EEE1001/PHY1002 1

Magnetic Circuits
The circuit B and
Just as we view electric is of length circulate
circuits as related to the l=2r
flow of charge, we can
also view magnetic flux r
flowing around a Cross-
magnetic circuit. i
section of
The sum of fluxes core is A
entering a point must N turns
sum to zero
The sum of MMF drops
around any closed loop
equals the current
enclosed

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 2

Magnetic Circuits
The circuit B and
We can now introduce is of length circulate
a new concept. In l=2r
analogy to resistence r
in electrical circuits, we
have a quantity which i
Cross-
measures the section of
resistance a magnetic core is A
N turns
material has to the
flow of flux:
Reluctance, S.
MMF = S
C.f. V=iR
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 3

Magnetic Circuits
The circuit B and
is of length circulate
MMF = S l=2r
H=Ni/l r
B=H=Ni/l Cross-
i
=BA=AH section of
core is A
=(A/l) Ni N turns

(l/A) = Ni
+
l
S = AA
A -
F S

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 4

Magnetic Circuits in Series

li
Siron = A
AA i

li
lg lg
Sgap = AA
0A
The reluctances

add like F=Ni + Siron

resistances: F S
-
Ni=(Siron+Sgap)
S Sgap
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002

Magnetic Circuits in Parallel

l3, A3 A typical parallel
magnetic circuit
i1 i2 involves a pair of coils
inductively coupled.
The net flux can flow
in the three arms in
either direction
depending on the
strength of the source
of flux, the MMFs
C.f. emf sources in
l1, A1 l2, A2 parallel circuits.
Fields, Materials and Devices 1
EEE1001/PHY1002

Magnetic Circuits in Parallel

S1 S2 Reluctances:
S1=l1/A1
+ +
S
S2=l2/A2
F1 2 F2
1 3 S3=l3/A3
- -
Circuits:
N1i1 = 1S1 + (1+2)S3
N2i2 = 2S2 + (1+2)S3

Fields, Materials and Devices 1

EEE1001/PHY1002 7
Link between inductance and
reluctance in a solenoid
The flux linking a coil
can be expressed as
a function of flux
through the core, and
a function of the
current in the coil:
a) =N
b) =Li
But we just saw that
MMF=S
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 8
Link between inductance and
reluctance in a solenoid
Combining these:
a) =N
b) =Li
c) MMF=S = Ni
Li = N = N (MMF/S)
Li = N ( Ni /S )
So
N2
L = AA
S
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 9

Self-inductance of a magnetic circuit

N2
L = AA
S

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 10

Voltage and inductance

Faradays law tells us
that
d
V = dt
Again, if the coil
carrys a current i, we
may use
a) =N
b) =Li

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 11

Voltage and inductance

d
V = dt

Substitution of these
expressions for , we
get:
V=N(d/dt)
V=d(iL)/dt
V=i(dL/dt)+L(di/dt)

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 12

Voltage and inductance

V=N(d/dt)
V=d(iL)/dt
V=i(dL/dt)+L(di/dt)
If L is indepentent of
time, then
di
V = L dt
We use this in
determining stored
energy
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 13

Stored energy
We shall assume a
fixed inductance, L.
Then the voltage
across the system
may be expressed as
V = iR + L(di/dt)
This may be
converted to a power
by multiplication by
the current
iV = i2R + iL(di/dt)
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 14

Stored energy

Ohmic losses Magnetic power

iV = 2
iR di
+ iL(di/
dt
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 15

Stored energy
The energy is the

W= iL dt
time integral of the
power di
This can be dt
evaluated rather
simply in the limit
of a time
independent L, as
W = Li 2

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 16

Self and mutual inductance

Up to this point we
have largely only
been concerned
with single coils.
However, we are
often in practice
interested in
coupled coils.

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 17

Self and mutual inductance

Suppose two coils are
wrapped around a
common magnetic
path.
Coil 1 is driven by a
voltage V1, and coil 2 V1
is disconnected.
The flux from the first
coil couples the
second coil through
the magnetic flux
circulating in the core.

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 18

Self and mutual inductance

The flux-linkage in
coil 2 is
2=N21
where V1

1=L1i1 / N1
Hence
2= N2L1i1 / N1

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 19

Self and mutual inductance

We specify the
coefficient of flux-
linkage in coil 2
due to the primary V1
current is called
the mutual
inductance, or
N2L1
2 = M i1 M=
N1
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 20

Self and mutual inductance

In fact there are 1=L11i1+12
two sources of flux 2=L22i2+21
linking the coils 12 is the flux
Self-inductance linking coil 1 due to
the current in coil 2,
The flux from the M12i2
second coil 21 is the flux
linking coil 2 due to
the current in coil 1,
i1 i2
M21i1
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 21

Mutual induction
For a system of an arbritrary number of sources
of flux, the simplest way to express the set of
equations that we need to solve is matrix based:

Here, Lii is the self inductance of source i, and

Mij=Mji is the mutual inductance of coil i due to
coil j.
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 22

Mutual induction
V2=d2/dt
V2=d(N21)/dt
V2=N2 d1/dt
V1 V2
V2=N2 d(1/N1)/dt
V2=(N2/N1) d1/dt
V2=(N2/N1) V1

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 23

Mutual induction

N1V2= N2V1
This assumes that
V1 V2
all the flux from coil
1 links coil 2.
In practice, some
flux is lost
Flux leakage
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 24

Mutual induction and energy

We shall look at
the example of a
pair of sources, but
the principles apply
generally.
Taking time
derivitives of the
coupled equations.

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EEE1001/PHY1002 25

Mutual induction and energy

We suppose that we start with no current and no flux,
so that there is no stored energy.
We want to find the total energy when there is both
current in coil 1 and coil 2.
Start with no current in either coil, and increase the
current in coil 1 to i1 before introducing any current into
coil 2.
The total input power is then given by:

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 26

Mutual induction and energy

Since there is no current in coil 2, all terms

in i2 disappear.

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 27

Mutual induction and energy

The energy is the time integral of the

power:

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 28

Mutual induction and energy

We now introduce a current in coil 2 up to
i2, maintaining the current in coil 1 at i1
(so di1/dt=0)

The time integral gives the energy

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EEE1001/PHY1002 29

Mutual induction and energy

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 30

Mutual induction and energy

The total energy
stored in the two coil
system is the sum of
these two processes.
There are two terms
related to the self-
inductance that weve
i1 i2 seen before, plus an
additional term due to
their interaction.

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 31

Coil sits in radial magnetic field

Circumferential current creates
axial movement in reaction to
magnetic field
south
Diaphragm
needs to be
light and
stiff e.g.
coil north cardboard

south
force = B magnet il
Vaudio Spring e.g. rubber
i= sin(t + )
R 2 + (L )
2
impregnated
if coil induc tan ce L is small
force v audio
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 32

Applications of Electromagnetic Forces

Electric motors :
Electrical power is
input
Energy flows in
electromagnetic fields
Conversion into
mechanical power
Should it be an
electric or magnetic
field?
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 33

Applications of Electromagnetic Forces

Both H- and E-fields

store energy.
Force acts in a sense
that minimises energy
stored in the field
Work done = F.dr
We equate w.d. to the
sum of
the loss in stored
energy
Input electrical energy
Losses
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 34

Magnetic case
Iron
A coil wound around a
piece of iron
l d.c. current
Iron Coil arrangement
separated from another
piece of iron by an air-gap
Magnetic flux flows across
gap and exerts a force of
attraction

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 35

Magnetic case
Iron Energy density stored in
the gap is
B B
B B2
Area, A l 0 H dB = 0 dB = 2
Iron
Energy stored in the gap
is the gap volume

B2Al
E=
2
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 36

Magnetic case
Iron
B2Al
E=
2
Area, A l Let us now suppose the
Iron gap is reduced by an
amount l.
The energy stored is
reduced by
B2Al
E =
2
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 37

Magnetic case
Iron For a small enough
change, the force is given
by (E/l), so
Area, A l B2A
F=
Iron 2
The force density is then

B2
F=
2
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 38

Magnetic case
Iron
B2
F=
Area, A l
2
For iron, the magnetic flux
Iron density saturates around
B=1T
What force density does
this correspond to?

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002

Please make your selection...

1. 0.04 Nm2
33% 33% 33%
2. 40 Nm2
3. 400,000 Nm2

2
2
m

Nm
Nm
N
04

0
40

00
0.

0,
40
:10
EEE1001/PHY1002 40

Magnetic force and induction

Alternative approach uses the energy as a
function of the inductance of the coil producing
the field:
Stored energy = Li 2
The force is the rate of change with position

F =d
dx 2
[ 2 dx
]
1 Li 2 = 1 i 2 dL

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 41

Electric case
In direct analogy with the magnetic case, the
energy stored per unit volume is
D D
D D 2 E 2
E dB =
0 0

dD =
2
=
2

The force based upon a small distance change

is
F = E2A
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 42

Electric case
The force per unit area is then

F = E2 = DE
The maximum value of electric field strength is
dictated by the breakdown field.
If this is around 3x106 V/m for air, what is the
maximum force per unit area?

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002

Please make your selection...

1. 0.04 Nm2
33% 33% 33%
2. 40 Nm2
3. 400,000 Nm2

2
2
m

Nm
Nm
N
04

0
40

00
0.

0,
40
:10
EEE1001/PHY1002 44

Magnetic field based forces are generally

greater in practical machines

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 45

Electric field motors

There is an exception
at the small length
scale.
This image is of a
micro-motor, the
rotational forces of
which are based upon
electrostatics.

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 46

Force of alignment
The basic mechanism
behind motors is that
the fields are
arranged so as to
flux lines
bring parts into
alignment. force

airgap y
magnetically
permeable force
material
x

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 47

Force of alignment
We now have the iron
offset in the x-
direction.
The stored energy is
reduced if the
components are
brought closer to
vertical alignment.
There is a force of
alignment
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 48

Force of alignment
The force is given by
the rate of change of
stored energy with
movement
Fx=i 2(dL/dx)
Fy=i 2(dL/dy)
This is the force
present in reluctance
motors

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 49

Continuous motion
Continuous motion
is achieved by
B
- -
C
careful design of the
+ + back-iron
stator tooth
coils and rotating
+ +
A rotor A
winding
components.
- -

- -
Here coils are
C
+ +
B
energised in
sequence to
generate rotation.
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 50

Continuous motion

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 51

Example application

Dyson 100,000 rpm

Vacuum cleaner

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 52

Force from mutual induction

Again, the two coil
components
experience a force of
alignment to minimise
the magnetic energy.
Here it is the mutual
inductance in play
Fx=i1i2(dM12/dx)

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 53

Fields, Materials & Devices

EEE1001/PHY1002 54

Application of F=BiL
We can look at the
field generated by
one coil, and
calculate the force on
the second using
F=BiL
This may be
performed on either
set of current carrying
coils.
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 55

Application of F=BiL
The BiL force
induces motion in the
direction of the force,
which therefore has
an associated amount
of work.
For a small
displacement in the x-
direction, the work
done is
W.d. = BiLx
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 56

Application of F=BiL
The conductor of
length L moving at a
speed ux orthogonal
to a magnetic field of
flux density B also
induces a voltage:
V=BLux
V=BL (x/t)
This voltage opposes
the current.
Fields, Materials & Devices
EEE1001/PHY1002 57

Application of F=BiL
To maintain the current
against the induced,
opposing voltage,
electrical power must
be supplied:
P = Vi
P = BLi (x/t)
Rearraning yields:
P t = BLi x
or the energy
supplied electrically
balances the work
done.
Fields, Materials & Devices