DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING potential for releasing process materials to the environment preventing exposure to toxic

College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology emissions for maintenance personnel

University of the Philippines Los Baos Electrical classification suitable enclosures must be included in the installation costs if the
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College, Laguna 4031 Philippines Telefax No. (049) 536-2315 device is not inherently compatible with possible exposure to hazards
Invasive/non-invasive insertion of a probe can cause problems with fouling, leading to
inaccurate measurements and need for maintenance
ChE 170 (Instrumentation and Process Dynamics and Control)
Error difference between a perfect measurement and the measurement that is actually made
CONTROL SYSTEM INSTRUMENTATION
Error is often caused by:
nonlinearity maximum deviation of any of the output readings from a straight line
Selection Criteria for Sensors (Seborg et. al., 2004)
significant source of error prior to the availability of digital instrumentation
measurement range (span) the required measurement range for the process variable must be
hysteresis causes a device to show an inaccuracy from the correct value, as it is affected by
entirely within the range of performance of the instruments
the previous measurement
span difference between the upper range and the lower range of the measuring device
e.g.
Temperature sensor-transmitter
Input: 50-150C zero: 50C
Output: 4-20 mA span = 150 50 = 100C
Km =
(20 4 )mA
= 0.16
mA
(150 50 )C C

performance depending on the application, accuracy, repeatability or perhaps some other

measure of performance is appropriate
accuracy used to specify the maximum error to be expected from a device
usually expressed as the inaccuracy and can appear in several forms:
a) measured variable point accuracy
specified only at one particular point in scale
the general accuracy of an instrument cannot be specified in this manner
b) percentage of the measured full-scale (FS) reading
e.g.
a pressure gauge of range 0-10 bar has a quoted inaccuracy of 1.0% FS
maximum error to be expected in any reading is 0.1 bar backlash mechanical equivalent of hysteresis which usually results from friction effects or
when the instrument reading is 1.0 bar, the possible error is 10% of this value gears with play
c) percentage of the instrument span commonly experienced in gearsets used to convert between translational and rotational
motion (measurement of translational velocity)
e. g.
a temperature sensor has a range of 50-150C has an accuracy of 0.5% span
drift characterized by a slowly changing instrument output when the input is constant which
with a span of 100C, the instrument has an error of 0.5C in any measurement
often results from faulty or temperature-sensitive electrical components
d) percentage of the actual reading best method of specifying the accuracy e. g.
bathroom scale, thermocouples
as readings get smaller, error also gets reduced
dynamic (lag or time delay) results from the transportation of energy in the form of signals
precision closeness with which individual measurements are departed or distributed about an
average number of measured values
a) repeatability signifies the agreement in the output of an instrument for a change in input
Types of Sensors based on process variables measured:
for the same process conditions
Temperature measure of the kinetic energy of the material
reproducibility closeness of output readings for the same input when there are changes in the
measurement conditions
Reference temperatures (at standard atmosphere)
b) resolution least change in measurement that can be detected by use of the instrument
triple point of equilibrium hydrogen: 259.34C
under specified conditions in a specified time
e. g. boiling point of oxygen: 182.962C
car speedometer having 20 kph subdivisions
when the needle is between the scale markings, we cannot estimate speed more accurately boiling point of water: 100.0C
than to the nearest 5 kph freezing point of zinc: 419.58C
freezing point of silver: 961.93C
reliability probability that a device will perform within its specifications for the number of freezing point of gold: 1064.43C
operations or time period specified
materials of construction the instrument must withstand process conditions to which it is
exposed (operating temperatures and pressures, corrosion, and abrasion)
prior use training of maintenance personnel and purchases of spare parts might be necessary
for first installations
Temperature sensors Advantages Disadvantages
Filled-system thermometers as the temperature rises, the fluid expands along the capillary Low cost Very weak output (millivolts)
tube and the meniscus level is read against a calibrated scale etched on the tube. Small size Limited accuracy for small variations in
Robust temperature
Advantages Wide range of operation Sensitive to electrical noise
Low cost Reasonably stable Nonlinear
Simplicity Accurate for large temperature Complicated conversion from emf to
No recalibration required changes temperature
Disadvantages Provide fast response
Interpretation of measurement
Localized measurement only Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) built from selected metals (typically Platinum),
Isolated from other control and recording equipment which change resistance with temperature change
Fragile The electrical resistance generally increases with temperature, and the device is defined
as having a positive temperature coefficient.

Bimetal thermometers consist of two metals bonded together which have different
coefficients of expansion. Bending occurs as one metal expands more than the other.
To amplify the mechanical movement of the deflection, the bimetallic device is generally
wound into a spiral or helical form.

Advantages
Inexpensive
Simple construction
Disadvantages
Limited accuracy
Indication or simple switching only
Localised measurement only
Easily decalibrated due to
mechanical shock Advantages Disadvantages
Hysteresis Good sensitivity Bulky in size and fragile
Uses standard copper wire Slow thermal response time due to bulk
Copper RTDs minimize thermocouple effect Self heating problems
More susceptible to electrical noise
More expensive to test and diagnose

Thermocouples consist of two wires of dissimilar metals, such as iron and constantan, Thermistors semiconductor devices formed from metal oxides
electrically connected at one end resistance changes with temperature
Applying heat to the junction of the two metals produce a voltage (emf) between the two have a much higher temperature coefficient than RTD's, so a small temperature change is
wires that is proportional to temperature. easier to detect ; however, thermistors do not have the accuracy of RTD's
A thermocouple requires a reference junction, placed in series with the sensing junction. Advantages Disadvantages
As the two junctions are at different temperatures a thermal emf is generated. The reference Small size Unstable due to drift and decalibration (especially at high
junction is used to correct the sensing junction measurement. Fast response temperatures)
Very high sensitivity Not easily interchangeable
(Selected range) Nonlinear
No cold junction Narrow span
compensation Fragile
Inexpensive High resistance, noise problems
Polarity insensitive
Wide selection of sensors
 Pyrometers use the electromagnetic radiation that is emitted from a material. The emitted Elastic-element methods bellows, bourdon gauges, diaphragms
radiation is proportional to the temperature applied pressure causes displacement, which is measured by some form of displacement
infrared measure the amount of energy radiated from an object in order to determine its transducer
temperature
acoustic principle that the speed of sound in a gas is dependent on the nature of the gas
and its temperature

Pressure force per unit area

Terminologies related to pressure

Absolute pressure expressed relative to zero pressure (vacuum)
Gage pressure measured relative to the local atmospheric pressure
Vacuum pressure (or simply vacuum) pressure below atmospheric pressure (negative gage
pressure)
Standard sea-level atmospheric pressure:
14.696 psia
33.91 ft H2O = 10.34 m H2O
101.325 kPa abs
29.92 inHg = 760 mmHg

Pressure sensors
Liquid-Column Methods (manometers) passive instruments that give a visual indication of
pressure values
mainly used for spot checks or for calibration
used for low range measurements, as higher measurements require mercury

Advantages
Simple operation and
construction
Inexpensive
Disadvantages
Low pressure range (water) Electrical methods
Higher pressure range requires Strain gauges contain a metal wire or semiconductor chip to measure changes in
mercury pressure
Readings are localised A change in pressure causes a change in resistance as the metal is deformed. This
deformation is not permanent as the pressure (applied force) does not exceed the elastic
limit of the metal.
If the elastic limit is exceeded, then permanent deformation will occur.

temperature sensitive, temperature compensation is required

 commonly used in a Wheatstone bridge arrangement where the change in pressure is
detected as a change in the measured voltage

mechanically-actuated
Advantages Disadvantages
Wide range (7.5kPa 1400 MPa) Unstable due to bonding material
Inaccuracy of 0.1% Temperature sensitive
Small in size Thermoelastic strain causes
hysteresis
Stable devices with fast response
Most have no moving parts
Good over-range capability

Piezoresistive transducers utilize bonded single-crystal semiconductor wafers (silicon)

whose resistance varies with distortion or strain
Piezoelectric transducers involves generation of a potential difference proportional to the
pressure-generated stress

Level involve determining the location of the interface between two fluids, separable by magnetic-activated
gravity, with respect to a fixed datum plane
Head devices The hydrostatic pressure due to a liquid is directly proportional to its depth
Level sensors and hence to the level of its surface.
Float-actuated devices simplest level sensors Error: imprecise knowledge of the liquid density (liquid solutions and mixtures), especially
operate based on the principle of buoyancy (subject to false actuations) hydrocarbons, and in some cases only an estimate of density is available.
generally limited to liquid-gas interface
suitable for a wide variety of liquids (including corrosives) except for thick liquids
and materials with contaminants
mechanically-actuated a float is connected to an arm which activates a limit switch
whenever the liquid level rises
magnetic-activated similar to the mechanically-actuated float, but instead of an arm, a
rod with a permanent magnet is attached to the float

Electrical methods primarily used for high and low level detection
The electrode or conductivity probe uses the conductivity of a fluid to detect the presence
of the fluid at the sensing location (on/off signal).
When the fluid is not in contact with the probe, the electrical resistance between the
probe and the vessel will be very high or even infinite.
When the level of the fluid rises to cover the probe and complete the circuit between the
probe and the vessel, the resistance in the circuit will be reduced.
Advantages
Very simple and inexpensive
No moving parts
Good for dual point control (level switching control) in
one instrument
Good for high pressure applications
Disadvantages
Contamination of probe with adhering materials can
affect results
Limited application for products of varying conductivity
Intrinsic safety designs need to be specified if required
Restricted to conductive and non-coating processes
Possible electrolytic corrosion
Thermal methods level measurements are based on temperature differences of the fluids
as related to thermal resistance or conductivity
usually encountered in liquid-air and liquid-vapor systems
Sonic methods energy from an ultrasonic source above the liquid is reflected back from the
liquid surface into an ultrasonic energy detector
As the speed of sound is known, the transit time is measured and the distance can be
calculated.
Ultrasonic measurement generally measures the distance between the contents and the
top of the vessel.
The height from the bottom is deduced as the difference between this reading and the
total height of the vessel.
Advantages
Non contact with product
Suitable for wide range of liquids and bulk products
Reliable performance in difficult service
No moving parts
Measurement without physical contact
Unaffected by density, moisture content or conductivity
Accuracy of 0.25% with temperature compensation and self-calibration
Disadvantages
Product must give a good reflection and not absorb sound
Product must have a good distinct layer of measurement and not be obscured by foam or
bubbling
Not suitable for higher pressures or in a vacuum
Special cable is required between the transducer and electronics
The temperature is limited to 170C
Flow in terms of mass or volumetric flow rate
could be laminar or turbulent, or Newtonian or non-Newtonian
Flow sensors
Head flowmeters (differential pressure) operate on the principle of placing a restriction in
the line to cause a differential pressure head, which is converted to a flow measurement
When such a restriction is placed in a pipe, the velocity of the fluid through the restriction
increases and the pressure decreases. The volume flow rate is then proportional to the
square root of the pressure difference across the obstruction.
 Orifice meter a smooth disc with a round, sharp-edged inflow aperture and mounting
rings
The shape of the opening and its location do vary widely, depending on the material
being measured.
Rotameter consists of a metal float and a conical glass tube, constructed such that the
diameter increases with height
A balance is achieved between the force of the flow stream and the weight of the float.
The float positions itself vertically within the measuring tube such that the resistance value is
balanced.

Advantages
Inexpensive
Wide range of applications
Very basic operation
Easy installation and simple to replace
Disadvantages
Limited accuracy
Subject to density, viscosity and temperature
Fluid must be clean, no solids content
Erosion of device (wear and tear)
Can be expensive for large diameters
Advantages Disadvantages Operate in vertical position only
Simple construction Inaccuracy, typically 1% Viscosity > 200 cP
Inexpensive Low Rangeability (typically 4:1)
Easily fitted between flanges Accuracy is affected by density, pressure and viscosity
No moving parts fluctuations Turbine meter consists of rotor-mounted blades that rotate when a fluid pushes against
Large range of sizes and opening Erosion and physical damage to the restriction affects them.
ratios measurement accuracy works on the reverse concept to a propeller system (i.e. the flow drives and rotates the
Suitable for most gases and Cause some unrecoverable pressure loss propeller)
liquids Viscosity limits measuring range The rotational speed of the turbine is proportional to the velocity of the fluid.
Well understood and proven Require straight pipe runs to ensure accuracy is
Price does not increase maintained
dramatically with size Pipeline must be full (typically for liquids)

Venturi meter the fluid is accelerated through a nozzle shaped inflow piece (converging
cone) which induces a local pressure drop.
After passing through the cylindrical restriction, it is released through an expanding
section (diffuser) where it returns the flow to near its original pressure.

Advantages Disadvantages
Less significant pressure drop across More expensive
restriction Bulky (requires large section for
Less unrecoverable pressure loss installation)
Requires less straight pipe up and
downstream
 Advantages
High accuracy, repeatability, and rangeability for a defined viscosity and measuring range
Temperature range of fluid measurement: -220C to +350C
Very high-pressure capability: 9300 psi
Measurement of non-conductive liquids
Capability of heating measuring device
Suitable for very low flow rates
Disadvantages
Not suitable for high viscous fluids
Viscosity must be known
10 diameter upstream and 5 diameter downstream of straight pipe is required
Not effective with swirling fluids
Only suitable for clean liquids and gases Magnetic flowmeters use Faradays law of electromagnetic induction to sense the velocity
Pipe system must not vibrate of fluid flow
Specifications critical for measuring range and viscosity moving a conductive material at right angles through a magnetic field induces a voltage
Vortex-shedding flowmeters Vortex shedding occurs when an obstruction (bluff body) is proportional to the velocity of the conductive material (fluid)
placed in the flowing stream.
The shedding frequency of these alternately shed vortices is proportional to the fluid
velocity past the body.

Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages

Suitable for liquid, gas or steam Unidirectional measurement only No restrictions to flow Expensive
Used with non-conductive fluids Clean fluids only No pressure loss Most require a full pipeline
No moving parts, low maintenance Not suitable with partial phase change No moving parts Limited to conductive
Sensors available to measure both gas Not suitable for viscous liquids liquids
and liquid Large unrecoverable pressure drop Good resistance to erosion
Not affected by viscosity, density, Straight pipe runs required for installation Independent of viscosity, density, pressure and
pressure or temperature turbulence
Low installation cost Good accuracy
Good accuracy Bi-directional
Linear response Large range of flow rates and diameters

Ultrasonic flowmeters
Transit time measurement sends pulses of ultrasonic energy diagonally across the pipe
The transit-time is measured from when the transmitter sends the pulse to when the
receiver detects the pulse.
Doppler effect relies on objects with varying density in the flow stream to return the
ultrasonic energy
Portions of this ultrasonic energy are reflected back from particles in the stream of
varying density. Since the objects are moving, the reflected ultrasonic energy has a
different frequency.
 Coriolis mass flowmeters consist of either a pair of parallel vibrating tubes or a single
vibrating tube that is formed into a configuration that has two parallel sections
The Coriolis effect causes a retarding force on a rotating section of pipe when flow is
moving outward, conversely producing an advance on the section of pipe for flow moving
towards the axis of rotation.

composition most difficult to measure online

Composition sensors
a) Chromatographic analyzers separation and measurement of volatile compounds and of
compounds that can be quantitatively converted into volatile derivatives
b) Infrared analyzers measurement of concentration by measuring the degree of absorption
of infrared radiation at specific wavelengths
c) UV and visible radiation analyzers measurement of concentration by measuring the degree
of absorption of radiation in the near-UV or visible range

Transmitter usually required to convert the sensor output to a form compatible with the
controller input and to drive the transmission lines connecting the two
generally designed to be direct-acting (output signal increases as the measured variable
increases)
most transmitters respond rapidly

Transducer converts the magnitude of a process variable into a signal that can be sent directly
to the final control element

Final control element also known as an actuator

enables a process variable to be manipulated