock, or thermal cycles.
Lined fittings are manufactured with an integral lining. The linings are often
made from engineered polymers for use with process materials or in
applications such as food processing where media cleanliness is important.
Plated fittings have a plating, surface treatment, or coating which provides

enhanced thermal characteristics, chemical durability, corrosion resistance,
or other desirable surface characteristics.
Pre-insulated fittings consist of insulating materials or jacket

constructions designed to insulate the vessel and media from outside
temperatures.
Swivel feature allows one or more fitting ends to rotate or swivel.
Troubleshooting a pneumatic system has been considered an art, a

science, or just hit-or-miss luck. In the minds of maintenance personnel,
production managers, and plant managers, the word troubleshooting
conjures up images of hours of downtime and lost production.

FUNCTION - 2
However, when reduced to its basic elements,
troubleshooting a pneumatic system is a step-by-
step procedure. Using this process can speed up
the ability to determine what the problem is, the
probable cause of the malfunction or failure, and
a solution.
Every pneumatic circuit has a logical sequence of

operation that can involve timing logic, pressure
sensing, position sensing, and speed regulation.
Troubleshooting is initiated when the circuit does
not operate properly.
Certain general diagnostic and testing steps can be applied to any

troubleshooting problem, whether the problem occurred at startup of a new
system or at a breakdown of an existing system.
Think safety first
Safety should always be a prime concern of maintenance personal.

Compressed air is a volatile element in a pneumatic circuit. Air receiver tanks
have exploded, causing severe injury to personnel and damage to property. It
is imperative to relieve pressure in a receiver tank prior to making any
repairs.
Air is also highly compressible, which is another reason to be cautious in the

approach to troubleshooting a pneumatic system. When working with
overhead loads that are supported by cylinders, but not mechanically locked
into position, block the load before servicing the system to prevent falling or
drifting.
Many pneumatic systems are controlled by electrical or electronic devices.

Before attempting service or repair on these components, be sure the
electrical power supply has been turned off.
Pneumatic directional control valves that use electrical solenoids to operate

the valve spool are often equipped with manual overrides (Fig. 1) that can be
used during troubleshooting to operate the system.

FUNCTION - 2
Pneumatic lockout valves (Fig. 2) are excellent safety devices that, when
used properly on pneumatic systems, can prevent accidental operation.
Ensuring a safe condition should always be the first step in troubleshooting
pneumatic systems.
Ask the three Ws
When a breakdown in the system occurs, the pressures of downtime loom

large in the minds of all concerned. Before beginning repair of a system, stop
and ask these three questions:
What is or is not occurring in the system's operation?
When did the problem begin? Was it a sudden failure or a gradual failure?
Where in the machine cycle does the problem occur? Was it at startup or
after the system has been operating for a while?
What is or is not occurring in the system can often be answered by the

system operator. Answers to questions such as slow actuator speed or
inability of the actuator to move could lead to looking for a low flow rate or
low pressure.
Asking, "When did the problem begin?' can often lead to troubleshooting
steps looking for worn components or leaks. Sudden malfunctions can point
to breaks and possible mechanical problems, ruptures in lines, or other
catastrophic failures. By determining the when, the problem search can be
narrowed in its scope.
Asking, "Where in the machine cycle does the problem occur?" can reveal a
reoccurring condition.
If good maintenance records have been kept, reoccurring problems should

have been recorded. This information makes the troubleshooting process
much easier.
A maintenance person who stops and asks the three Ws can reduce
downtime by not having to guess at what is wrong. However, if these
questions do not yield a satisfactory diagnosis the maintenance person must
begin the mechanics of troubleshooting by visually inspecting the machine.

FUNCTION - 2
Make a visual inspection
Walking around the machine will often uncover problems such as worn or
burst hoses, loose components, and broken components. This is the time to
become familiar with the components contained in the pneumatic system.
If unfamiliar with the components, or if unfamiliar with the machine

operation, ask as many pertinent questions about the system as possible.
Before trying to operate the system or attempt repairs, understand the
interrelations of all the components and the sub-systems found on the
machine.
Read the schematics
Every pneumatic system should have two forms of documentation that will
assist in troubleshooting. One document is a schematic drawing of the
pneumatic circuit (Fig. 3). The schematic is a road map. It not only explains
the operating function of the components but also is a valuable diagnostic
tool.
The schematic contains useful information about pressure test point

locations; pressure settings of regulators and other pressure valves; flow
rates within the system; cylinder stroke lengths, and air motor speeds as well
as a bill of materials for the system. This type of information can aid in
determining if the system is operating within its design parameters.
Along with schematics supplied by the manufacturer, another set of

documents, the service/maintenance manual and its service bulletin
updates, may be available to assist in the diagnosis and repair of the
machine. These may contain information about the problem that has
occurred.
Operate the machine
After becoming familiar with the components and operation of the pneumatic
system, start the machine and operate it to get a first-hand view of the
malfunction. See if the malfunction that has been reported occurs again.
While operating the machine, perform a visual inspection.
Some questions to ask during the inspection:

FUNCTION - 2
Is there any excessive air leakage?
Are system pressures at the levels specified on the schematic or in the

maintenance manual?
If there are manual controls for the machine, do they feel stiff or loose in
their operation?
Are components that move, moving smoothly or erratically?
By operating the machine, any abnormalities may become obvious,

shortening troubleshooting time.
Recheck all services
Before attempting repair on the machine after it has been operated, once
again check to see if power supplied to the machine has been turned off.
Check to see if any stored pressure remains in the system, because this
stored pressure can cause premature actuation of the system's actuators
and cause injury to personnel and damage to the machine.
Isolate subsystems
A malfunction in one part of the machine can be caused by a malfunction in

a different subsystem on the machine. Isolating the subsystems, can help
focus on one system at a time. Narrowing the diagnostic area by isolation of
subsystems requires extra precaution while operating the machine.
Any lines that have been disconnected and any ports that have been opened
should be plugged properly to prevent unnecessary air leakage and the
entrance of contaminants.
While operating the machine, a close watch should be kept on the pressures
within the system, so maximum allowable pressures are not exceeded.
Caution and safety are the two keys to this diagnostic step.
Make a list
During the previous step, the immediate problem may be quite obvious.
However, in troubleshooting, the obvious may not be the root cause.

FUNCTION - 2
As an example, the obvious problem may be slow actuator speed but the
root cause of the problem could be insufficient lubrication, no lubrication due
to a faulty lubricator (Fig. 4), or bad seals within the directional control valve
that controls the actuator.
After making a list of possible causes, check those items on the list and
eliminate them without going back over ground previously covered. This list
will also reduce the time required for troubleshooting and can eliminate the
parts exchanging syndrome that often accompanies troubleshooting.
The example of slow actuator speed shows why a thorough understanding of

component and system operating principles is required to accurately match
the problem to the cause.
After making a list and narrowing the possible causes, it is now time to make
a decision on which one of the remaining causes is most likely to be the
reason for the malfunction. Reaching this conclusion may, at first, appear
difficult but this step is essentially the starting point for the repair portion of
troubleshooting. Up to now the system has been evaluated, now it is time to
test the conclusion.
In the example, testing the conclusion may be merely the need to add
lubricant to the lubricator or make an adjustment to the drip rate of the
lubricator.
Conducting various tests such as pressure checks with an accurate gauge,

checking actuator alignment, checking flow rate in the system with a flow
meter, or temperature checking of the air system, can further reduce the
number of causes remaining on the list and accurately pinpoint the cause.
Repair or replace
Testing the conclusion automatically leads to deciding whether to repair or

replace a component. Many factors can influence this step. Repairing parts
immediately for reinstallation on the machine increases downtime, and the
cost factor of this downtime is a significant consideration.
To simply replace the part with a new or rebuilt component would reduce the
amount of downtime; however, the question of inventory cost now becomes
a factor.

FUNCTION - 2
Another point that may influence the repair-or-replace question is component
availability. Obviously if the component is not readily available, then
repairing may be the only alternative. Still another aspect may be the in
house capability to make repairs.
After the malfunction has been corrected, one final step remains the need to
report the findings.
Report what you did
Paperwork is often neglected, but in the case of pneumatic troubleshooting it

is a vital part of the procedure. This paperwork helps to maintain a record of
changes, problems, and solutions that have occurred to individual machines.
Pneumatic updates are necessary to keep this diagnostic tool current and
accurate. Report making also serves as a good reference should any
problems reoccurs in the future.

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MANAGEMENT LEVEL COURSE ENGINE

The effectiveness of any evaluation depends on the accuracy of the

Instructors should refer to these when designing the assessment.

It is consistent with the intent of STCW that demonstration of skills and

ZRC TRAINING CENTER PHILS. INC. CEBU Page 1

MANAGEMENT LEVEL COURSE

ZRC TRAINING CENTER PHILS. INC. CEBU Page 2

Marine Electro technology, Electronics, Power Electronics, Automatic

Electronics, Power Electronics

Uni junction Transistor

A uni junction transistor (UJT) is a

Bipolar junction Transistor

BJTs come in two types, or polarities, known

Operation and characteristic

voltages and currents.

The second way we can characterize the behavior of a Bipolar

In most practical situations we can expect the Collector current to be

ZRC TRAINING CENTER PHILS. INC. CEBU Page 4

The above plot of characteristic curves gives a more complete picture

Biasing in electronics is the method of establishing

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AC AND DC CURRENT GAIN DATA SHEET

The D-C current gain of a transistor is simply the collector current

The field-effect transistor (FET) is a transistor that uses

A thyristor is a two- to four-lead solid-state semiconductor device with

ZRC TRAINING CENTER PHILS. INC. CEBU Page 6

A gate turn-off thyristor (GTO) is a special type of thyristor, which is

The DIAC, or "diode for alternating current", is a diode that

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TRIAC, from Triode for Alternating

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Resistor values - the resistor color code

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Ost resistors have 4 bands:

1. The first band gives the first digit.

ZRC TRAINING CENTER PHILS. INC. CEBU Page 10

Tolerance of resistors (fourth band of colour code)

The tolerance of a resistor is shown by the fourth band of the colour

A special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance:

Silver 10%, gold 5%, red 2%, brown 1%

Real resistor values (the E6 and E12 series)

ZRC TRAINING CENTER PHILS. INC. CEBU Page 11

Variable resistors are often called potentiometers in

The resistance and type of track are marked on the body:

4K7 LIN means 4.7 k linear track

ZRC TRAINING CENTER PHILS. INC. CEBU Page 12

ZRC TRAINING CENTER PHILS. INC. CEBU Page 13

Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, (micro), n (nano) and p

means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000F = 1F

Polarized capacitors (large values, 1F +)

It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are

Tantalum Bead Capacitors

ZRC TRAINING CENTER PHILS. INC. CEBU Page 14

Unpolarized capacitors (small values, up to 1F)

Small value capacitors are unpolarized and may be connected either

Example: 4n7 means 4.7nF

Capacitor Number Code

Example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF!)

Example: 472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance).

Capacitor Colour Code

ZRC TRAINING CENTER PHILS. INC. CEBU Page 15

Brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF =

Note that there are no gaps between the colour bands,