COMPUTATIONAL SIMULATION OF

DISPERSION OF METHANE IN DEVELOPMENT

GALLERY OF UNDERGROUND COAL MINES

DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING

INDIAN SCHOOL OF MINES, DHANBAD
JHARKHAND- 826004
2016-17

Submitted by-

Ravi Anand (2013JE0431)

Kundan Kumar (2013JE0176)

 COMPUTATIONAL SIMULATION OF
DISPERSION OF METHANE IN DEVELOPMENT
GALLERY OF UNDERGROUND COAL MINES

DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING

INDIAN SCHOOL OF MINES, DHANBAD
JHARKHAND- 826004
2016-17

Submitted by-
Ravi Anand (2013JE0431)
Kundan Kumar (2013JE0176)

Under the guidance of

Dr. D. P. Mishra

Certificate
This is to certify that the thesis entitled "Computational simulation of dispersion of
methane in development gallery of underground coal mines" being submitted by
Mr. Ravi Anand (2013JE0431) and Mr. Kundan Kumar(2013JE0176) to the department of
Mining Engineering , Indian Institute of Technology(ISM) Dhanbad, in partial fulfilment of
requirement for the award of degree in Bachelor of Technology in Mining Engineering , is a
record of bonafide work carried out under our supervision and guidance. The thesis, in our
opinion, has fulfilled all the requirements for the award of the degree in Bachelor of
Technology in accordance with the regulation of institute.

Dr. D.P. Mishra

Assistant Professor
Department of Mining Engineering
IIT(ISM), Dhanbad

Acknowledgement
We would like to express our sincere gratitude of thanks to our mentor Dr. D. P Mishra , who
gave us the golden opportunity to make this wonderful report on the topic (Computational
simulation of dispersion of methane in development gallery of underground coal mines).
We are also thankful for his aspiring guidance, invaluable constructive criticism and friendly
advice on how to study research paper and prepare that. We are sincerely grateful to him
for sharing his truthful and illuminating views on a number of technical issues related to the
way of project workout. This has helped us in developing a deep understanding of the topic
and came to know about so many new things.
We sincerely thank Mr. Pradeep kumar, Research Scholar, Department of Mining
Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, for his kind suggestions and help during our
project.
We would also like to thank our friends who helped us a lot in finalizing this project within
time frame.

Ravi Anand

Kundan Kumar
 Abstract
This study present the use of CFD ANSYS FLUENT in modelling the flow of fluid. A brief
theoretical aspect of the fluid mechanics relating to CFD model formulation is persented.The
emission of Methane depends on: Geology, Coal properties, Hydrological conditions, Coal
permeability etc. Air flow behaviour and methane dispersion in the gallery is simulated using
the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) approach. This software has in built solving
algorithms for solving conservation laws for mass, momentum, energy, and species which
calculates Fluid (gas and liquid) flows behaviour based on input parameter. It is found that
the proper direction of the ventilation flow to the methane concentrated location can reduce
the concentration of methane to the safe level. Optimum air flow speed is required to reduce
the methane concentration.
In this report the standard k- epsilon model is used to model the flow behavior for different
gallery geometry for blind heading as well as tailgate of a retreating longwall face and
conclusion was drawn.

Keywords- Fluid mechanics, CFD Model, Methane dispersion, CFD simulation.

 Table of Contents

List of figures 1
List of abbreviations 2
Objective and scope of the project 3

CHAPTER 1.INTRODUCTION 4
1.1 Introduction 5
1.2 Methane Layering 5
1.3 Methane explosibility 6
1.4 Computational Fluid Dynamics 6
CHAPTER 2.LITERATURE REVIEW 8

CHAPTER 3.METHODOLOGY 10

CHAPTER 4.CFD ANALYSIS 14

4.1 Previous Semester Work(Theory and Software Learning) 15

4.1.1 Concept of continuum in fluids 15

4.1.2 Fluid Kinematics 16
4.1.3 Fluid Forces 17
4.1.4 Physical laws for fluid 18
4.1.5 Conservation of chemical species 20
4.1.6 Governing equation for fluid flow 21
4.1.7 Constitutive equations 22
4.1.8 Transport at interface 24
4.1.9 Fluid Turbulence 25
4.1.10 Reynolds Averaging 26
4.1.11 Reynolds-Average-Navier-Stokes equation 27
4.1.12 Boussinesq approximation and turbulence model 28
4.1.13 Standard k-epsilon model 29
 4.2 .6th Semester Work 30

4.3 7th Semester Word 32

4.4 8th Semester Work 36

CHAPTER 5.CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 43

REFERENCES 45
 List of figures
Figure 1 Gallery cross section__________________________________________________30

Figure 2 Coal face and wall of the gallery________________________________________30

Figure 3 Outlet and Inlet of the gallery___________________________________________31

Figure 4 Methane mass fraction for different cross section at 2m, 5m, 8m,18m,28m,38m,48m

from the face_______________________________________________________________31

Figure 5 Geometry of the tail gate ventilation section_______________________________32

Figure 6 Unstructured tetrahedral mesh with one million elements_____________________33

Figure 7 Velocity contour at a height of 2.4 m from the floor_________________________33

Figure 8 Methane volume percentage at 5m and 10m from the goaf___________________34

Figure 9 Methane volume percentage at 15m, 20m, 25m, 30m, 35m, 40m, 45m, 50m and

55m, from the goaf__________________________________________________________34

Figure 10 Streamlines from inlet to outlet________________________________________35

Figure 11 Cross section of the gallery____________________________________________36

Figure 12 Ventilation section geometry__________________________________________37

Figure 13 Unstructured tetrahedral mesh with three million elements__________________37

Figure 14 Aspect ratio of the mesh_____________________________________________38

Figure 15 Skewness of the mesh_______________________________________________38

Figure 16 Methane concentration at 1m, 8m, 16m, 24m,32m from the face______________38

Figure 17 Velocity contour at 0.6m from mine floor________________________________39

Figure 18 Isosurface of 5% methane concentration_________________________________39

Figure 19 Isosurface of 10% methane concentration________________________________40

Figure 20 variation of methane concentration along centre line_______________________41

Figure 21 Averagemethane concentration along the gallery__________________________41

Figure 22 Maximum methane concentration along the gallery________________________42

1
 List of abbreviations
CFD- Computational Fluid Dynamics
FVM- Finite Volume Method
CV- Control Volume
SIMPLE-Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure Linkage Equation
QUICK- Quadratic Upstream Interpolation for Convective Kinematics
FOR-Frame of Reference
RSS- Reynolds Stress Model
DNS-Direct Numerical Simulation
LES-Large Eddy Simulation
RANS-Reynolds-Average Navier-Stokes Equation

2
 Objectives and scope of project
One of the main concerns during underground mine operations is the large amount of
methane released in the face area in gassy coal mines. For decades, methane has been a major
hazard in underground mining. Methane is the prime cause of mining disasters around the
globe. Most explosions in underground coal mine occur when an explosive methane air
mixture develops in the mine galleries. Numerous methane-related incidents and accidents
with fatalities has attracted significant attention all over the world, highlighting the
importance of an effective mine ventilation to ensure a safe and productive environment in an
underground mine whilst keeping energy usage and operating cost at minimum. In order to
better understand flow behaviour and methane dispersion in underground mines and develop
better ventilation systems.

In general, methane enters a mine gallery from face, blowers, side walls at high
concentration. As the methane emerges from these sources, it progressively mixed with
ventilation air and is diluted. Hence, an understanding of methane dispersion in mine gallery
is important to properly design methane dispersion strategy and an effective ventilation
system. This study addresses methane dispersion in a development mine gallery. Air flow
behaviour and methane dispersion in the gallery is simulated by utilizing the well-established
CFD approach.
CFD modelling can be used to design the ventilation instruments, optimise the air flow speed
and designing the ventilation fan.

3
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

4
1.1 Introduction
Methane (CH4) is a naturally occurring gas and formed during the process of coalication of
material and plant. The formation of methane depends on depth of coal seam, duration of
time, rank of coal, etc. Methane is commonly found in coal seams, it is prevalent in
underground coal mines. Methane is colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. Methane is not
toxic but it's dangerous due to its explosive nature. The coal seams lying at greater depths are
subjected to higher pressure, which results in the reduction of permeability of coal and tight
bonding of methane to the coal and surrounding rock strata. When the coal seams are
extracted by mining activities, signicant quantities of methane is released into the mine
environment. Underground coal mine environment is one of the most dangerous working
environments, which is always under threat from the methane and coal dust explosion
hazards. Methane is a highly inflammable gas and accumulation of the same in coal mines
always poses danger of explosion due to its ignition. The coal mining industry across the
globe has witnessed several methane gas explosions in the past. In recent years, the
increasing methane emission in mines due to increasing coal production has increased the
risk of explosion hazards in underground coal mines.
In underground mines at greater depths, the concentration of methane increases due to poor
ventilation. It is lighter gas having specific gravity of 0.554, The layering and streaming of
methane near the roof level of underground mines called methane layering, It is due to low
specific gravity of methane.

1.2 Methane Layering

Methane forms layer near the roof with high concentration when methane is emitted at roof
top. Due to its low density than air methane emitted at roof top travels in up the dip direction
and form the layer near roof. The thickness of methane layer depends upon the velocity ,
roughness and geometry of the gallery.
The stability of methane layers and layer length is determined from the dimensionless
layering number which is defined as
v v
L= 1/ 3
= 1 /3
g Q 4.32Q
( W ) ( W )
Where,
L = methane layering number
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
= density difference of air and methane, kg/m3
= density of air, kg/m3
v = average velocity of air, m/s
Q = quantity of methane emission source, m3/s
W= width of airway, m

1.3 Methane explosibility

5
The methane air mixture forms an explosive mixture if fall within the explosive range
.
The nature of
methane- air mixture
is determined using
the Coward diagram
as shown in the
figure. The methane
explosibility limit is
5.4% to 14.8% . It
also depends upon
the presence of other
gases in the
atmosphere. At high
concentration there
will be insufficient
oxygen for complete
combustion , Also at
high concentration
excess methane
absorbs heat from the surroundings .

1.4 Computational Fluid Dynamics

CFD is the cost effective technique which uses Numerical methods to
simulate real fluid flow using computers .
Before starting any CFD analysis we should understand the real fluid flow
which we want to analyze. Then we have to set what results we want from
the CFD analysis. Then consider different model which can be used for
doing the analysis. For accurate results we set the geometry or
computational domain in such a way that while providing the boundary
conditions we assume least assumptions maintaining the problem
specification. The numerical methods or algorithms used to solve the
equations of the model has immense importance on the time of solving
and accuracy obtained So, carefully set the solver.
Here we will see in brief how the governing equations are solved in CFD
technique. Every CFD model has some equations which is based on the
transport equations and certain assumption with approximations. To solve
these equation we provide the boundary conditions. But to know the
values of fluid variable at each and every location within the
computational domain we need to divide this domain into smaller ones
and then apply these equation this process is called discretization after
which we get a system of algebraic equations which is solved by
numerical methods.

6
There are many discretization techniques available for different models
but here we will see the finite volume method which is used in the ANSYS
FLUENT. In software the process of dividing the computational domain is
called meshing. A correct solution is achieved only through a good
meshing.
In finite volume method(FVM) integral form of governing equation is
applied to CVs(divided parts of computational domain) whose
computational node is at the CV centre . In integral form there are two
terms one with volume integral and the other with surface integral.

nw n ne

w C e

sw s se

Let us consider the above CV (in 2D)with blue colour it has four face and
one area. The net flux exiting the CV is the sum of surface integral over
the area. So the surface integrals is equate to the following
fds= fds where f is the convective( ) or diffusion flux vector.
s si

The value at the centre is calculated using different algorithm like(SIMPLE)

which solves the fluid variable using the reference value or the boundary
condition as initial guess then it solves the different equations resulted
from the discretization then it check the residuals if it is in the tolerable
limit then the solution is converged or it update the new values the
process continues till the solution converges.
For calculating the surface integral we must know the integrand f on
whole area but we know the value at only the centre . The value at the
face is obtained from the centre value using interpolation schemes (like
upwind interpolation, QUICK etc.) then the surface integral is evaluated
using different approximation method (like Midpoint rule, trapezoidal
method, etc.). For calculating the volume integral we may simply multiply
the centre value to the volume or we can use shape function for more
accurate volume integration.

7
So, here the surface integral or flux exiting towards the west side equals
obtained
to f using the mid point rule.
at face cntre (the interpolation) s w

The CFD code today with user friendly graphical user interface are
available which is the CFD software. We can use it to simulate the fluid
flow at cheapest. But the result from it should be only used to build the
prototype or analysing the fluid flow using varying conditions and we can't
depend on it totally we have to use our experimental and analytical way
to analyse the fluid flow finally while taking help from CFD software.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

8
Literature review
Following studies has been carried out by different researcher using the CFD technique for
knowing the flow behaviour of air and methane in underground coal mines.
CFD analysis of longwall ventilation and accumulation of methane gas in tail gate is studied
and they conclude that the methane at upper corner of tail gate comes from goaf while at
lower corner comes from face emission( Wang et al.).Cheng et al. has concluded that
increases the ventilation air flow may reduce the chance of accumulation of methane but the
risk of spontaneous combustion may increases due to the leakage of air in goaf. They
suggested a range of values for air flow which is 1486 m3/ min~1679 m3/min. Effectiveness
of auxiliary ventilation to disperse the methane is studied by Torao et al. they emphasized
the need of CFD study in designing the auxiliary ventilation. Kurnia et al. has investigated
different model of CFD and showed that the k-epsilon model correctly predict the flow
behavior . They studied the ventilation flow in development gallery for different location of
methane emission. They concluded that the dispersion of methane depends on the location of
the methane source. Following is analysis of four different paper -

9
Pap Researcher Paper key points Model used Accuracy Suggestions
er s
1 Tora ~n o Auxiliary ANSYS CFX Good Need of
et.al(2009) ventilation , CFD study
Methane to improve
measurement in ventilation
U/G coal mine
2 Sasmito et Ventilation in bord ANSYS Spalart Use of
al.(2012) and pillar panel FLUENT -Allmaras Spalart
Several sufficiently -Allmaras
models are predicts
used and flow
compared behaviour
3 Kurnia et Blind heading ANSYS k- k-
al.(2013) ventilation FLUENT model model can
shows be used to
Several
good model
model are
result ventilation
used and
of blind
compared
headings
With
species
transport
4 Dr. Retreating ANSYS k- k-
D.P.Mishra longwall panel, FLUENT k- model model can
and tailgate model shows be used to
Pradeep ventilation(remod is used with good model
Kumar el study is done) multiphase result ventilation
(2016)

10
 CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY

Methodology
In all these simulation unstructured tetrahedral mesh is created within the range of aspect
ratio and skewness. The pressure based solver is used and steady flow is assumed with
gravity. The operating pressure is assumed to be the atmospheric pressure. The standard k-
epsilon model with standard wall function is used. The boundary condition is provided based
on experimental data . In all these simulation SIMPLE algorithm with first order upwind
interpolation scheme is used.
The velocity of air at duct outlet is measured using vane anemometer using continuous
traversing method. The concentration of methane is measured with Multigas detector and
Methanometer. The distances and dimensions are measured using tape. Temperature is
measured using thermometer .

11
From the average methane concentration the uniform methane emission rate is calculated
using the equation-

of averagemethane concentration airflow ratethe gallery

CH 4 emissionrate=
100

Apart from this the species mole fraction at inlet is set.

After the simulation the methane concentration is measured at different intervals from the
face and within the gallery. The comparison of average concentration of methane over
different plane at different velocities is compared.
The velocity and methane concentration contours are plotted at different distance from the
face.

Setting the k-epsilon model in ANSYS FLUENT

a) The first step is to define the computational domain which is surface in
2D or volume in 3D. The geometry is drawn in the Design modeler and
surface/volume is created using the features provided in the design
modeler.

b) After this we have to divide the computational domain which is done in

meshing, do the meshing as required. The one point to keep in mind is
the quality of mesh generated which is defined by three main
statistical quantity Skewness(<0.1for 2D and <0.4for 3D), Aspect
ratio(0.2 to 5) and maximum cell squish (<0.99)values for good quality
mesh are given in bracket. Skewness is the measure how ideal the CVs
element is and Aspect ratio defines the ratio of longest side to shortest
side of the element. After this name of the boundary is given which is
required for boundary condition settings.

c) After opening the FLUENT you will get two settings- 'Problem setup'
allow you to set the CFD model, boundary condition etc. In 'solution
task page' we have to select the solving algorithm and interpolation
schemes to solve the model equations.

PROBLEM SETUP- In problem setup we have to set the following

1. General settings-In general task page we set the mesh and solver.
The mesh gives the option to scale and check . Scale the mesh in

12
 the unit you want to solve. Check the mesh for any discrepancy. In
solver we have to set the type of solver either pressure based or
density based.

Pressure based- In this solver velocity is obtained from the

momentum equation and pressure field is solved from the pressure
correction equation and N-S equation. It is generally used for low
speed incompressible field.

Density based-Velocity field is obtained same way , the density field

is solved from the continuity equation and pressure field is obtained
from equation of state. This solver is generally used for high speed
compressible flow.

After setting the type we set the absolute velocity formulation for
those flow in which the most of the flow is non rotating. Select the
steady or transient as the case may be. Then set 2D options for 2D
analysis. Then set the units and

gravity as required. This completes the general task page settings.

2. Model settings- Select the appropriate models for the CFD analysis.
For the following Standard k model , energy equation and the
species following has to be set.

Standard k model settings- In this task page we have to set the

near wall treatment and viscous heating .

Viscous heating is on when the heat produce by the viscous

dissipation is larger than the heat produce by molecular conduction.

Standard wall function is not suitable for the flow in which very high
pressure gradient exists in the near wall region or the flow is not in
equilibrium with the wall. Non equilibrium wall function is used to
overcome the high pressure gradients and partially the non
equilibrium condition which gives good result as compared to the
standard wall function in predicting the skin friction and heat
transfer near the wall region. For finer mesh in the boundary region
two layer concept is used by wall treatment while for coarser mesh

13
 enhanced wall function is used. In this the pressure gradient effect
and heating effect can be turned on depending on the situation.
3. Energy equation- Turn on the energy equation if temperature effect has to
be analyzed.

4. Species equation or species transport has to be turn on if more than one

species is in the flow . In this we have to set any reaction taking place and
the mixture material. The option field is set for the following inlet diffusion
is turned if the diffusion at inlet has to be accounted for and Diffusion
energy source takes care of the enthalpy transport due to the species .
5. Material settings- In this we define the material around and inside
the computational domain. We can use the material from the fluent
database or the it can be user defined.
6. Cell zone condition- We have to define the fluid zone, solid zone or
others as the case may be.
7. Boundary conditions for a closed internal turbulent flow-
inlet- At inlet we have to provide the values of fluid variable at the
inlet of computational domain. Under momentum we have to set the
velocity and turbulence parameter. At thermal we have to set the
static temperature at inlet. on species we have to set the mass
fraction or mole fraction of different components in the inlet fluid
mixture.
outlet- The gauge pressure relative to operating pressure should be
set. Backflow data have to be provided and it is used only if the flow
is pulled from the outlet.
wall- The type of wall stationary or moving has to set. Then the
roughness can be set if data is known. For energy equation we have
to set the wall material and its heat flux or temperature. Set the
species flux or mass fraction at the wall boundary.

SETTING THE SOLUTION- In this we have to define the pressure coupling

schemes and the spatial discretization for the solution of governing
equation.
Set the underelaxation factor. First let it be the default one if solution is
not converged properly then reduce it. Set the monitor for monitoring the
solution .

After the solution converges we get the solution of the fluid flow problem.
We can analyse the solution in using CFD post process. In this we can plot
curves , draw graphs, draw streamlines track a particle anywhere in the
computational domain. Apart from these the user can also define new
variables/functions to plot these results.

14
 CHAPTER 4
CFD ANALYSIS

15
4.1 Previous Semester Work(Theory and Software Learning)

4.1.1 Concept of continuum in fluids

Fluid- A fluid is a substance which can't resist shear stress of any
magnitude without being in motion or in a state of continuous
deformation.
Fluid continuum- To define the fluid flow, the flow field variables(density,
pressure, velocity, temperature etc.) must be defined.
Let for example , We define
m
density ( )= lim
V V V
where V is the volume occupied by fluid and m is the mass of fluid.
Here V is the volume measured by instrument. Now if V is very
small then we may not find the constant range of molecules (number of
molecules) in this volume, So density fluctuates as shown in Fig. 2.1(a),
on the other hand, if it is very large we may have spatial density
variations from the average density in the volume. So to define the
density we must have enough number of molecules(order of 10 6-107 for
gases at normal condition) in V which makes a stable density. So that
we can model fluid as a continuous matter on a macroscopic scale. It
means that whatever is derived on the basis of this hypothesis can't be
applied in the volume with molecules less than the order of 106-107

16
 avg

r r
(a) is very small (b) is very large(say room)

Fig. 2.1 Density versus measured volume of fluid, where( r) is the location of measured volume.

Local Thermodynamic equilibrium- Random motions of the

molecules(molecular collisions) tend to make the properties uniform. If the
mean free path ( )<< characteristic distance for property variations(L),
then they can be assumed in local thermodynamic equilibrium. This
means that the intensive variables may vary in space and time, but the
rate is so slow that for any point it can be assumed that it is in equilibrium
with its neighbourhood, So we can use thermodynamic relation at any
point. In the present context, we assume that both the conditions are met.

17
4.1.2 Fluid Kinematics
Generally fluid in motion is described in two ways
(a) Eulerian concept- In this description we focus at a fixed spatial location
and observe the fluid properties as it crosses the location. In this
description we give the velocity field at every location (like a snapshot ) in
the fluid flow domain. The velocity field v(x, t) gives the velocity of fluid
particles at fixed spatial locations but not the information about the
individual fluid particle in the flow. The acceleration of fluid particle is
obtained by the material derivative of v(x, t).
Dv v v v v
a= = +u
Dt t (
x
+v
x
+w
x )
where v =u i+^ v ^j+ w k^ is the velocity field. The first term denotes the
temporal variation in velocity and the second term in bracket represent
the convective variation due to fluid flow. Let for example you enter in
cage of the shaft, as you move down you feel less temperature now
suppose water from shaft wall falls on you, you feel instant change in
temperature. The first one is the convective effect while the second one is
temporal effect.

(b) Lagrangian concept- To describe the fluid flow we follow each and
every particle. We choose a particle at a location and instant of time, then
we follow the motion of this particle as in the kinematics of solid particle.
Thus by providing the motion of each and every particle we describe the
fluid motion.
The velocity field is mathematically/ graphically observed using these
three concepts.
(i) Streamline- It is the tangent curve to the velocity field. That is
dx dy dz
mathematically equivalent to = = . This is snapshot of velocity
u v w
tangent curve at instant of time.
(ii) Pathline- It is the path followed by a fluid particle. It is obtained by
integrating

dx dy dz
=u , =v , =w
dt dt dt
(iii)Streakline- It is the line formed by all the particles passing from a fixed
location. For example we place a dye particle fixed at a particular location
in the fluid then the coloured part of fluid in the fluid flow represents the
streakline.

18
Here we can see that the pathline is a Lagrangian description and
streamline is based on the Eulerian concept. For unsteady flow these may
be different but for steady flow these are same.

4.1.3 Fluid Forces

In fluid mechanics we encounter mainly three types of force, first is the
non contact force which acts on the whole body of fluid (like gravity ). The
second force is the surface force acts on the surface due to pressure and
due to friction. It is defined by stress tensor matrix .. The stress tensor
is the contribution from pressure and viscous stress tensor (from
Newton's law of viscosity)which is related by = pI where p is the
pressure and I is the identity tensor. The surface force is calculated as
surface force= . n
where n is the outward normal to the surface. The pressure force always
acts in the opposite to outward normal.
At the microscopic level we encounter surface tension force that is force
per unit length (or surface energy per unit area) acting parallel to
interface due to the strong cohesive force in liquid. It depends on the
interface properties .This is a very interesting force and many natural
insects use it to move on the water surface like water striders.
Whenever a solid, liquid and gas meets three interface forms and the
liquid forms a shape which is separated by the contact line. The contact
line is the result of the equilibrium of the three surface tension force . The
direction of surface tension force on the liquid air interface is parallel to
interface and towards the liquid air interface. One point has to keep in
solving problem related to surface tension is to draw the correct FBD to
apply Newton's law. For example, when a solid, liquid and gas meets the
force of adhesion (fA) an attractive force and three surface tension forces
act at the contact point and makes the equilibrium.

19
4.1.4 Physical laws for fluid volume

Fluid volume vf(t) - A volume contains the same particles of fluid as time passes(closed
system). It may changes in complex ways i.e. change in shape, size, volume etc. Its surface
sf(t) moves with local velocity vf(r, t).

Control volume vc(t)-It is an arbitrary closed volume selected in space(open system). Its
surface sc(t) moves with user defined local velocity vc(r ,t).

Conservation of mass - The mass contained in the fluid volume remains constant as time
passes (the volume may swells or contracts changing the density), the mathematical equation
for this is
(r , t )dV = 0
d

dt v (t )
f

where (r, t) is fluid density field, dV is the differential volume of fluid in v f(t) at that time,
and the whole integration is carried over the vf(t) at time t. This means it has to be satisfied
for every instant of time.

Newton's 2nd law of motion - The time rate change of linear momentum of the fluid volume
equals the vector sum of all the forces acting on it(body forces plus surface forces-line force
is neglected at macroscopic level). It is applied for the inertial FOR
d in non relativistic condition and should be satisfied at every instant of time. The
mathematical equation is
( r ,t ) v ( r ,t ) dV = F (t)
d

dt v (t )
f

where v(r,t) is the fluid velocity field, and F(t) is the net force acting on it
Body force - It is a type of force which acts on the whole fluid volume without any contact
e.g. gravitational force. It can be defined as
F v = f m dv
v f (t )
where is the density and fm is the force per unit mass.
surface force-It is the force acting on the surface of the fluid or control volume.

First law of thermodynamics - The increase of fluid total energy equals the net work done
at the fluid volume boundary by the rest of the universe and the heat added to the fluid
volume at its boundary surface. Mathematically it can be expressed as

20
 d s (t)+ W
s (t )
dt v(t )
(r ,t )e t dv=Q
f

where et is the total energy(internal + kinetic) per unit mass, W s (t) is the rate at which the
work is done on the fluid volume by external force and Q s (t ) is the rate at which the heat
is added at the fluid boundary.

However we know that the fluid volume changes its shape and size as it moves, so it is very
difficult to apply these equations directly. So we need a different way to apply these equation.
The relation between the fluid volume and control volume. Reynolds transport theorem

Let a volume v(t) and its surface s(t)with local outward normal n and local velocity w then
we have,

( x , t+ t ) dv ( x , t)dv
v(t + t) v(t)
( x ,t ) dv= lim
t 0 t
d

dt v (t )
now by Taylor's series we have,

(x , t)
( x ,t + t )= ( x , t ) + t
t
finally simplifying we get,
(x ,t )
( x ,t ) dv= dv + ( x , t ) .(w . n)ds
v(t ) t s (t )
d

dt v (t )
Now, let us consider a situation when vf(t) and vc(t) coincides (all the fluid particle of vf are in
the control volume at that instant) so the domain of integration can be of v f or vc , only the
local velocity will be of vf. So writing equations for fluid volume and control volume in
above equation we get,
For fluid volume with velocity v

( x , t)
( x ,t ) dv= t
dv+ ( x , t ) .( v .n)ds
v (t )/ v (t)
f c s (t)/ s (t)
f c

d

d t v (t) f

and for control volume with velocity v c

d
( x ,t ) dv= ( x , t ) dv + ( x , t ) . ( ( vv c ) . n ) ds
dt v ( t )
c s (t ) c

d

dt v ( t ) f

these are the two form of integral equations relating fluid volume to control volume.

Physical significance of these equations

21
First equation -The first term on the RHS is volume integral of partial time derivative of
over the volume vf (t). The control surface is held fixed when the integration is done the
second term represent the enveloped volumetric properties during this time.
Second equation -First term is the rate of change of inside the volume and second term
is the net outflow rate of from the volume boundary.

For different values of we have corresponding equation for the control volume as
below,

Conservation of mass( = ),

Law of motion ( = v ),

= et
Energy equation

22
4.1.5 Conservation of chemical species

Let mass fraction(YA)a, molar fraction(XA)a, mass concentration((A)b, molar

concentration(cA)b, chemical species velocity(vA)c of a chemical species(A) in a fluid mixture.
Then consider the below defined mean speeds of mixture,
n
Mass averaged speed(v) v = Y A . v A
A=1

n
v = X A . v A
m m
Mole averaged speed(v )
A=1

Transport of chemical species happens by following ,

i. Transport due to mean velocity and

ii. Due to different velocity of individual one wrt the mean velocity.

Specific control volume VcA of species A is the volume that contains the same species
particles of A as time passes i.e. it is a closed system wrt the species A. Let
be the
global rate of production of species A in the specific control volume

d
dt
then we have A dv=
dv
v cA v cA

applying the transport theorem to the specific volume of species and any arbitrary volume v c
which coincide at time t. we get,

d A
dt v
A dv=
t
dv + A v A . nds
cA(t ) v s
cA (t) cA (t)

and
d A
dt v
A dv =
t
dv+ A v c .nds
c(t) v s
c(t) c(t)

arranging we get final equation as

v
A ( Av) . nds+ A (vv c ) . nds
sc(t)
d

dv= dv+
dt v A s
c(t) c(t)

v c(t)

where jA= A(vA-v) kg/(m2 s) is the diffusion mass flux vector.

23
a. Mass/Mole fraction- It is the mass/mole of the species present in the mixture per unit total mass/mole of the
mixture.
b. Mass /molar concentration- It is the mass/mole of the species present in the mixture per unit total volume of
the mixture.
c. Each chemical species has its own velocity, in a mixture it would be the resultant effect of all its component
chemical species.

24
4.1.6 Governing equations for fluid flow
There are other forms of these equation as well which are used such as-

Differential form- This form is obtained by applying the Gauss divergence theorem and
calculus of variation to the integral form. This is obtained for knowing the local field property
variations. Assuming that the flow property varies continuously as continuum hypothesis
applied. These equations are

Conservation of mass-

+ . ( v )=0
t

Momentum equation-

v
+ . ( vv )= . + f m
t

Conservation of energy-

et
+ . ( e t v ) = . ( v )+ f m . v . q+ q v
t

Conservation of chemical species-

A
+ . ( A . v ) = . j A +
A
t

Conservation form-When the control volume moves in space (with observers velocity) , the
fluid flows across its boundaries. We apply the physical laws, we obtained this form of
equation. All above differential equations are of this form.

Non-conservation form- When control volume moves along with fluid (no fluid flow across
the surface of control volume). We can use the substantial derivative(total derivative) i instead
of partial derivative by noting that

D } over {Dt} = {
+v .
t
for a variable ".

' '
i. is the change at a point as different particle passesby
t

25
 D''
is as the particle pass that point
Dx

26
4.1.7 Constitutive equations
Since the transport equations are developed for any arbitrary fluid we need to know the fluid
behavior in particular to solve the equation for particular situation. So these are the equation
accounting the behavior of fluids

Momentum transport by diffusion- Due to viscous effects in real fluid momentum transport
takes place.
Law of Navier-Poisson
We have = p I where I is the isotropic 2nd order tensor and and is the viscous
stress tensor due to the velocity field

v1 v1 v2 v1 v3

( )
2 + +
x1 x2 x1 x 3 x1
1 0 0
=
v1 v2
+
x2 x1
v1 v3
2 2
v
x2
v 2 v3
v2 v3
+
x 3 x2
v3
( )
+ vk , k 0 1 0
0 0 1
+ + 2
x3 x1 x3 x2 x3

where is the dynamic viscosity and is the second viscosity coefficient.

2
(Stokes hypothesis- states that = )
3

Deformation rate(S) - It shows how fast the fluid particle deforms.

S=1/ 2 ( v +( v)T )

it is the symmetric part of the velocity gradient tensor, finally we have,

=2 S+ . v
Fluids which follows the above relation are called Newtonian fluids.

For mixture of non polar gases at low density Wilke gave an empirical relation for calculating
the fluid viscosity
n
xi i
mixture =
i=1 x j ij

1/ 4 2

[ ( )( )]
1 /2 1/ 2
Mi i Mj
and ij =
(
1
8
1+
Mj ) 1+
j Mi

where x i and x j are mole fraction of species i and j in the mixture ,M denotes
molecular weight and is there viscosity respectively.

27
Heat transport by diffusion- Due to random motion of fluid molecules the heat energy
tends to uniform in all direction. The heat flux q ( W/m2) equals to
q=k T (Fourier's law)
where k is the thermal conductivity matrix for the substance and T temperature gradient.

Thermal diffusivity( )- is defined as the ratio

q
=
cp
where is density and c p is specific heat at constant pressure.

Mass transport by binary diffusion- Due to variation in the molecular concentration of

different species diffusion takes place. Let us assume no effect of temperature gradient,
pressure gradients, and body force on the diffusion.
Assuming that the mixture has two components then mass flux of species A is given by
j A = D AB Y A (Fick's law)
where jA is the mass flux wrt the mass average velocity, DAB is the coefficient of mass
diffusion of A into B and Y A is the mass fraction of species A.

For gases the value of D depends upon temperature, the chemical composition and the
pressure.
For gas at low density we have
T m p0
D=D 0
( )
T0 p
for methane air mixture we have D0=0.196x10-4 ,m=2, To=273 K and .po=101300 Pa.

The role of the constitutive equations are to provide the additional equations needed to solve
the transport equation. Here we conclude that the behavior of fluid plays an important role.
But now we can see that a particular fluid flow may be different for different if the initial and
boundary conditions are changed So, we must have to provide proper values at boundaries
and the start of flow in order to arrive at a unique solution to particular fluid flow.
Initial conditions- It provides the data of the fluid variables from which the flow evolves it is
generally required for the transient flow description.

Boundary conditions- These are the value of fluid variable and the fluxes at the surface of
control volume.

At inlets and outlets- It is assumed that the fluid variables are uniform. The values of ,
q , j A at the inlets are assumed to be zero. In general inlets and outlets should be chosen
in areas of uniform properties.

Fluid-Solid interface- Assuming the non-porous wall, in ideal fluid the diffusive fluxes
vanishes. For real fluid the velocity and temperature of fluid equals that of wall. The normal
mass flux or equilibrium value for the chemical species must be set.

28
4.1.8 Transport at interface

Boundary layer- It is the thin area surrounding interface where large property gradients arises
across the interface. In this region the fluid variables values evolves from the interface/wall
value to free stream values.

Prandtl's boundary layer theory- It states that(for laminar flow with high Reynolds number)
the boundary layer thickness at a position is very small as compared to length from
beginning further inside the boundary layer with no separation the diffusive and convective
transport are of comparable order.
Viscous boundary layer- It is the boundary layer for the momentum transport.

1
=
L L
where is the thickness of boundary layer , L is the characteristic length of the object
under consideration, and L is the Reynolds number based on length.

Similarly we have other boundary layer thickness(thermal, mass) and corresponding

boundary layer equations(in these regions).

But the problem is not solve yet as to solve these equations we have to use the constitutive
equation which is very difficult to use in boundary layer region as we need the derivatives of
fluid variables. So instead of using the these equation we use transport coefficients to
calculate the values at interface. These are determined from the experiments (Dimensional
analysis)and are system specific.

Local transport coefficient- The fluxes are approximately obtained from the simple algebraic
relation
d 0=k ( 0 ) dA
where 0 is the flux property at the interface, 0 is the property value at the interface,
is the reference value generally the free stream value, dA is the elemental area and
k is the local transport coefficient.

Global transport coefficient- It is for the whole surface it is obtained from the integration f
local transport coefficients
1 kdA
K=
AA
where K is the global transport coefficient and A is the total area.

So now we can understand that by providing values at boundary how the fluxes are calculated
at the interface.

29
4.1.9 Fluid Turbulence

A fluid turbulence is recognised by its physical flow behaviour, this includes unsteadiness,
very high transport rate, rotating fluid structure, three dimensionality, large dissipation of
energy and fluctuating behaviour of the fluid variables thus its properties. It is not the feature
of fluids but of flow.

When in the flow inertia force dominates (at high Reynolds number) the flow becomes
turbulent in nature. Turbulent flow have rotating flow structures called turbulent eddies,
which occurs in a large range of size and velocity called turbulent scale. Transport of eddies
is due to a mechanism called vortex stretching during which the angular momentum is
conserved. During which, the energy is taken from the mean flow which really maintains the
turbulence. These large eddies produces new instabilities and break into smaller eddies which
are driven by the vortex stretching from larger eddies not the mean flow. Thus the energy is
transferred from larger eddy to a smaller eddy and this process continues when the eddy
becomes so small that the viscous effects dominates and the work has to be done against the
viscous force and the small eddy vanishes, the energy is converted into thermal energy. This
transfer of energies is called energy cascade. The largest eddy size is proportional to flow
domain size as Reynolds number increases the smallest eddy size decreases. The eddies itself
transport properties along with the diffusion on their way, thus increased rate of mixing is
achieved in turbulent flow.

30
4.1.10 Reynolds averaging

Since the flow property varies with space and time in a chaotic way it is very difficult to
solve the conservation equation for fluid variable. It is easy to know the average values of
fluid variable. Thus we calculate the average flow properties in the turbulent flow we define
the averages as following ,

u ( x , y , z , t )=u + u (x , y , z , t)

where u is the x velocity, u is the averaged velocity component and u is the fluctuating
component of the velocity. Similarly for pressure and other variables we have average and
fluctuating component.

Types of averaging

i) Time average- It is particularly suited for those turbulent flow which are stationary in
nature. It is defined as
t +T
1
0

u ( x , y , z )= lim u ( x , y , z , t)dt
T T t
0

where T is the averaging time.

ii) Spatial average- It is particularly suited for homogenous turbulent flow i.e. where space
average are uniform. It is defined as

lim 1
u ( t ) =
V V
u ( x , y , z , t )dV
V

where V is the averaging volume.

iii) Ensemble average- This type of average is very good as it is obtained by averaging large
number of observed results. It is defined as
lim 1 N
u ( x , y , z , t )= N
u(x , y , z ,t )
N i=1
where N is the number of experiments.

31
4.1.11 Reynolds- Average Navier- Stokes equation

Introducing time averages in the conservation equation we obtained the Reynolds average
Navier-Stokes equation(for incompressible flow with constant viscosity) the N-S equations
for laminar flow are

Mass conservation
. v=0

Momentum equation
u 1 dP 1
+. (u v )= + .( u)
t dx

v 1 dP 1
+ . ( v v )= + .( v )
t dy

w 1 dP 1
+ . ( w v )= + .( w)
t dz

Using time average values averaging the above equation we get

. v =0

and component momentum equation as

uu uv u w
u
t
+. (u v )=
1 dP 1
+ . ( u )
dx (
x
+
x
+
x

)
vu vv vw
v
t
+ . ( v v )=
1 dP 1
dy (
+ . ( v )
y
+
y
+
y

)
wu w
v w
w
w

t
+ . ( w v )=
1 dP 1
+ . (
dz
w )
z ( +
z
+
z )
Thus we get six new additional terms with no increase in number of equation, the additional
stress is called Reynolds stress and should be given in order to solve the equation.

Similarly we have for energy equation the averaged energy equation and averaged chemical
conservation equation.

32
4.1.12 Boussinesq approximation and turbulence models

These new additional stresses are approximated or calculated. The importance of a turbulence
model lies in the fact that how close to smallest eddy it can capture and what is the frequency
of this capturing.

Boussinesq approximation
It states that the turbulent stresses are proportional to mean strain rate that is

u i u j
ij =t ( +
x j xi)
where a new additional variable t is introduced called turbulent viscosity or eddy
viscosity. It depends upon the flow and is different from the molecular viscosity.So the issue
is to compute the turbulent viscosity. We calculate this using different models which are
characterized by number of equation used to solve the eddy viscosity.
The three models are

i) Zero equation model

ii) One equation model
iii) Two equation model

Zero equation model

In this model it is assumed that the turbulent viscosity can be expressed as the product of
turbulent velocity scale and flow length scale. In which turbulent velocity scale is assumed to
be proportional to mean flow properties. The major drawback of this model is that we don't
have specific value for the flow length scale it has to be given from either experiment or
assumption on certain basis.

One equation model

It has one additional equation for the turbulent parameter , the one equation model based on
turbulent kinetic energy or turbulent eddy viscosity is generally used. The main limitation of
turbulent kinetic energy based model is that we have to define the length scale, while
turbulent eddy viscosity based model is well suited for boundary layer applications such as
aerospace application with wall bounded flow.

Two equation model

In two equation model we solve two equation to find turbulent viscosity. These are the
simplest complete models for turbulent flow. This is the most widely used model in which we
have k model and k model and its variants. Apart from these there are also
many models based on Boussinesq approximation.

Models like Reynolds Stress Model (RSS), Direct Numerical Simulation(DNS) , Large Eddy
simulation(LES) which are normally very accurate and capture the eddies transport. But in
most of the case we are interested in the mean flow quantities which can be obtained by
solving the RANS equation

33
4.1.13 Standard k-epsilon model
This is the most widely used turbulent model which provides the general flow description.
In this model we solve for turbulent kinetic energy( k ) and the turbulent dissipation rate(
). The k value determines the turbulent velocity scale whereas the value of
determines turbulent length scale independently. The basic assumption of this model is
isotropic nature of t .
We have k equation and equation which solves for k and finally we use
k2
t = t =C

where t is the eddy viscosity, C is a constant. For this model the standard values of
model constants are given by(Launder and Spalding).

Features
It is simple model than other two equation models. The result is well established in many
industrial applications. Computationally less costly than RSS model and others. It is a high
turbulence model and modification is needed with low Reynolds number.

Drawbacks
The k equation is well matched with its exact counterparts but the epsilon equation is
modelled with very few terms. Not suitable for flows in which anisotropic nature of t is
encountered such as curved sections of flow, rotating flows etc.

Boundary condition to be provided-

inlet- Distribution of k and epsilon must be provided with other fluid variables.
outlet-At outlet generally turbulent values are taken zero and mean temperature and pressure
values are set to that of free stream value.
Solid wall- Different wall functions are used to treat the transport near the solid wall.
Generally standard wall function is used.

34
4.2 6th Semester Work
With no roadheader working , following data are measured in development
heading at Moonidih mine
Air velocity at duct outlet=9.85m/s
Air velocity at 50m from coal face =1m/s
Temperature of bottom=44oc
Temperature in gallery air=31oc
Average methane concentration in development gallery=0.1% by volume
Methane content of coal=16m3/te(known)

Figure 1 Gallery cross section

35
Figure 2 Coal face and wall of the gallery

Figure 3 Outlet and Inlet of the gallery

36
 Figure 4 Methane mass fraction for different cross section at 2m, 5m,
8m,18m,28m,38m,48m from the face

4.3 7th Semester Work

Instead of multiphase model Standard k-epsilon model with species transport equation is used
to model the Retreating longwall panel,tailgate ventilation. The data is taken from the paper
Dispersion of methane in tailgate of a retreating longwall mine: a computational fluid
dynamics study by Dr. D.P.Mishra and Pradeep Kumar (2016) on Retreating longwall panel,
tailgate ventilation.
Mesh of one million cell is used for easier computation
Boundary conditions- inlet-2.5m/s velocity
outlet-gauge pressure=0 pascal
wall-no slip and stationary
methane- mass flow rate of 0.0623kg/s is used
Result obtained are as follow
Velocity contour at 2.4m from ground

37
Methane concentration from goaf area at an interval of 5m and their contours are obtained
Streamline from inlet to outlet and from goaf face to outlet are obtained to analyse how fluid
flows in the tail gate.

Figure 5 Geometry of the tail gate ventilation section

Figure 6 Unstructured tetrahedral mesh with one million elements

38
 Figure 7 Velocity contour at a height of 2.4 m from the floor

Figure 8 Methane volume percentage at 5m and 10m from the goaf

39
Figure 9 Methane volume percentage at 15m, 20m, 25m, 30m, 35m, 40m, 45m, 50m and
55m, from the goaf

Figure 10 Streamlines from inlet to outlet

The average concentration of methane at different distance from the face at two different inlet
velocity

40
 Average ch4 concentration
Distance CFD CFD Experimental
from simulation(at simulation(at
2.5m/s) 3.5m/s)
Goaf edge, m
5 1.47 1.26 0.89
10 1.50 1.27 0.75
15 1.62 1.11 0.72
20 1.92 1.35 0.69
25 2.03 1.52 0.66
30 2.05 1.60 0.65
35 2.05 1.63 0.67
40 2.02 1.61 0.65
45 2.01 1.60 0.66
50 2.00 1.59 0.67
55 1.97 1.59 0.60

4.4 8 Semester Work

Boundary conditions
Inlet- velocity is set to 12m/s for the analysis.
Outlet- gauge pressure is set to zero.
At face- constant methane emission(instead of different point source as used in the paper
CFD simulation of methane dispersion and innovative methane management in underground
mining faces by Kurnia et al.) of 0.05m3/s is set which is set as .0328kg/s of mass inflow of
methane from the face.
wall- Standard wall function is used with zero diffusive flux.

41
 Figure 11 Cross section of the gallery

Where the dimension are

D6=0.6m, V4=1.9m, H5=0.6m, V1=2.9m, H3=3.6m
cross section area=9.0494m2
The length of ventilation section is 36m and the length of duct is 30m.

42
 Figure 12 Ventilation section geometry

Figure 13 Unstructured tetrahedral mesh with three million elements

For good quality mesh the aspect ratio should be between 0.2 to 5 and the skewness of 0.4 or
less for 3D CV elements.

43
 Figure 14 Aspect ratio of the mesh

Figure 15 Skewness of the mesh

Figure 16 Methane concentration at 1m, 8m, 16m, 24m,32m from the face

Average methane percentage at these planes from face are 5.1316, 2.5330, 1.4161, 1.1179,
and 1.1716.

44
Figure 17 Velocity contour at 0.6m from mine floor

Figure 18 Isosurface of 5% methane concentration

45
Figure 19 Isosurface of 10% methane concentration

46
 Towards the
face
Figure 20 variation of methane concentration along centre line
Methane concentration (%v/v)

Distance from face (m)

Figure 21 Averagemethane concentration along the gallery

47
Methane concentration (%v/v)

Distance from face (m)

Figure 22 Maximum methane concentration along the gallery

48
 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

49
Conclusions and Recommendations
Computational fluid dynamics study has been carried out for different gallery geometries and
at different height of the duct for different speed. In all the simulation k-epsilon model is used
to investigate the flow. Good agreement with the nature of flow has been observed. It has
been observed that when the duct is near to roof the methane accumulation takes place in low
velocity zone near the floor corner while for duct near floor the methane accumulation takes
place near upper corner. The nature of methane dispersion highly depends upon the gallery
geometry as well as the velocity magnitude at duct outlet. Need of more no of CFD
simulation study is required in order to get more information about the dispersion of methane
in underground ventilation headings.

1. Variation of Methane concentration along the centre line of gallery is obtained . It has been
observed that there is sharp decrease in Methane concentration near the face , the
concentration was nearly uniform after 16m from face.

2. The average methane concentration reduces exponentially from the face towards the outlet
and attained a constant value of 1% after 22m from face.

3.The maximum methane percentage sharply reduces upto 13m from face then there is slight
variation after this.

50
REFERENCES

51
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53