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To cite this article: Pablo E. Riera, Martin Proscia & Manuel C. Eguia (2014): A Comparative Study of Saxophone Multiphonics:
Musical, Psychophysical and Spectral Analysis, Journal of New Music Research, DOI: 10.1080/09298215.2013.860993
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Journal of New Music Research, 2014
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09298215.2013.860993
*Correspondence: Laboratorio de Acstica y Percepcin Sonora, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, R. S. Pea 352, Bernal (B1876BXD),
Buenos Aires, Argentina. E-mail: pr@lapso.org
regarding the tuning of the notes and the timbre, as they In order to illustrate the diversity of these sounds we
are in most cases inharmonic sounds. The bore resonances display in Figure 1 four examples of saxophone multiphonic
arise because of special ngerings that modify the effective power spectra. The main differences observed are related to
length of the bore depending on the combination of open the distribution of the spectral energy and the partial
and closed holes. In turn, the tuning and timbre are frequencies. The partial frequencies are organized into
controlled by means of the embouchure, the vocal tract and clusters of principal peaks and anking side-bands. The
the blowing pressure (Chen, Smith, & Wolfe, 2011; number of clusters, their width and location depend on
Scavone, Lefebvre, & da Silva, 2008). the ngering and the blowing intensity (Backus, 1978). The
However, there are some phenomena that are common solid vertical lines in the graph indicate the two principal
to all saxophone multiphonics. The frequencies of the oscil- frequencies (the two main pitches that are actually
lations induced by the resonance are subject to inter-modu- perceived), the dotted line corresponds to the spectral
lation distortion due to the nonlinearity in the reed centroid (SC) and the dark horizontal line measures the
(Benade, 1990). As the blowing pressure is increased, this spacing of the sidebands.
distortion creates new frequencies (products) and alters These examples correspond to the four classes of multi-
substantially the timbre of the sound. Finally, there are phonic sounds described in the next section, where we will
certain regimes where the acoustic system behaves chaoti- analyse a large set of tone samples from a musical perspec-
cally (Keefe & Laden, 1991), adding more particularities to tive. Our aim is to advance in a possible classication
the timbre. These phenomena show that the addition of scheme for the saxophone multiphonics that eventually
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new frequencies has several effects on the quality of the could be extended to other woodwind instruments. For this
sound. Moreover, many control parameters such as blowing purpose, we will also perform a dissimilarity rating psycho-
intensity and vocal congurations could be modied physical test and evaluate possible acoustical correlates of
continuously, giving a continuous range of multiphonics. the perceptual dimensions obtained in the experiment.
Compared to acoustical studies, the psychophysics of
multiphonic perception has received much less attention,
and a complete picture of how these multiple sonorities are
organized is still missing.
2. Musical analysis: A possible classication
In addition, multiphonics constitutes an interesting There are some problems that usually arise when dealing
starting point for the study of musical timbre. The classical with multiphonics that were disregarded in previous
studies on timbre perception were focused on traditional studies: (a) the same ngering could produce more than
instruments and traditional techniques with harmonic sounds one multiphonic with very different sonorities; (b) nger-
(Caclin, McAdams, Smith, & Winsberg, 2005; Grey, 1977). ings are usually not efcient in the same way for different
The study of the perception of saxophone multiphonics saxophonists and saxophones; (c) the whole set of multiph-
could bring a new perspective on timbre organization. onics span a wide range of different sonorities; (d) the
Fig. 1. Four power spectrums of alto saxophone multiphonics. The solid vertical lines indicate the two principal frequencies; the dotted line
indicates the spectral centroid and the dark horizontal line corresponds to the distance between sidebands (and to the modulation frequency).
Each multiphonic belongs to one of the four proposed classes: (A) Multiharmonic, (B) Bichord, (C) Tremolo and (D) Complex Multiphonic.
Saxophone multiphonics comparative study 3
usual musical notation is not well adapted to multiphonics; the grain of a sound object. The relation between the size
and (e) unlike conventional saxophone tones, they behave and the velocity in which appears the subsequent grains is
as dynamical structures, being able to pass through differ- what we could perceive as iteration of a certain sound
ent sonorities. object. For example: in a drum roll every hit on the drum
We propose a classication scheme for the multiphonic is perceived as one grain, but in a very fast and pp roll we
tones taking into account these characteristics from the could not listen to a particularly hit even when we perceive
musical perspective. an iteration grain; on the other side, a very slow and ff roll
would be perceive as more iterative, with a slow iteration,
somewhat similar to that which happens with the sound of
2.1. Procedure
the engine of a truck.
Due to the vast number of possible multiphonic tones The type and the size of grain, which add to the differ-
within the seven members of the saxophone family, we ent velocities of iteration, are two of the most important
decided to circumscribe the study to a set of 118 tones of cues we utilized for the musical analysis. These cues added
the alto saxophone, spanning all the possible sonorities to other more frequented musical terms such as intensity,
previously reported for this family member. musical interval, tessitura and consonance/dissonance, made
To analyse these tones from a musical point of view we it possible to present a musical classication for saxophone
used two concepts introduced by Pierre Schaeffer, which multiphonics based on their sonority. This classication has
are closely related: reduced listening and sound object. been partially presented in previous works (Proscia, 2011;
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The reduced listening consists of listening to the sound in Proscia, Riera, & Egua, 2011).
a context-independent manner and for its own sake, by Complementing this approximation, we include also the
removing its real or supposed source, the precedence, the concept of spectromorphology, developed by Denis
environment and the meaning it may convey. The concept Smalley, which is focused on the two aspects referred by
of sound object refers to every sound phenomenon and the term: the interaction between sound spectra (spectro-)
event perceived as a whole, a coherent entity, and heard by and the ways they change and are shaped through time
means of reduced listening, which targets it for itself, (-morphology) (Smalley, 1986).
independently of its origin or its meaning (Chion, 1983).
Also, Schaeffer proposed a typology for the sound
2.2. Recordings
objects meant to be used in composition and analysis of
electroacoustic music (Schaeffer, 1966) and based on A database of 118 multiphonic tones was obtained from
morphological criteria, which are dened as the distinc- recordings of a Selmer Super action 80 Serie III alto
tive features or properties of the perceived sound objects saxophone tuned at A = 440 Hz, with a Selmer Serie 80 C*
that allows identifying them (Chion, 1983). mouthpiece and Vandorem 3 reeds. The recordings were
For our multiphonics musical analysis we select three made using an acoustical measurement microphone (DBX
features from Schaeffer criteria that are intimately related: TRA-M) and a Focusrite Sapphire external soundcard at a
grain, quality of surface and iteration. The grain could be sampling rate of 48 kHz with a resolution of 24 bits. The
dened as the microstructure of the matter of sound, that multiphonics were selected and performed by one of the
can be more ne or coarse and which evokes by analogy authors (MP). The samples were recorded in a room with
the tactile texture of a cloth or a mineral, or the visible sound isolation and acoustic treatment (noise oor 19 dBA,
grain in a photograph or a surface. Schaeffer dened three teverberation time T60 @ 1 kHz 0.3 s). These recordings
types of grain characterized by the sustainment of a sound: are available at http://www.lapso.org/multiphonics.html.
resonance grain, for sounds without sustainment but that
are prolonged by resonance (e.g. the rapid tingling of a
2.3. Results
resonating cymbal); rubbing grain, for maintained sounds,
often caused by the rasping of breath of the sustaining The different sonorities from the database were classied
agent (bow, or breath in a ute sound); iteration grain for into four multiphonic classes, named as: Bichords, Complex
iterative sustainment (e.g. drum roll) (Chion, 1983). Once Multiphonics, Multiharmonics, Tremolos. In Figure 2 we
having dened the grain type, we could dene the quality display several examples for these classes using musical
of surface of a sound object as the relation within the type notation.
of the grain and its evolution, considering that the quality A summary of the main characteristics for each class is
of surface of a sound would be smoother or rougher displayed in Table 1. A more detailed description follows.
depending of the type of grain and its evolution. For Bichords. The most prominent feature of this class is
example, we could say that the quality of surface of the the rst musical interval, which could be a major, minor or
sound of a soprano clarinet playing the low register is a diminished third (as it is shown in Figure 2(a)), perfectly
smoother than a drum roll, or that the quality of surface of distinguishable due to their very stable sonority. Regarding
the sound of the oboe is rougher than the ute. At last, the the performance characteristics, the intonation required for
idea of iteration is closely related to the type and size of the production of the Bichords is quite similar to the
4 Pablo E. Riera et al.
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Fig. 2. Musical notation for examples of the four proposed multiphonic classes, one row for each class: (Bi) four multiphonics with a
Bichords sonority, (Mh) four multiphonics with a Multiharmonic sonority, (Cm) three multiphonics with a Complex Multiphonics sonority,
and (Tr) four multiphonics with a Tremolo sonority. Staff A: Alto saxophone in Eb. Staff B: Concert C. The multiphonics that are indicated
with (K*) refer to the number of the corresponding ngering in Kientzys catalogue (Kientzy, 1982). Multiphonics 5 and 10 are produced
with the same ngering.
simple tones. The possible dynamics are between pp and on the possibility of make almost perfect legatos with
mf. This sonority resists a wide range of different simple or multiphonic tones. Their quality of surface is
articulations preferably not too aggressive, with a highlight mostly velvety.
Saxophone multiphonics comparative study 5
Table 1. Summary of the main characteristics of the four classes proposed from the musical point of view, as a possible classication of
multiphonic tones of the alto saxophone: bichords, complex multiphonics, multiharmonics, and tremolos.
Complex multiphonics. The principal attribute of the vocal tract, which turns the Tremolos into the most exible
Complex multiphonics is that they present a strongly inhar- sonority from those which we present here. Their produc-
monic spectrum with a strident sonority and a complex tion is quite simple and they resist dynamics from mp to f.
intervallic construction. Their production is relatively From the musical perspective of the analysis, we may
stable, yet with almost no possibilities of evolution. Their release some topics related to this preliminary classication.
dynamical range extends between mf and ff and they do First, concerning the notes and dynamical range, each
not resist soft articulations, responding very well with group we propose is delimited to a specic note range of
staccato, slap and other aggressive articulation. This group the saxophone, presents a characteristic musical interval
presents a rough quality of surface, with and iterative and arrangement, and is circumscribed to a certain dynamic
compact mechanical grain. range. From the point of view of the performer, they also
Multiharmonics. A common characteristic in the two present a distinctive intonation, position of the vocal tract
previous sonorities is that they present different types and and embouchure. Regarding the timbre, each class presents
velocities of iteration, with different timbres and sizes of a particular quality of surface, which is determined by the
internal grain. The Multiharmonics, in turn, present a size and type of the internal grain of the sound. Hence, we
considerably smooth surface without stridencies. Their could say that each of the sonorities proposed here is well
dynamics extend between ppp and mp. This sonority is characterized and clearly delimited from each other. This
quite similar to those which result of playing harmonics on let us propose the four classes (Bichords, Complex
string instruments. Regarding the performance characteris- Multiphonics, Multiharmonics and Tremolos) as a possible
tics this is the most difcult and unstable sonority. They do classication for the alto saxophone multiphonic tones.
not resist large dynamic variations or aggressive articula- The full set of 118 multiphonics was then divided into
tions. Multiharmonics usually present two simultaneous 21 Bichords, 39 Complex Multiphonics, 34 Multiharmonics
notes that are perceived as if they were produced by two and 24 Tremolos. It is worth noting that, despite the fact
saxophones simultaneously. The most signicant timbric that the four classes are well dened, there is a small
change occurs with the appearance of a third pitch, which number of multiphonics that does not t perfectly into any
can be produced in some case as a result of increasing the group. These hybrid sonorities could be considered lying
pressure of the blow. Even when there is a change in the in the borderline between classes.
global pitch and the musical interval, a substantial modi-
cation of the surface (to a less smooth quality) is also
apparent.
3. Pair comparison psychoacoustic experiment
Tremolos. The most outstanding characteristic of the
Tremolos is the beating integrated to the sound. This We will now continue our study by centring just on the
iterationquite similar to the frullato in the woodwinds or timbre of multiphonics, and making some quantitative
tremolo in the stringsis related to the mistuning of the analysis. Timbre is a complex attribute of sound, which is
8th, which is the rst interval. The velocity and even naturally multidimensional (Donnadieu, 2007). For the case
the timbre of the internal grain could be easily modied by of multiphonics, timbre is similar to those of inharmonic
changing the intonation and the velocity of the air in the tones, but with the constraints given by the instrument and
6 Pablo E. Riera et al.
the playing techniques. In this section, we explore the open headphones (Sennheiser HD 600) in the same room
timbre of stationary multiphonics sounds through a used for the recordings.
psychophysical experiment.
A psychoacoustic experiment was designed in order to 3.2. Results
evaluate a possible organization of the multiphonic tones,
Starting from the recorded answers, a dissimilarity matrix
and eventually build condence on the classication
was built for each subject, and some statistical tests were
scheme detailed in the previous section.
performed (Grey, 1977). First, as only ve subjects partici-
This experiment was done adopting a pairwise compari-
pated in the experiment, we tested whether the responses
son protocol for similarity/dissimilarity rating, in a similar
correlate with each other in order to ensure that meaningful
fashion to Grey (1977). In this experiment subjects were
results could be obtained from means across subjects. This
asked to judge the timbric similarity/dissimilarity between a
was the case, as the smaller correlation coefcient obtained
pair of sounds using a numeric scale. These results were
was 0.77. Next, we analysed the catch trials and found no
analysed using multidimensional scaling (MDS), which
signicant deviations from the zero mean (t-test, p =
serves to represent the dissimilarity (perceptual distance)
0.606), indicating that the answers were not affected
with a geometric conguration.
substantially by changes in the intensity. To see whether if
the answers were inuenced by the order of presentation of
3.1. Experiment details the stimulus we computed a t-test across all subjects for the
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representation since this is informative enough for (1) Spectral centroid (SC)
segregating the different classes proposed. Henceforth, each (2) Modulation frequencies (MF)
multiphonic sample was assigned to a point in a (3) Principal frequencies F1 and F2
two-dimensional space with a metric that tries to satisfy the (4) Musical interval (MI) in semitones between F1
perceptual distances judged by the subjects. The results are and F2.
displayed in Figure 3, using a different marker for each
multiphonic class: triangles for the Bichords, stars for (1) The spectral centroid (SC) (Beauchamp, 1982;
Multiharmonics, circles for Tremolos and crosses for Schubert & Wolfe, 2006) is a magnitude related to the
Complex Multiphonics. The rst thing to note is that the brightness of a sound and it is often used as a key parame-
grouping of the classes is well preserved. This could indicate ter for timbre classication. It was computed as the
that the subjects judged more similar the tones that belonged normalized mean of the power spectrum SC = n fn Pn/n
to the same class. At the same time, the spatial arrangement Pn, where fn is the frequency of the signal and Pn its power
of the points shows possible interrelations between classes. spectrum. (2) The modulation frequency (MF) is a relevant
We can see, for example, that the Bichords class lies in attribute since it corresponds, if slow enough, to the beating
between the Multiharmonics and the Complex class, and that frequency and, in a more general perspective, to the size of
this group is aligned horizontally with the Tremolos group. the internal grain of the sound. This MF was measured as
the frequency distance between side-band components,
computing the autocorrelation of the power spectrum and
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4. Exploring the multiphonics spectra nding the highest peak. (3) The frequencies F1 and F2
were selected to correspond as much as possible to the
One major drawback of the results provided by the MDS notes perceived in the multiphonic. The F1 was selected by
analysis of the previous section is the lack of an acoustical taking the lowest frequency from a set of the highest
interpretation. In this section we will explore the spectral spectral peaks. Then, the F2 was selected by taking the
characteristics that are more related to the parameters next peak in height and frequency that was neither a
involved in the multiphonic production. In this way we harmonic of F1 nor a side-band of F1. (4) The musical
would be able to give a more complete description of the interval was computed through: MI = 12log2(F2/F1).
proposed classication and establish possible correspon- Figure 4 shows the summary of these magnitudes for
dences with the perceptual space. the whole set of 118 multiphonics, and for the four classes
Our choice of spectral characteristics is not mean to be proposed. The box plots show that some parameters can be
general (or universal) nor exhaustive. We choose the used to segregate some classes. For example the MI is well
features that could be related to the multiphonic production suited to discriminate the Bichords, as the MF does for the
through a simplied model based on FM tones. Tremolos.
From the multiphonic spectra displayed in Figure 1, it In order to determine which parameters discriminate
could be noted that the organization of the frequency between which classes we perform a one-way ANOVA test
components is very similar to that found in frequency with a post hoc Tukey HSD multi-comparison procedure.
modulated (FM) synthetic tones. In fact, by means of FM The null hypothesis was rejected for all parameters with a
synthesis it is possible to obtain inharmonic tones and highly signicant (p < 0.01) value for SC, MF and MI. For
modulations very similar to those performed by saxophone SC the post hoc test showed that Complex Multiphonics
players. This frequency organization shows clusters of and Tremolos are signicantly different from each other
partials bearing some principal frequencies and side-bands and form the other two classes. However Bichords and
(that are the product of the nonlinear inter-modulation). Multiharmonics cannot be segregated using this parameter.
Regarding the playing techniques, the principal frequency Bichords are signicantly different from the other three
components are related to the bore-vocal tract resonances classes along the MI parameter. For the MF parameter the
and its harmonics; and therefore controlled by the ngering only class that displays signicant differences with the
and the vocal tract conguration. In turn, the intensity of others is the Tremolo.
the side-bands or the inter-modulations depth is related to In the following gures, we display the set of multiph-
the blowing pressure. Concerning the perception of timbre, onics in two-dimensional plots using the different features
the principal frequencies could be associated with the that we selected as coordinates. Bichords, Complex Mul-
perceived pitches and musical intervals, while the side- tiphonics, Multiharmonics and Tremolos are represented by
bands organization could contribute both to the brightness triangles, crosses, stars and circles respectively. From these
of the sound and the temporal modulations (beating two-dimensional representations we can evaluate possible
frequency or the size of the internal grain). acoustical correlates of the sensory dimensions of Figure 3.
We therefore selected four spectral features motivated In Figure 5 we display SC versus MI. We can observe
by the simplied FM modelling, timbric attributes and the that within this representation some of the classes proposed
playing techniques described before: are segregated. This is an expected result for the Bichords
8 Pablo E. Riera et al.
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Fig. 4. Boxplots of the selected spectral multiphonic features for each class (Bi=Bichord, Cm=Complex multiphonics, Mh=Multiharmonics,
Tr=Tremolos) and the whole set (All). A) spectral centroid (SC); B) Modulation Frequency MF; C) First principal frequency F1; D) Second
principal frequency F2; E) Musical interval MI between F1 and F2.
Fig. 5. Spectral centroid (SC) versus Musical Interval (MI). This Fig. 6. Modulation Frequency versus Musical Interval. This
representation shows that these features serve to segregate the representation shows that there is a strong ordering related to the
Bichords class, as there are mainly major or minor thirds. SC intermodulation between the frequencies in the multiphonic.
segregates Complex, Multiharmonics and Tremolos.
(triangles), since they were dened with the musical using the expression MF = mF1 + nF2 (with F1 constant,
interval in mind. Also note that most of Tremolos (circles) F2 variable and n and m small integers, for example the
show a MI of a mistuned octave, in accordance with their leftmost line in this gure correspond to the MF = F2F1
slow-beating characteristic. curve, for a representative F1 of 337 Hz and F2 starting at
In Figure 6 we show a plot of MF versus MI, where an F1).
organization related to the interaction between MF and MI In Figure 7 we show the results for SC versus MF. The
can be clearly seen. For example, if a multiphonic is made main result of this representation is that the four classes are
from a mistuned octave it will show slow beats, and if this spatially segregated, occupying different locations. The SC
mistuning is enlarged the beat frequency will rise up, is the feature that is more discriminatory between classes,
giving origin to V patterns. These patterns were adjusted and is related to the intensity of the blowing and to the
Saxophone multiphonics comparative study 9
classication, with the assumption of Gaussian distributed ties are represented in the same way as a piano chord,
samples (MATLAB classify function). denoting the intervallic structure of the multiphonic, the
This partition of the SCG-MF space could be useful to dynamics and the ngering for its production (Kientzy,
gain some insight on the organization of the multiphonic 1982; Londeix, 1989). In a few cases some additional
tones and the allowed transitions between them. In fact, it information is added, as comments about the position of
implies the existence of intermediate regions between certain the embouchure (Weiss & Netti, 2010) or even the carrier-
classes, and the possibility of producing hybrids modulator ratios (Gottfried, 2008).
multiphonics, sharing some characteristics from the two When dealing with morphings between multiphonics it
neighbouring classes. Another remarkable consequence that is useful to extend the notation with some additional
arises from this partition is that some dynamical transitions complements. For example in Figure 9, we present a possi-
between multiphonics are more easily achieved than others. ble musical notation for the dark dotted line trajectory of
For example, increasing the brightness of a Multiharmonic gure 8, which represents a morphing between a Multihar-
tone with high MF will lead to a transition to a Complex monic and a Tremolo (number 14 in Figure 2). We add a
Multiphonic. This could be produced without changing the solid crescendo indication between the stages, in an attempt
ngering but increasing the blow strength from pp to ff with to address not only the increment in the dynamic but also
a little relaxing of the embouchure pressure. As another the change in the quality of surface and the consonance. In
example, a morphing between a Multiharmonic and a terms of the axis of Figure 8, we may read it as increasing
Tremolo would require slowing the modulation as the bright- the distortion and the brightness as we move up, and slow-
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ness is increased. In this case, it is necessary to slightly lower ing the modulation beats as we move to the left. This can
the tune of the low note and increase the velocity of the be done without changing the ngering.
blowing. These dynamical transitions are of utmost impor- The second example (Figure 10) corresponds to a
tance from the musical point of view, since each multiphonic morphing between a Multiharmonic and a Complex
is considered as a dynamical structure capable of going Multiphonic (number 10 and 5 respectively from Figure 2).
through different sound stages, morphing its timbre and its We start again from the lower region of Figure 8 but now
intervallic structure with a xed ngering. These multiphon- we move up and right. This makes the modulation
ic transitions can be produced by a saxophone player who frequency higher, provoking a more compact sonority, and
has enough experience with multiphonics. also raises the SC, making the sound harsher.
In order to illustrate the transitions between multiphonic It is worth noting that the representation of Figure 8 is
classes, we present two morphing trajectories as examples. a projection of a higher dimensional timbric space. For
These trajectories are indicated by the dotted lines in example, since we are not including the MI dimension, the
Figure 8 and musically notated in Figures 9 and 10. morphing between a Multiharmonic and a Complex
(Recordings of these examples are available on http:// Multiphonic move across a region of SC-MF space that is
www.lapso.org/multiphonics.html). timbrically similar to that of the Bichords, even when there
A remark on the musical notation of the saxophone are no intervals of thirds in this transition. A more precise
multiphonic is in order at this point. Usually these sonori- description of these trajectories in principle could be made
Fig. 9. Musical notation corresponding to a morphing between Multiharmonics and Tremolos. (Black dotted line in Figure 8.)
Fig. 10. Musical notation corresponding to a morphing between Multiharmonics and Complex Multiphonics (grey dotted line in Figure 8).
Saxophone multiphonics comparative study 11
Schaeffer, P. (1966). Trait ds Objects Musicaux. Paris: Smalley, D. (1986). Spectro-morphology and structuring
Nouvelle Edition. processes. In S. Emmerson (Ed.), The language of
Schubert, E., & Wolfe, J. (2006). Does timbral brightness scale electroacoustic music (pp. 6193). London: Macmillan.
with frequency and spectral centroid? Acta acustica united Weiss, M., & Netti, G. (2010). The techniques of saxophone
with Acustica, 92, 820825. playing. Basel: Brenreiter Kassel.
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