2

Steady-State Analysis of Single

Phase A.C. Circuit

2.1 ALTERNATING QUANTITY

An alternating quantity is that which acts in alternate directions and whose
magnitude undergoes a definite cycle of changes in definite intervals of time.
When a simple loop revolves in a magnetic field, an alternating emf is induced
in the loop. If the loop revolves with an uniform angular velocity the induced
alternating emf is sinusoidal in nature. The alternating quantity may have
various other wave forms like triangular, semicircular, stepped, distorted, etc.
as shown in Fig. 2.1(a), (b), (c) and (d), respectively. The graph repeats after
regular intervals. One complete set of positive and negative values of an
alternating quantity is called a cycle. The important alternating quantities, f (t)
that will be discussed in the chapter are current and voltage.

2.2 ALTERNATING VOLTAGE

Alternating voltage may be generated by
(A) By rotating a coil in a stationary magnetic field.
(B) By rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil.
The value of the voltage generated in each case depends on:
(i) The number of turns in the coils.
(ii) The strength of the field.
(iii) The speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates.
(a) Maximum flux links with the coil when its plane is in vertical
position (perpendicular) to the direction of flux between the poles.
(b) When the plane of a coil is horizontal no flux links with the coil.
2.4 

2.4 ADVANTAGES OF SINE WAVE

1. Any periodic non-sinusoidal wave can be expressed as the sum of a
number of sine wave of different frequencies.
2. Sine wave can be expressed in a simple mathematical form.
3. The resultant of two or more quantities varying sinusoidally at the same
frequency is another sinusoidal quantity of same frequency.
4. Rate of change of any sinusoidal quantity is also sinusoidal.

2.5 CYCLE
A cycle may be defined as one complete set of positive and negative values of
an alternating quantity repeating at equal intervals. Each complete cycle is
spread over 360 electrical as shown in Fig. 2.5.

rad
 2 3 4
0 180 360 540 720
1- Cycle degree

Fig. 2.5

2.6 PERIODIC TIME

The time taken by an alternating quantity in seconds to trace one complete
cycle is called periodic time or time-period. It is usually denoted by symbol T.

2.7 FREQUENCY
The number of cycles per second is called frequency and is denoted by
symbol f.
1
Thus, f=
T
1
or, T=
f
If the angular velocity w is expressed in radians per second, then
2
=
T
= 2 f
  
 2.5

2.8 PHASE DIFFERENCE

Let OP and OQ be the two vectors (more
preferred to be called phasors) representing Q

two alternating quantities of the same

frequency at any instant. The angle  between

them is called the phase angle. t P

The direction of rotation in counter clock-

wise direction is usually taken as positive. If O

OQ and OP represent voltage and current Fig. 2.6

vectors, then
e = OQ sin t
and, i = OP sin (t )
where,  is called the phase difference. In above phasor OQ is said to lead the
phasor OP.
The phase of an AC wave may be defined as its position with respect to a
reference axis or reference wave.
Phase angle as the angle of lead or lag with respect to reference axis or
with respect to another wave.

e A B

i  Phase shift =  degrees

 A is ahead of B because
 A attains its maxima or minima
O before B
t
/2  A leads B
 B lags A


Fig. 2.7

A is  degree ahead of B.

A attains its maxima  degrees before B or T second or
2

 
 = t t   sec before B.
 

  t

  
t    2  T sec

2.6 

2.9 PHASOR NOTATION

Sinusoidal quantities can be represented by a function.
f(t) = Vme jt = Vm e j = Vm  

Vm 
B C


O X
A

Fig. 2.8

This function has constant magnitude Vm and as t moves through 0 ot 2

radians.
OA = Vm cos , OB = Vm sin 
OB
OC = (OA) + j(OB),  = tan1
OA
by Euler theorem e j = cos  + j sin 
V  Vm   Vm (cos   j sin )
In rectangular form
OC = OA + j OB
|OC| = x + j y where  = tan1 y/x

|OC| = x2  y 2
V1 = Vm1 1 , V2 = Vm2  2
Then V1V2 = Vm1Vm2 1   2 = Vm[cos (1 + 2) + j sin (1 + 2)]

Vm1
V1/V2 = 1   2 = Vm [cos (1 2) + j sin (1 2)]
Vm2

V1 + V2 = Vm1 1 + Vm2  2

= Vm1 (cos 1 + j sin 1) + Vm2 (cos 2 + j sin 2)

V1  V2  Vm1 cos 1  Vm2 cos  2  j Vm1 sin 1  Vm2 sin  2

   
  
 2.7

Phasor diagram:
Let V1 = Vm1 sin  = Vm1 O  = t

V2 = Vm2 sin (t + ) = Vm2 (means V2 leads, V1 by angle )

V2


V1

Fig. 2.9

2.10 MEASUREMENTS OF AC MAGNITUDE

So far we know that AC voltage alternates in polarity and AC current alternates
in direction. We also know that AC can alternate in a variety of different ways,
and by tracing the alternation over time we can plot it as a waveform. We can
measure the rate of alternation by measuring the time it takes for a wave to
evolve before it repeats itself (the period), and express this as cycles per unit
time, of frequency. In music, frequency is the same as pitch, which is the
essential property distinguishing one note from another.
However, we encounter a measurement problem if we try to express how
large or small an AC quantity is. With DC, where quantities of voltage and
current are generally stable, we have little trouble expressing how much
voltage or current we have in any part of a circuit. But how do you grant a
single measurement of magnitude to something that is constantly changing?
One way to express the intensity, or magnitude (also called the amplitude),
of an AC quantity is to measure its peak height on a waveform graph. This is
known as the peak or crest value of an AC waveform:

Fig. 2.10

Another way is to measure the total height between opposite peaks. This is
known as the peak-to-peak (P-P) value of an AC waveform.
2.8 

Unfortunately, either one of these expressions of waveform amplitude can

be misleading when comparing two different types of waves. For example, a
square wave peaking at 10 volts is obviously a greater amount of voltage for a
greater amount of time than a triangle wave peaking at 10 volts. The effects of
these two AC voltages powering a load would be quite different.

Fig. 2.11

Fig. 2.12

One way of expressing the amplitude of different wave-shapes in a more

equivalent fashion is to mathematically average the values of all the points on
the graph of a waveform
to a single, aggregate + + + +
+ +
number. This amplitude + +
+ +
measure is known as the + +
average value of the + +

waveform. If we average

all the points on the


waveform algebraically


(that is, to consider their
True average value of all points
sign, either positive or (considering their signs) is zero.
negative), the average Fig. 2.13
  
 2.9

value for most waveforms is technically zero, because all the positive points
cancel all the negative points over a full cycle.
This, of course, will be true for any waveform having equal-area portions
above and below the zero line of a plot. However, as a practical measure of a
waveforms aggregate value, average is usually defined as the mathematical
mean of all the points absolute values over a cycle. In other words, we
calculate the practical average value of the waveform by considering all points
on the wave as positive quantities as if the waveform looked like this:

Fig. 2.14

Polarity-insensitive mechanical meter movements (meters designed to

respond equally to the positive and negative half-cycles of an alternating
voltage or current) register in proportion to the waveforms (practical) average
value, because the inertia of the pointer against the tension of the spring
naturally averages the force produced by the varying voltage/current values
over time. Conversely polarity-sensitive meter movements vibrate uselessly if
exposed to AC voltage or current, their needles oscillating rapidly about the
zero mark, indicating the true (algebraic) average value of zero for a
symmetrical waveform. When the average value of a waveform is referenced
in this text, it will be assumed that the practical definition of average is
intended unless otherwise specified.
Another method of deriving an aggregate value for waveform amplitude is
based on the waveforms ability to do useful work when applied to a load
resistance. Unfortunately, an AC measurement based on work performed by a
waveform is not the same as that waveforms average value, because the power
dissipated by a given load (work performed per unit time) is not directly
proportional to the magnitude of either the voltage or current impressed upon
it. Rather, power is proportional to the square of the voltage or current applied
to a resistance (P = E2/R, and P = I2R). Although the mathematics of such an
amplitude measurement might not be straightforward, the utility of it, is.
Current would produce the same amount of heat energy dissipation
through an equal resistance:
2.10 

Fig. 2.15

In the two circuits above, we have the same amount of load resistance
(2 ) dissipating the same amount of power in the form of heat (50 watts), one
powered by AC and the other by DC. Because the AC voltage source pictured
above is equivalent (in terms of power delivered to a load) to a 10 volt DC
battery, we would call this a 10 volt AC source. More specifically, we would
denote its voltage value as being 10 volts RMS. The qualifier RMS stands
for Root Mean Square, the algorithm used to obtain the DC equivalent value
from point on a graph (essentially, the procedure consists of squaring all the
positive and negative points on a waveform graph, averaging those squared
values, then taking the square root of the average to obtain the final answer).
Sometimes the alternative terms equivalent or DC equivalent are used instead
of RMS, but the quantity and principle are both the same.
RMS amplitude measurement is the best way to relate AC quantities to DC
quantities, or other AC quantities of differing waveform shapes, when dealing
with measurements of electric power. For other considerations, peak or peak-
to-peak measurements may be the best to employ. For instance, when
determining the proper size of wire (ampacity) to conduct electric power from
a source to a load, RMS current measurement is the best to use, because the
principal concern with current is overheating of the wire, which is a function of
power dissipation caused by current through the resistance of the wire.
However, when rating insulators for service in high-voltage AC applications,
peak voltage measurements are the most appropriate, because the principal
concern here is insulator flashover caused by brief spikes of voltage,
irrespective of time.
Peak and peak-to-peak measurements are best performed with an
oscilloscope, which can capture the crests of the waveform with a high degree
of accuracy due to the fast action of the cathode-ray-tube in response to
  
 2.11

changes in voltage. For RMS measurements, analog meter movements (D

Arsonval, Weston, iron vane, electrodynamometer) will work so long as they
have been calibrated in RMS figures. Because the mechanical inertia and
dampening effects of an electromechanical meter movement makes the
deflection of the needle naturally proportional to the average value of the AC,
not the true RMS value, analog meters must be specifically calibrated (or mis-
calibrated depending on how you look at it) to indicate voltage or current in
RMS units. The accuracy of this calibration depends on an assumed
waveshape, usually a sine wave.
Electronic meters specifically designed for RMS measurement are best for
the task. Some instrument manufacturers have designed ingenious methods for
determining the RMS value of any waveform. One such manufacturer
produces True-RMS meters with a tiny resistive heating element powered by
a voltage proportional to that being measured. The heating effect of that
resistance element is measured thermally to give a true RMS value with no
mathematical calculations whatsoever, just the laws of physics in action in
fulfilment of the definition of RMS. The accuracy of this type of RMS
measurement is independent of waveshape.
For pure waveforms, simple conversion coefficients exist for equating
peak, peak-to-peak, average (practical, not algebraic), and RMS measurements
to one another:

RMS = 0.707 (Peak)

AVG = 0.637 (Peak) Sinusoidal wave
P-P = 2 (Peak)

RMS = Peak
AVG = Peak Square wave
P-P = 2 (Peak)

RMS = 0.577 (Peak)

AVG = 0.5 (Peak) Triangular wave
P-P = 2 (Peak)

Fig. 2.16
2.14 

1/2
1 T 2 
Irms =  i dt 

 T 0 

For a sinusoidal wave

i = Im sin t

1/2
1 T 2 
Irms =  (i) dt 

 T 0 

1/2
1 T 2 2 
=  I m sin t . d t 

 T 0 
1/2
 1 T 2 (1  cos 2t ) 
=  Im
 dt
 T 0 2 

T 1/2
 I2  t sin 2t  
=  m    
T 2 4  0 

1/2
I2 T   2
=  m   0  sin 2t  sin 2.2 ft  sin 2. t
T 2   T
when t = T {sin 2t = sin 4 = 0

Im
=
2

Ratio of maximum value to the RMS value is known as crest or peak

Maximum Value
factor or amplitude factor. Peak factor =
RMS value

Ratio of effective value to average value is known as form factor

RMS value
form factor =
Average value
  
 2.15

Fig. 2.17

2.11.2 Graphic Method

In Fig. 2.18(a) a positive half cycle of an unsymmetrical alternating current is
T
shown. Divide the period T into n equal intervals of time seconds. Let the
n
instantaneous middle values of current in the intervals be i1, i2, i3, ..., in. If R be
the resistance of the circuit through which varying current is passed, then:
Heat produced in:
T
1st interval = i12 R watts
n

i5
i4
l
i3
i2
i1
(a)
O t T
T
n
M

D
2
i5

2
i4
l2 N
2
i3
2
2 i2
i1
O (b)
T t T
n
T

Fig. 2.18
2.18 

Consider small interval d as shown in Fig. 2.19. If i is the average value

of current in the interval, then area of elementary strip = id.
Total area of half cycle


=  i d
Hence, the average value of current is given by two ways.

i t

O  
d
t

Fig. 2.19

area of half cycle

(i) Iav =
interval


id
= 0



I m sin  d 
0
=

Im
=  cos  0




2I m
=

= 0.637 Im
2I m
Similarly, for alternating sine voltage Eav = .

  
 2.19

T /2
1
(ii) Iav =  idt
T 0

T /2
1
=  Im sin(wt).d t
T /2 0

T /2
I
= m  sin wtdt
T /2 0

T /2
I   cos wt 
= m 
T /2  w 0

 I m .2  wT 
= cos  cos 0 
Tw   2 
2
w = 2f =
T
 2I m
= [cos  cos 0]
2

2I m
I av   0.637 I m


2.12.2 Graphical Method

For an unsymmetrical wave as shown in Fig. 2.19(a), area of curve
T
= (i1 + i2 + i3 + ... + in).
n

T
(i1  i2  i3  ...  in ).
 Iav = n
T

(i1  i2  i3  ...  in )
=
n

2.13 FORM FACTOR

The form factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value to the average
value of an alternating quantity.
  
 2.21

1 2
= Vm
4
1
Vrms = Vm
2
Vrms 0.5Vm
From factor = = = 1.572
Vav 0.318Vm

Example 2: Find the average and effective values of the saw tooth wave
form shown in Fig. 2.21 below.
Solution: From Fig. 2.21 below, the period is T.

Vm

0 T 2T 3T t

Fig. 2.21

T
1 Vm
Vav =
T0 T 
t dt

T
1 Vm
=
T T 
0
t dt

Vm T 2 Vm
= 
T2 2 2

T
1 2
Effective values Vrms = T0 
v dt

T 2
1 Vm
=
T  
0
T

t dt

Vm
=
3
2.22 

Example 3: Find the average and rms value of the full wave rectified sine
wave shown in Fig. 2.22
v

5V

0  2 3 t

Fig. 2.22


1
Solution: Average value Vav =
 
0
5 sin t d (t)

= 3.185


1
Effective value or rms value =
0 
(5 sin t ) 2 d (t )

25
= = 3.54
2
Example 4: The full wave rectified sine wave shown in Fig. 2.23 has a delay
angle of 60. Calculate Vav and Vrms.
v

10 V

0 60  2 3
t

Fig. 2.23

1
Solution: Average value Vav =
 
0
10 sin (t) d (t)


1
= 
 60
10 sin t d (t)
  
 2.23

10
Vav = ( cos t ) 60

= 4.78


1


Effective value Vrms = 

 60
(10 sin t ) 2 d (t )

100  1  cos 2t 



= 
 60  2  d (t )

= 6.33

2.15 OPERATOR j
An alternating voltage or current is a phasor quantity, but since the
instantaneous values are changing continuously, it must be represented
by a rotating vector phasor.
A phasor is a vector rotating at a constant angular velocity.
j is defined as an operator which turns a phasor by 90 counter-clock-
wise (CCW) without changing the magnitude of phasor
j = 1 90, jr = r 90

2.16 CIRCUIT WITH PURE RESISTANCE ONLY

A pure resistance is that in which there is ohmic voltage drop only. Consider a
circuit having a pure resistance R as shown is Fig. 2.24 below.
Let the instantaneous value of the alternating voltage applied be,
e = Em sin t
The instantaneous value of current,
e Em
i=  sin t
R R
R()
e.i
i
e
e i
(a)

(b)
I E = IR
(c)
Fig. 2.24
  
 2.25

2.17 CIRCUIT WITH PURE INDUCTANCE ONLY

A pure inductive circuit possesses only inductance and no resistance or
capacitance as shown in Fig. 2.25. When an alternating voltage is applied to it,
a back emf of self inductance is induced in it. As there is no ohmic resistance
drop, the applied voltage has to oppose the self induced emf only. So the
applied voltage is equal and opposite to the back emf at all instants.
Let the applied voltage
e = Em sin t
E
(1) 90

instantaneous value of self induced emf is e I= E

wL

di
e = L = e L
dt i

1
di = e dt e = Em sin wt
L
integrating both side, we get Fig. 2.25

1
 di = L  E m sin t.dt

Em
i= ( cos t)
L

Em   integration constant will

i= sin  t   
L  2 cancel out from both side

   E
i = Im sin  t   (2)  I m  m
 2  L
observing (1) and (2) we find that the current lags the applied voltage by 90 or

radian.
2

Em
0
E 2
 impedance Z= =
I Em 

2 2

Em  
Z=  = L 
Im 2 2
2.26 

The quantity L is called inductive reactance and is usually devoted by

symbol XL and units is ohm.
XL = L ohms
where, L is in henry and  is in rad/sec.
Wave diagram and Phasor diagram for Pure inductance

E
Em sin wt /2
e
i = Im sin (wt /2)
i
/2 2
o 
/2
I

Fig. 2.26

Average Power
2
1
P=
2  ei d (wt )
0

2
1  
= E m sin wt . I m sin  wt   d ( wt )
2 0
 2

2
1
=  E m I m sin wt .cos wt . d ( wt )
2 0

2
Vm I m sin 2 wt
=  . d ( wt )
2  0
2
=0
This shows power consumed in purely inductive circuit is zero.
Hence, the average power consumption in an inductive circuit is zero and
is periodic with twice the supply frequency as expressed by equation (1). The
stored energy in the inductive circuit in one quarter of a cycle is released in the
next quarter.
2.28 

  Em  
= C Em sin   t   = .sin  t  
 2 1 C  2

Comparing equations, we see that the current leads the voltage vector by
90 as shown in Fig. 2.28.
Maximum value of current is given by,

Em
Im =
1 C

The quantity 1/C is called inductive capacitance and is usually denoted

by Xc. Its unit is ohm.

1
 Xc = ohms
C
where, C = Capacity in farads
 = angular velocity in rad/sec

E Em  0 2
Impedance Z= 
I I m  90 2

Em
Z=  90
Im
Em 1
Since = XC =
Im C

 Z = XC  90
= j XC 
Average Power
instantaneous power P = vi
 
P = Vm sin t.Im sin  t  
 2
= Vm Im sin t.cos t
Vm I m
= sin 2t (1)
2
2
1
Pav =
2  P d (t )
0
  
 2.29

2
1 Vm I m
=  sin 2t . d (t )
2 0
2
=0
This shows that the power consumed in purely capacitive circuit is zero.
A capacitor receives energy during the first quarter cycle of voltage and
returns the same during the next quarter cycle.

2.19 CIRCUIT WITH RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE IN SERIES

Consider circuit of Fig. 2.29.
Let R = Resistance in ohms in the circuit.
L = Inductance in henries
XL = Inductive reactance
= L
E = Effective value of applied emf
I = Effective value of current in circuit.
Voltage drop across resistance,
ER = R.I in phase with current vector as shown in vector diagram of
Fig. 2.30.
Voltage across reactance,
EL = I.L = IXL, 90 ahead of vector I

E
90

I = E/R E
I=
ER L
R L

I ER EL

e = Em sin wt

Fig. 2.29 Fig. 2.30

Z = R + j XL
XL
= R 2  X L2  tan 1
R
XL
here  = tan1
R
2.30 

and | Z| = R 2  X L2
Z = | Z | 
E E 
I= 
Z | Z | 

E
I  
Z

E
instantaneous value of current is, i = Im sin (t ), where Im =
Z
XL
hence in R-L circuit current lags the applied voltage by angle  = tan1
R
The applied voltage is therefore given by,
E

 E= Er2  EL2
E
R =I EL = j XL
= ( IR) 2  ( IX L ) 2 R

 E = I R 2  X L2 = IZ I

XL L
 = tan1 = tan1
R R

E
or, I=
R 2  X L2

The quantity R 2  X L2 is called impedance.

Since, the power is consumed by the resistance only, so the power in the
circuit is given by,
P = I 2 R = I.IR
E
= . IR
R  X L2
2

R
or, P = E.I
R  X L2
2

If  is the angle between E and I, then

ER IR R
cos  =  =
E 2 2
I R  XL Z
  
 2.31

 P = E.I cos 
Cos is called the power factor of the circuit. Obviously the power factor
is lagging in an inductive circuit. So instantaneous current across R-L is
i = Im sin (t ).

2.20 CIRCUIT WITH RESISTANCE AND

CAPACITANCE IN SERIES
Consider circuit of Fig. 2.31.
Voltage drop across resistance,
ER = IR in phase with I as shown in vector diagram of a Fig. 2.32.
1
EC = I.
= I XC, 90 lagging
C
with respect to the current vector.

E
I=
C
ER= IR
90 I
 90
I = E/R E
R C

I ER EL

EC = I XC
E

Fig. 2.31 Fig. 2.32

The applied voltage is, therefore, given by,

E= ER2  EC2

= I R 2  X C2 = IZ
Thus, ohms law is applicable to AC circuit also after replacing the term
resistance by impedance.
Power = EI cos 

R R
Cos  =  ...(2.53)
2
R  X C2 Z
Z = R j XC
2.32 

  XC 
Z= R 2  X C2 tan 1 
 R 
  XC 
Z = |Z|   here   tan 1 
 R 
E E
I= =
Z |Z |   

E
I=  = Im  
Z
instantaneuous value of current throw R-C is
E
i = Im sin (t + ) where Im =
Z
  XC 
hence current leads the voltages by aug  = tan1  .
 R 

2.21 SERIES R-L-C CIRCUIT

EL I
I
I EC
R L C

ER EL EC

Fig. 2.33

Problems on alternating current circuits can be attempted easily by using

j-notation.
 Voltage across inductance = + jI XL = EL
Voltage across capacitance = jI XC = EC
Net voltage across them = + jI (XL XC) = j (EL EC)
Resistance drop = IR = ER.
 Applied voltage in j-notation is represented by,
E = IR + jI(XL XC)
  
 2.33

or, E = I R 2  ( X L  X C )2
Impedance in j-notation may be written as,
Z = R + j(XL XC)

or, Z= R2  ( X L  X C )2

E Em
I= E= 0
Z 2
Z = R + j (XL XC)

Z= R 2  ( X L  X C )2   | Z | 

X L  XC
where  = tan1
R
 if XL > XC then  is +ve
if XL < XC then  is ve

Em
I= 0 | Z |  
2
hence if XL > XC then current lags the applied volt.
I = I   

EL

EL EC

90 E


90

EC ER
I = IR = IL = IC
Phasor diagram of series RLC Circuit
2.34 

R-L-C Ckt taking E as a refrence phasor when XL > XC

EL

EL EC E


I
ER

EC
Phasor diagram of a series R-L-C Ckt taking current I as a refrence phasor.

2.22 POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

When the current is out of phase with the voltage the power indicated by
the product of the applied voltage and the total current gives only what
is known as apparent power and measured in volt-ampere.
Power that is returned to the source by the reactive components in the
circuit is called reactive power and is measured in VAR.
Power that actually used in the circuit (dissipated in resistance) is true
or active power and is measured in watts or kW.

2.22.1 Active and Reactive Power and Apparent Power

Form Fig. given below
Impedance Z = R jX = |Z|  = |Z| cos  + j |Z| sin 

X
R I Sin 

L C
I
 90
V
E
I Cos 
(a) (b)
  
 2.35

Magnitude or amplitude of impedance,

R  | Z | cos 
R2  X 2

|Z| =
X  | Z | sin 
Power factor of the circuit,
R
cos  = .
Z
E
Current in the circuit I= .
Z
This current has two components I cos  and I sin . The component
I cos  is called in phase or wattfull component and I sin  is perpendicular to
E and is called wattless component, as shown in Fig. 2.30(b). Then
Active (Real) Power = Voltage  Current  cos  watts
Since, the angle between the voltage and the wattless component of current
is 90, hence the power absorbed by this component is zero. The power is only
absorbed by the wattful component.
The total power EI in volt amperes supplied to a circuit consists of two
components:
(a) Active power = EI cos  watts
(b) Reactive power = EI sin  volt amperes reactive or simply VAR.
The above components can be shown in vector from in Fig. 2.34.

B B

VA
KVAR

VAR KVA
Z
X
 

R O Watts A O kW A
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.34

From Fig. 2.31(b)

OA = Active power = EI cos  presented by watts
AB = Reactive power = EI sin  expressed by VAR
OB = Total power = EI expressed by VA

Obviously VA = Watts 2 + VAR 2 ...(2.4)

  
 2.37

a2 b2
cos 2 = , sin 2 =
a22  b22 a22  b22

Active power:

= OA.OB cos AOB = a12  b12  a22  b22 . cos (2 1)

= a12  b12  a22  b22 [cos 2.cos 1 + sin 2.sin 1]

 a2
 a1 b2 b1 
= a12 + b12 a22  b22 

   
2 2 2 2

 a2  b2 a1  b1 a22  b22 2 2
a1  b1 

= a1a2 + b1b2
Reactive power:

= OA.OB sin AOB = a12  b12  a22  b22 .sin (2 1)

= a12  b12  a22  b22 [sin 2.cos 1 cos 2.sin 1]


 b2 a1 a2 b1 

= a12  b12  a22  b22     
2 2 2 2

 a2  b2 a1  b1 a22  b22 2 2
a1  b1 

= a1b2 a1b2
Note: V.I. = (a1 + jb1) (a2 + jb2)
= (a1a2 b1b1) + j(a2b1 + a1b2)
If we write V  Conjugate of I
= (a1 + jb1) (a2 jb2) = (a1a2 + b1b2) + j (a1b2 b1a2)
= a1a2 + b1b2 + j (a1b2 b1a2)
(Active power) (Reactive power)
Note 1: Hence, the active and reactive powers would be given by the real and
j ports of the vector product of voltage with the conjugate of the current vector.
Note 2: Active power can also be expressed by the sum of the algebraic
product of the real parts of the current and the voltage and the algebraic
product of the j parts of the current and voltage.
Alternate approach
Let E and I are the phasors given by

E = E 1
2.38 

+ sign for leading current

and I = I  2 
 sign for lagging current
there complex power is given by S
if I  I  2

S= E  I*  *
 I  I   2

= E  1 . I   2
= EI 1   2
S = EI cos (1  2) + j EI sin (1  2)
S  P  jQ
if V is the refrence phasor 1 = 0
S = EI cos 2 + j EI sin (  2)
S = EI cos 2  j EI sin 2

  ve for leading P.f load

 S  P  jQ

S  P  jQ 
+ve for lagging P.f load
 S  P  jQ


P = active power
Q = reactive power

2.24 POWER FACTOR

The power factor of an alternating-current device or circuit or electric power
system is defined as the ratio of real or true power to the apparent power (VA)
and is between 0 to 1.
Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular
time, and apparent power is the product of current and voltage of a system.
Reactive power is the power that magnetic equipment (transformer, motor and
relays) needs to produce the magnetizing flux.
In a single-phase circuit the power factor is also a measure of the phase
angle  between the phase voltage (Vph) and phase current (Iph)
P real power V ph I ph cos 
Power factor =  
S apparent power V ph I ph

Power factor  cos 

  
 2.39

Power factor is said to be lagging if the current lags behind voltage and
leading if the current leads the voltage.
The significance of power factor lies in the fact that utility companies
supply customers with volt-amperes, but bill them for watts.

2.24.1 Problems of Low Power Factor

(1) Power factor below 1.0 requires a utility to generate more than the
minimum volt-amperes necessary to supply the real power (watts). This
increases generation and transmission cost.
(2) If the load power factor were as low as 0.7, the apparent power would be
 real power  1.4 times the real power used by the load. Line current in
 0.7 
the circuit would also be 1.4 times the current required at unity power
factor, so the losses in the circuit would be doubled (proportional to
square of current) result in all components of the system such as
generator, conductors, transformers and switchgear would be increased
in size (cost) to carry the extra current.
(3) Higher current produces larger voltage drop in cables and other
apparatus. This results in poor voltage regulation. In practice, power
factor is rarely corrected to unity because the cost of equipment
required to improve the power is usually greater than the saving on
tariff.

2.24.2 Causes of Low Power Factor

Many alternating-current machines (transformer, induction motors) absorb
reactive power to produce their magnetic fields, this decreases the power
factor. Reactive power (kVAr) required by inductive loads increases the
amount of apparent power (kVAr) in our, distribution system (Fig. 2.36). This
increase in reactive and apparent power results in a larger angle (measured
between kW and kVA). Recall that, as  increases, cosine (or power factor)
decreases.
KVAR

KVA
KVA
KVAR

 

KW KW
Fig. 2.36
So inductive loads (with large kVAr) results in low power factor.
  
 2.41

(3) The more increased voltage level in the electrical system and cooler, the
more efficient motors will be.
As mentioned above, uncorrected power factor causes power system
losses in the distribution system. As power losses increase, we may experience
voltage drops. Excessive voltage drops can cause overheating and premature
failure of motors and other inductive equipment.
So, by raising the power factor, these voltage drops can be minimized
along feeder cables and avoid related problems. The motor will run cooler and
more efficiently, with a slight increase in capacity and starting torque.

2.24.4 Power Factor Correction

Power factor correction is the process of adjusting the characteristics of
elective loads in order to improve power factor closer to unity. A high power
factor is generally desirable in a transmission system to reduce transmission
losses and improve voltage regulation at the load.
The presence of reactive power causes the real power to be less than
the apparent power, and so the electrical load has a power factor
less than unity.
The reactive power increases the current flowing between the
power source and the load, which increase the power losses though
transmission and distribution lines.
(1) Power factor correction can be done by supplying reactive power
of opposite sign adding capacitors or inductors which act to cancel
the inductive or capacitive effects of the load, respectively.
For example, the inductive effect of motor loads may be offset by
locally connected capacitors, sometimes when the power factor is
leading due to capacitive loading, inductors are used to correct the
power factor.
(2) Minimizing operation of idling or lightly loaded motors because
low power factor is caused by running induction motor lightly
loaded.
(3) Avoiding operation of equipment above its rated voltage.
(4) Replacing standard motors as they burn out with energy-efficient
motors.
(5) By using synchronous motor or synchronous condenser.
Power Factor Correction by Static Capacitor: Consider an inducting load
consisting of resistor R and an inductor L connected to an ac supply. Current I1
lags the voltage V by angle 1 so PF is cos 1.
2.42 

I1 V

R 1

L
I1

Let us now for improving the power factor connect a capacitor parallel to a
load. This capacitor takes a leading current from the supply. The capacitor
produces a reactive power in the opposite direction hence net reactive power
decreases.
IC
D

kW V
O
I2 I1 2 A
1 (kVAr)2
R (kV
A) I2
IC 2 B (kVAr)1
V V (kVA)1
IC
L
I1 C

from the phasor diagram

OA = I1 cos 1 = I2 cos 2
I1 cos 1
I2 =
cos  2
 2 > 1 so cos 2 > cos 1
Since cos 2 > cos 1, I2 < I1
Hence, current drawn from the supply is less than the load current I1.
Hence if power factor reduces then apparent power (VI) from the supply will
also reduce.
 I2 cos 2 = I1 cos 1
 VI2 cos 2 = VI1 cos 1 = Real power
The above relation shows that active or true power taken from supply has
not altered,
Example 4: A fluorescent lamp takes a current of 0.75 A when connected
across a 240 V, 50 Hz ac supply. The power consumed by the lamp is 80 W.
Calculate the values of the capacitance to be connected in parallel with the
lamp to improve the power factor to (a) unity (b) 0.95 lagging.
Solution: I1 = 0.75 A, V = 240 V, P = 80 W; VI1 cos 1 = P
P 80 1 1 1
I1 cos 1 =   ; cos 1 =  = 0.444
V 240 3 3I1 3  0.75
  
 2.43

 1 = 63.61, tan 1 = 2.0155

(a) cos 2 = 1, 2 = 0, tan 2 = 0
1
IC = I1 cos 1 (tan 1 tan 2) = (2.0155 0) = 0.6718 A
3
IC 0.6718
C=  = 8.91  106 F = 8.91 F
V 240  2   50
(b) cos 2 = 0.95, 2 = 18.19, tan 2 = 0.3287
1
IC = I1 cos 1 (tan 1 tan 2) = (2.0155 0.3287) = 0.5623 A
3
I 0.5623
C= C  = 7.457  10 6 F = 7.457 F
V 240  2   50
Example 5: A single-phase 50 Hz motor takes 20A at 0.75 power factor from
a 230 V sinusoidal supply. Calculate the kVAr and capacitance to be connected
in parallel to raise the power factor to 0.9 lagging. What is the new supply
current?
Solution: I1 = 20A, f = 50Hz
cos 1 = 0.75, 1 = 41.4, tan 1 = 0.8819
cos 2 = 0.90, 2 = 25.84, tan 2 = 0.4843
IC = I1 cos 1 (tan 1 tan 2) = 20  0.75 (0.8819 0.4843)
= 5.9637 A
IC 5.9637
C=  = 82. 53  10 6 F = 82.53 F
V 2  50  230
QC = VIC = 230  5.9637 = 1371.65 VAr = 1.3716 kVAr
Let I2 be the new supply current. Since the active component of supply
current remains changed.
I2 cos 2 = I1 cos 1
cos 1 0.75
I2 = I1  20  = 16.67 A
cos  2 0.9
Example 6: A factory draws an apparent power of 300 kVA at a power factor
of 65% (lagging). Calculate the kVAr capacity of the capacitor bank that must
be installed at the service entrance to bring the overall power factor to (a) unity
(b) 85 percent lagging.
Solution: (a) Apparent power absorbed by the plant is
S = 30 kVA
Active power absorbed by the plant is
P = S cos 
= 300  0.65 = 195 kW
  
 2.45

or, Y = Y1 + Y2 + Y2 + ... ...(2.63)

The impedance Z has two components resistance R and reactance X.
Admittance has also two components, the conductance g and suceptance b.
The impedance and admittance triangles are similar as shown in Fig. 2.37.

Z
X
y
b



R g
Impedance triangle Admittance triangle
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.37

From Fig. 2.37(b), conductance is given by,

g = Y cos 
1
Since, Y=
Z
R
and, cos  = from Fig. 2.33(a)
Z
1 R R
 g=  
Z Z Z2
R
= ...(2.64)
R  X2
2

Similarly, susceptance is given by,

b = Y sin 
1 X X
= .  2
Z Z Z
X
= ...(2.65)
R  X2
2

If y1, y2, y3, ... are equal to g1 + jb1, g2 + jb2, g3 + jb3 ... then,
g = g1 + g2 + g3 + ... mho ...(2.66)
2.46 

b = b1 + b2 + b3 + ... mho ...(2.67)

y = g + jb ...(2.68)

= g 2 + b2 ...(2.69)
Total current
E
I= = E.Y ...(2.70)
Z
Power factor angle,
b
 = tan1 ...(2.71)
g
Power factor will be lagging if b is + ve
Power factor will be leading if b is ve
Note: Inductive suceptance b is assigned + ve sign and capacitive
susceptance ve sign.

2.25.2 Vector-method
Consider a parallel circuit shown in Fig. 2.38(a)

I2

I1 R1 jXL
I
I2 R2 jXC

2
I 
1 E
E
(a) (b) I1

Fig. 2.38

Branch I.

Impedance Z1 = R12  X L 2 ...(2.72)

E
 I1 = ...(2.73)
Z1

XL
1 = tan1 lagging ...(2.74)
R1
  
 2.47

Take E as reference vector. Draw I1 lagging at an angle 1 with E as shown

in vector diagram of Fig. 2.34(b).
Branch II.
Impedance Z2 = R2 2  (  X c )2 = R2 2  X c 2 ...(2.75)

E
 I2 = ...(2.72)
Z2

Xc
2 = tan1 R leading ...(2.77)
2

Draw I2 leading E by 2. The resultant of I1 and I2 will give total current I
and the angle between E and I will give the p.f. angle.
Thus, a parallel circuit can be solved easily in this way.

2.25.3 j-Method
Consider a parallel CKT of Fig. 2.34, we can express the various impedances
in j form as under.
Z1 = R1 + j XL
Z2 = R2 j XC
1 1 1 1 1
=  = 
Z Z1 Z 2 R1  jxL R2  jxc

( R1  jxL ) ( R2  jxc )
Z=
( R1  R2 )  j ( X L  X c )

( R1  R2 X L X c ) j  ( X L R2  X c R1 ) ( R1  R2 )  ( X L  X c )
Z= 2 2

( R1  R2 )  ( X L  X c ) ( R1  R2 ) 2  ( X L  X c ) 2

Z = R + jX
E
 Total current drawn =
Z
R
Power factor cos  =
Z
Power factor be lagging if X is +ve
leading if X is ve
  
 2.49

voltage across capacitance

I V V
VC = = =
j c Z ( jc)   1 
( jc )  R  j  L  
  c  

V
| VC | = 1
2
  1  2
c  R 2   L   
  c  

dVC
Frequency fc at which VC is maximum can be obtained =0
d
1
1  1 R2  2
fc    
2  LC 2 L2 

LV
VL = I ( jL) = 1
2 2
 2 
1  
 R   L   


c

1
fL  1
frequency at which VL is max
2 2
 RC 2
2   LC  
 2 

 it has been found that at resonance the values of VL and VC may be higher
even then the supply voltage at resonance VLO = VCO .
Phasor diagram at resonance 
VLO

V = VRO
IO

VCO

Fig. 2.40
2.50 

2.28 BAND WIDTH

Band width of a series CKT is defined as the range of frequency for which the
power delivered to the resistance is greater than or equal to half the power
delivered at resonance.

Curve
I
I0 = Current at resonance

I0
Less R
I0
2
XC >> XL
High R
Capacitive
region
inductive
region
f
f1 f f2 frequency
(Resonance curve)

Fig. 2.41

Curve between current and frequency is known as resonance curve.

Band width = f2 f1
= 2 1
1 and 2 are the angular frequencies at which the power delivered is half the
power delivered at resonance. These are also known as half power frequencies.
V
 At resonance Z= =R
Io

V V
At half power point Z= = 2 =R 2
Io Io
2

Z= R2  X 2

R 2 = R2  X 2 so at this point X = R
 Lower half power frequency 1 XC > XL
XC XL = R
1
1 L = R
1 c
  
 2.51

R 1
21 +  =0
L 1 LC
1

R  R  2 1 2
1 =     
2L  2 L  LC 

1 R 1 
1     [(2   20 )] 2 1  , o  
2L LC 

ve frequency is meaningless so we take only +ve frequency.

At upper half frequency 1 XL XC = R
1
2 L =R
 2c

R 1
22 2 =0
L LC
1
2
R  R  1 2
2 =     
2 L  2 L  LC 

1
 2    (2   02 ) 2 take +ve value

R
Band width = 2 1 = 2 =
L
and, 1 2 = 20

2.29 QUALITY FACTOR AND SELECTIVITY

Ratio of resonant frequency to band width is an indication of the degree of
selectivity of the CKT and this is known as Quality factor, Q.
1 0  L 
=Q=  0

selectivity  2  1 R

1
2
1

= LC =
0
or, Q=

 0 ( 2  1 )  R  0 cR

0  
 L 
2.52 

  L
Higher values of Q  o  Resonance curve is very narrow and sharp ()
 R 
 Sharpness of the curve depends on the parameters R and L. By changing C,
the resonance can be made to occur at different values of frequencies.

 V
VL  R X L
1
(2 f0 )  LI 02 
 
o L 2    V  L
 Q= =  R
o
R 1 2
I R 
2 0 VL  QV
 Hence at series resonance voltage across inductance and capacitance
becomes Q times of applied voltage. So it is also called voltage resonance.
1
( LI 02 )
2 total stored energy
Q= 2
 2 = 2 
( I 0 R) energy dissipated/cycle
2 f0

o L 2  L 1 L
Q= = =
R 2  LC  R R C

o  L
Selectivity = = o
 R
 A CKT with a flat frequency response curve (high R) will be more
responsive and therefore less selective at frequencies in the neighbourhood of
the resonant frequency.

2.30 PARALLEL RESONANCE OR CURRENT RESONANCE

A parallel combination of R, L and C or (R, L) and C branches connected to a
source will produce a parallel resonance (anti-resonance) when the resultant
current through the combination is in phase with applied voltage at resonance
power factor is unity for this.
 2.54

1 1 R2 R  X 
 Wo = rad/sec Wo =  2L Y= 2 2
 j  WC  2 L 2 
LC LC L R  XL  R  XL 
Y = G + jB
1 1 1 1 R2
 fo = Hz fo =  2L at resonance B = 0, W = Wo
2 LC 2H LC L
Wo L
1 WoC =0
admittance at resonance is yo = . Thus, R 2  Wo2L2
R
the is minimum at resonance.
1 R2
 A CKT consisting of parallel R, L, and C is Wo = 
called a second order parallel resonant LC L2
circuit
 Parallel LC combination is known as tank 1 1 R2
circuit. fo = 
2 LC L2
if R is small

1 1
fo =
2 LC

  
 2.55

2.32 IMPEDANCE AT RESONANCE

R
Y=
R  w2 L2
2

R 2  w2 L2
Z=
R

1 R2
At resonance w = wo =  2
LC L
At resonance Zd = Resistive part
Zd = Rd is dynamic resistance

L2  1 R2 
Zd = R + 
R  LC L2 

L L
Zd = R + R  Zd =
RC RC

L
Zd 
RC
Zd is called dynamic impedance, this is pure resistive. It is seen lower the R
higher the Zd. Hence the value of impedance at resonance is maximum and the
resultant current is minimum. A parallel resonant circuit is also called a
rejector circuit since the current at resonance is minimum or tank circuit almost
rejects the current at resonance.
V VCR
Io = Current at resonance = = , it R = 0 ckt will draw no current
Zd L
at resonance. The supply current is zero and large current circulates in parallel
ckt at resonance.

2.33 CURRENT MAGNIFICATION

V
Current drawn from supply at resonance is I =
Rd

VCR
or, I=
L
2.56 

I
IL Ic

R
V jc

Fig. 2.42

So circulating current is Vwo C.

Circulating current Vwo C Lwo

Q= = =
Current drawn from supply R R
VC .
L
 Parallel tuned circuit exhibits a current amplification of Q, whereas series
ckt exhibits voltage amplification of Q.

2.34 SELECTIVITY AND BAND WIDTH

Rd
At half power frequency w1 and w2. ckt impedance is
2
{At reasonance V = I. Rd
I  Rd 
{At half power V = . Rd so Z  
2  2

wo
Band width = w2 w1 =
Q

wo L 1 1 L
Q= = =
R woCR R C
Comparison between Parallel and Series Resonance
Parallel Resonance Series Resonance
(i) Net susceptance is zero Net reactance is zero
(ii) Admittance is equal to conductance Impedance is equal to resistance
L
(iii) Impedance is Impedance is R
CR
2.58 

If R is small enough, whose squares may be neglected, then

R
g= ...(2.86)
X L2

SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example 7: A two element series circuit is connected across an AC source

V = 300 cos (314t + 20) volts. The current is drawn 15 cos (314t 10) Amp.
Determine circuit impedance magnitude and phase angle. What is the average
power drawn? (U.P. Tech 2003-04)
Solution:
Given, V = 300 cos (314t + 20) [cos  = sin ( + 90)
V = 300 sin (314t + 110)
300
In polar form V = 110
2
i = 15 cos (314t 10)
= 15 sin (314t + 80)
15
I=  + 80
2

300
110
2
Z (circuit impedance) = 1
15
  80
2

Z = 20  30
Hence, the angle between voltage and current is 30 and current lags
V
 I  Z  the voltage by 30. Phase angle = 30


Vm I m
Pav = cos  (in R-L ckt)
2

1
=  15  300  cos 30
2
= 1949.85 watt.
  
 2.59

Example 8: A 120 V, 100 W lamp is to be connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz AC

supply. What value of pure inductance should be connected in series in order to
run the lamp on rated voltage? (2003-04)
Solution:
 Z = R + jXL

 Vsupply = V + jVL = V 2  VL2

 220 = 1202  VL2

 VL = 184.39

120 Volt 100 W

L henry

VL
V

Vsupply = 220, 50 Hz

Fig. 2.43

 Current through the lamp and inductance is same. Current through lamp
P 100
I= =
V 120

100 V
 = L
120 XL

120  VL 120
 XL = =  184.39 = 221.269 ohm.
100 100
 XL = 2fL

X2 221.269
L= =
2 f 2  3.14  50

L  0.7046 henry
2.60 

Example 9: For the circuit shown in figure, find the current and power
drawn from the source. (2004-05)

3 j4

6 j8

230 V1 50 HZ

Fig. 2.44

Solution:
Let Z1 = 3 + j4 = 5  53.13 
Z2 = 6 + j8 = 10  53.13 
Z1 + Z2 = 9 + j12 = 15  53.13 
Both Z1 and Z2 are parallel hence net impedance of the circuit is Z

Z1Z 2 5  10 106.26
Z= =
Z1  Z 2 15  53.13

Z  3.33  53.13

V
 Current drawn from the ckt is I =
Z

V 0 230
I= =
Z  3.33  53.13

I  69   53.13 Amp
Hence, net current lags the net voltage by 53.13 and circuit is inductive in
nature.
 Power drawn from source = VI cos 
= 230  69  cos (53.13)
= 9.522 kw Ans.
  
 2.61

Example 10: A coil connected to 100 V DC supply draws 10 Amp and the
same coil connected 100V, AC voltage of frequency 50 Hz draws 5 Amp.
Calculate the parameters of the coil and power factor. [2004-05]
Solution:
 Coil means a resistance and inductance both.
Let impedance of a coil Z = R + jXL
 When DC supply is connected to coil inductance behave like a short circuit
(XL = 2fL = 2  0  L = 0 )
Vdc 100
So resistance of coil R = = = 10 ohm.
I 10
 When AC is applied across the same coil.
Given V = 100 volt of 50 Hz frequency.
I = 5 amp.
 V = IZ

V 100
 Z= = = 20 
I 5
 Z2 = R2 + X L2
 X L2 = Z2 R2 = 202 102

XL = 300 = 17.32 

XL 17.32
L= = = 0.05 henry
2 f 2  3.14  50

R 10
 Power factor of coil = = = 0.5 lagging Ans.
Z 20
Example 11: Discuss the effects of varying the frequency upon the current
drawn and the power factor in a RLC series circuit, a series RLC circuit with
R = 10 , L = 0.02 Hz, and C = 2f is connected to 100 V variable frequency
source. Find the frequency for which the current is maximum. (2004-05)
Solution:
R L C

V,f

Fig. 2.45
2.62 

Impedance Z = R + jXL jXC

Z = R + j(XL XC)

X L  XC
Z= R 2  ( X L  X C )2  tan 1 = |Z | 
R

V
I=
| Z | 

( X L  X C)
 |Z| = R 2  ( X L  X C ) 2 and P.F. cos  = cos tan1
R
(1) when XL = XC source frequency f = resonant freq (fr)
 | Z | = R so current is maximum and power factor is unity.
(2) now if we increase the frequency from resonance frequency f > fr . Then
1
XC = will decrease and XL increases. Impedance increases hence
2 fC
current will decrease and power factor decreases and becomes lagging.
(3) If frequency decreases below resonance frequency (f < fr), then XL
decrease and XC increases but net impedance will increase, so current
will decrease and power factor will also decrease.
R
cos  = but it becomes capacitive.
Z
 Current is maximum at resonance so at resonance frequency

1
fr =
2  LC

Io Z=R

Capacitive Inductive

fr

Fig. 2.46
  
 2.63

1
fr = = 795.5 Hz
6
2  2  10  2  10 2

Example 12: A load having impedance of (1 + j1)  is connected to an AC

voltage represented as V = 20 2 cos (t + 10) volt. Find the current in load
expressed in the form of i = Im sin (t + ) A. Find the real and apparent power.
(2004-05)
Solution:

Load impedance Z = 1 + j1 = 2 45

Voltage across the load V = 20 2 cos (t + 10)

= 20 2 sin (t + 100)

20 2
V= 100 = 20 100
2

V 20 100
Current through load I= =
Z 2  45

I  14.144 55 is rms value of current

 14.144 
i = Im sin (t + ), Im =  2
 5 

i= 2 . I sin (wt + 55)

i = 20 sin (t + 55)
(ii) Real power = Vrms .Irms cos 

1
= Vm Im cos 
2

1
= 20 2 .20.cos 45
2

P  200 watt
2.64 

1
(iii) Apparent power = V I
2 m m

1
=  20 2  20
2
= 282.84 VAR

 
Example 13: An emf given by 100 sin  314 t   volts in applied to a
 4
circuit and the current is 20 sin (314t 1.5808) ampere. Find (i) frequency
(ii) circuit elements. [2005-06]
Solution:
(i) Let instantaneous emf be e

 
e = 100 sin  314 t  
 4

 t = 314t
 2f = 314  f = 50 Hz

100
(ii) E=


2 4

i = 20 sin (314t 1.5808)

 1.5808  180 
= 20 sin  314t  
 3.14

 
i = 20 sin  314 t 
 2 

reference axis
20
I=

 /4
2 2 /2


V 
Circuit impedance Z = 4 V

I  I
2
Fig. 2.47
2.66 

Z = 100  60 = R + jXL (ckt is inductive)

100 cos 60 + j 100 sin 60 = R + jXL

1
 R = 100 cos 60 = 100  = 50 
2

3
XL = 100 sin 60 = 100 = 86.6 
2
 Frequency of supply = 50 Hz

XL 86.6
L= = = 2.758  101 H
2 f 314
(ii) Now the choke coil is connected to 100 V, 25 Hz supply.
R and L will be same as above.
Now, XL = 2fL = 2  3.14  25  2.758  101
= 43.3 

43.3
Now, Z= R 2  X L2 = 502  43.32 = 66.1  tan 1
50
= 66.1  40.89

V
and current from the coil =
Z

100
I= = 1.5   40.89 Amp
66.1 40.89

Power consumed = VI cos  = 100  1.5  0.75 = 112.5 W

or, I 2 R = (1.5)2  50 = 112.5 W
Example 15: Two coils of 5  and 10  and inductances 0.04 H and 0.05 H
respectively are connecting in parallel across a 200 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
(i) Conductance, susceptance and admittance of each coil.
(ii) Total current drawn by the circuit and its power factor.
(iii) Power absorbed by the circuit.
  
 2.67

(iv) The value of resistance and inductance of single coil which will take the
same current and power as taken by the original circuit.
[2005-06]
Solution: Given

I1 5 0.04 H

10  0.05 H

I2
I

200 V1 50 HZ

Fig. 2.49

(i) Z1 = R1 + j X L1 XL1 = 2fL1

= 2  3.14  50  0.04
Z1 = 5 + j12.56 = 13.52  68.29
= 12.56 
Z2 = R2 + j X L2 XL2 = 2fL2
= 2  3.14  50  0.05
= 10 + j 15.7 = 18.62  57.51
= 15.7 
1
Admittance of coil (1) is y1 = G1 + jB1 =
Z1

1 1
 = = 0.074  68.29
Z1 13.52 68.29

 Y1 = 0.074   68.29
Y1 = 0.0274 j0.069
 G1 = 0.0274 and susceptance B1 = 0.069
Admittance of coil (2) is Y2 = G2 + jB2

1 1
Y2 = = = 0.0537  57.51
Z2 18.62 57.51

Y2 = 0.029 j0.0453
2.68 

So conductance G2 = 0.029, susceptance B2 = 0.0453

(ii) Total admittance of ckt is Y = Y1 + Y2
Y = 0.0274 j0.069 + 0.029 j0.0453
= 0.0564 j0.1143
Y = 0.1275  63.74
Current drawn by the circuit is I = VY
I = 200  0.1275  63.74

I  25.5   63.74 Amp

Hence, current lags the supply voltage by 63.74.

So power factor = cos (63.74) = 0.443
(iii) Power absorbed by the circuit P = VI cos 
P = 200  25.5 cos (63.74)
= 2.256 kW Ans.
(iv) Current taken by original circuit is I = 25.5  63.74 Amp
V = 200 V

V 200
Impedance of coil Z = R + jXL = =
I 25.5   63.74

Z = 7.843  63.74
= 3.47 + j7.034
So R = 3.47  and X2 = 7.034 ,
Power = I 2 R
= (25.5)2  3.47
= 2.256 kW
Example 16: An AC voltage e(t) = 141.4 sin 120t is applied to a series RC
circuit. The current through the circuit is obtained as
i(t) = 14.14 sin 120t + 7.07 cos (120t + 30).
(2004-05)
  
 2.71

R 12
(ii) Power factor = = = 0.6
Z 20
(iii) Voltage across the coil is VL, then
VL = I (2 + jXL)
VL = 10(2 + j 16) = 161.245 82.87 volt
Example 18: For the given figure shown

Z1
4 j3
1.6  j 7.2 
6 j8
100 V Z3
50 Hz
Z2

Fig. 2.51

(i) Admittance of each parallel branch

(ii) Total circuit impedance
(iii) Supply current and power factor
(iv) Total power supplied by the source. (2005-06)
Solution:
Z3 = 1.6 + j7.2 = 7.375 77.47
Z1 = 4 + j3 = 5 36.86
Z2 = 6 j8 = 10 53.13
(i) Admittance of each parallel branch is Y1 and Y2, then

1 1
Y1 = = = 0.1356   77.47 
Z1 7.375 77.47

Y1  0.029  j 7.18

1 1
Y2 = = = 0.2   36.86 
Z2 5 36.86
2.72 

Y2 = 0.2 [cos (36.86)2 + j sin (36.86)]

= 0.16 j 0.119
(ii) Total circuit impedance is Z = (Z1 || Z2) + Z3

Z 2 Z1
Z = Z3 +
Z 2  Z1

5 36.86  10   53.13
= 1.6 + j7.2 +
(4  j 3)  (6  j 8)

50   16.27
= 1.6 + j7.2 +
10  j 5

50   16.27
= 1.6 + j7.2 +
11.18   26.56

= 1.6 + j7.2 + 4.47 10.29

= 1.6 + j 7.2 + 4.398 + j0.798

Z  5.998  j 11.598  13.06 62.65 Ans.

V 100
(iii) Supply current I = =
Z 13.06 62.65

I  7.65   62.65 Amp

Power factor = cos 62.65 = 0.459

(iv) Power supplied by source = VI cos 
P = 100  7.65 cos (62.65)
= 351.13 watt
or, P = I 2 R = (7.65)2  5.998
= 351.02 watt
Example 19: For the circuit shown below, determine:
(i) Resonant frequency
(ii) Total impedance at resonance
2.74 

Example 20: Draw the phasor diagram showing the following voltage and
find the RMS value of resultant voltage.

 
V1 = 100 sin 500t, V2 = 200 sin  500 t  
 3

 
V3 = 50 cos (500t), V4 = 150 sin  500 t  
 4
Solution:
Vm
 If V = Vm sin (wt + ) can be represented in a polar for V =  and
2
shown in X-Y plane Vm
2
Similarly  V1 = 100 sin 500t

100
 V1 = 0  
2 Ref axis

Fig. 2.53
  200 
 V2 = 200 sin  500 t    V2 = 
 3 2 3
 V3 = 50 cos (500t)

   50 
= 50 sin  500 t    V3 = 
 2 2 2

  150  
 V4 = 150 sin  500 t   V4 = 
 4  2 4
Phasor diagram
V2

/3
ref-axis
/4 V1
/2

V4

V3

Fig. 2.54
  
 2.75

Resultant voltage
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4

100 200    50   150  

V= 0      
2 2 3  2  2 2 4

1      
= 100  200 cos 3  j 200 sin 3  j 50  150 cos  4 
2

   
 j 150 sin   
 4 

1
= [100 + 100 + j173.20 j50 + 106.06 j106.06]
2

1
= [306.06 + j17.14]
2

306.54
V= 32.05 
2

306.54
RMS value of resultant voltage = = 216.756 volt
2
and resultant voltage leads from reference axis by 32.05.
Instantaneous voltage V = Vm sin (wt + )

V  306.54 sin (500 t  32.05)

Example 21: A series R-L-C circuit has R = 10 , L = 0.1 H and C = 8 F.

Determine,
(i) Resonant frequency
(ii) Q-factor of circuit at resonance
(iii) The half power frequencies
Solution: Given: R = 10 , L = 0.1 H, C = 8  106 F
(i) For a series R-L-C circuit resonant frequency fr is given by

1
fr =
2  LC
2.76 

1
fr = = 177.94 Hz.
2  3.14 0.1  8  10 6

wr L
(ii) Qfactor at resonant =
R

2 f r L 2  3.14  177.94  0.1

= 
R 10
= 11.17
(iii) B.W = f2 f1 {f1 and f2 are half power frequencies.

B.W
 f1 = fr
2

R 10
= fr = 177.94 = 169.99 Hz
4 L 4  3.14  0.1

B.W
 f2 = fr + = 177.94 + 7.95 = 185.89 Hz.
2
Example 22: An alternating current of frequency 50 Hz, has a maximum of
1
100 A. Calculate (a) its value second after the instant the current is zero
600
and its value decreasing thereafter (b) How many seconds after the instant the
current is zero (increasing therefore words)? Will the current attain the value of
86.6 A? (Elect. Tech. Allah. Univ. 1991).
Solution: The equation of the alternating current (assumed sinusoidal) with
respect to the origin of Fig. 2.51.
i = 100 sin 2  50t = 100 sin 100t.
(a) It should be noted that, in this case, time is being measured from point A
and not from O.
If the above equation is to be utilized, then, this time must be referred to
1
point O. For this purpose, half period i.e., sec. has to be added to
100
  
 2.77

86.6A
100 A

B
O A t
60 50A

210
1
Sec
50

Fig. 2.55

1 1 1
sec. The given time as referred to point O becomes = +
600 100 600
7
= sec.
600

7
 i = 100 sin 100  180  = 100 sin 210.
600

 1
= 100     = 50 A ...Point B.
 2

(b) In this case the reference point is O

 86.6 = 100 sin 100  180t or sin 18,000t = 0.866
or 18,000t = sin1 (0.866) = 60

60 1
 t= = second.
18000 300
Example 23: An alternating voltage e = 200 sin 314t is applied to a device
which offers an ohmic resistance of 20  to the flow current in one direction,
while preventing the flow of current in opposite direction. Calculate RMS
value, average value and form factor for the current over one cycle.
(Elect. Engg. Nagpur Univ. 1992).
Solution: Comparing the given voltage equation with the standard form of
alternating voltage equation, we find that

200
Vm = 200 V, R = 20 , Im = = 10 A.
20
  
 2.79

= 350 sin (2  180  50  0.018)

= 205.72 Volt Ans.
Example 25: A sinusoidal alternating current of frequency 25 Hz has a
maximum value of 100 A. How long will it take for the current to attain values
of 20, and 100 A?
Solution:
For AC current i = Im sin (wt)
Given Im = 100 A, f = 25 Hz
i = 100 sin 50t
(a) When current attain value of 20 amp, means instantaneous value
i = 20 amp.
20 = 100 sin 50t
sin 50t = 0.2
50t = sin1 0.2 = 11.5

11.5 11.5
t=  = 0.00128 sec
50  50  180

(b) When instantaneous current i = 100 amp

i = 100 sin 50t
100 = 100 sin 50t
 50t = sin1 = 90

90
 t= = 0.01 sec.
50  180

Example 26: The voltage across and current through a circuit are given by
v = 250 sin (314t 10) volt and i = 10 sin (314t + 50) A. Calculate, the
impedance, resistance, reactance and power factor of the circuit.
Solution: given v = 250 sin (314t 10) volt
i = 10 sin (314t + 50) amp
2.80 

above voltage are in time domain we can write in polar form

250
V=   10
2

10
I= 50
2

V
 Impedance of ckt = Z =
I

250
  10
2
Z=
10
  50
2

Z  25   60
From this it is clear that current leads the voltage by 60.
So power factor = cos 60 = 0.5
 Z = R jXC = 25[cos 60 + j sin (60)]
R jXC = 12.5 j 21.65
Comparing real and imaginary part
R = 12.5 , XC = 21.65  Ans.
Example 27:
1 j5
1
I2 2 V2
2 j3 
B C

I I3 4 j2
V = 10 0 3 V3

Fig. 2.56

Find (a) Total impedance

(b) Current drawn from supply
2.82 

VBC 6.65   36.8

(d) 2 = = = 1.30  41.9
Z2 1  j5
current I2 leads the VBC by (41.9 + 36.8)

VBC 6.65   36.8

Im = = = 1.49   63.4
Z3 4  j2
(e) Power factor cos  = cos (15.7) = 0.963 lagging

R 5.65
or, cos  = = = 0.963
Z 5.87
(f) Apparent power s = VI
= 10  1.70 = 17.0 VA
True power = I 2 R = 1.7  1.7  5.65 = 16.32 W.
= VI cos  = 10  1.7  0.963 = 16.34 W.
Reactive power = I 2 X = 1.7  1.7  1.59 = 4.59 vars
= VI sin  = 10  1.7  sin (15.7) = 4.6 vars.
(g) Phasor diagram
Let V = 10 0 is a reference.
I2

V1

41.9 V

63.4 I
36.

15.7
I3 VBC

V3

Fig. 2.57
  
 2.83

Example 28: An alternating current of frequency 60 Hz, has a maximum

value of 120 A. Write down the equation for its instantaneous value.
Reknocking time from the instant the current is zero and is becoming positive
Find
(a) The instantaneous value after 1/360 second and
(b) The time taken to reach 96 A for the first time.
Solution:
The instantaneous current equation is
 i = 120 sin 2f t = 120 sin 120 t.
Now, when t = 1/360 second, then
(a) i = 120 sin (120    1/360) ... angle in radians
= 120 sin (120  180  1/360) ... angle in degree
= 120 sin 60 = 103.9 A.
(b) 96 = 120  sin 2  180  60  t angle in degree
or, sin (360  60  t) = 96/120 = 0.8
 360  60  t = sin1 0.8 = 53 (approx.)
 t = 0/2 f = 53/360  60 = 0.00245 second.
Example 29: An alternating current varying sinusoidally with a frequency of
50 Hz, has an RMS value of 20A. Write down the equation for the
instantaneous value and find this value.
(a) 0.0025 second (b) 0.0125 second after passing through a positive
maximum value. At what time, measured from a positive maximum value, will
the instantaneous current be 14.14 A? [Elect. Sc. I Allah. Univ. 1992]
Solution:

Im = 20 2 = 28.2 A, W = 2  50 = 100 red/sec.

i
+20A
28.2 A
14.14 A

C Q
O A B D
45
60
225 20 A

Fig. 2.58
  
 2.85

This gives us the equation for the function for one cycle.

1 T 1 T  10 
Yav =
T  ydt =
T  10  t  dt
0 0 T

T
1 T  10  1 5t 2
= 10 dt  . t . dt = 10t  = 15
T 
0 
 T 
 T T 0

2
1 T
2
T 10 
10  t  dt

Mean square value=  y dt =
T 0  0 T

1 T 100 2 200 
=
T 100  2 t  t  dt

0 T T 

T
1 100t 3 100t 2 700
= 100t   =
T 3T 2 T 0
3

or, RMS value = 10 7/3 = 15.2

Example 31: Determine average value, effective value and form factor of a
sinusoidally varying alternating current whose half wave is rectified in each
cycle.
Solution: Average value of current is given by,
area of rectified wave
Iav =
interval

O  
2

Fig. 2.60
2.86 

 id 
= 0
2


 I m sin  d  Im
0
= = [  cos ]0
2 2

Im
= ...(2.24)

Effective value of current,
 

 i 2d   I m2 sin 2  d 
0 0
I= =
2 2

Im  (1  cos 2)
=  d
2 0 2

1 sin 2 

Im
= 
2 2
 2 0

Im  I
= = = m
2 2 2

I m /2 
 Form factor = = = 1.57 Ans.
Im / 2

Example 32: Three coils of resistances 20, 30 and 40  and inductance 0.5,
0.3 and 0.2H, respectively are connected in series across a 230 V, 50 c/s supply.
Calculate the total current, power factor and the power consumed in the circuit.
Solution:
Total resistance R = 20 + 30 + 40 = 90 
Total resistance L = 0.5 + 0.3 + 0.2 = 1.0 
 XL = 2 fL = 2  50  1.0 = 314 

Impedance Z = R 2  X L2

= 902  3142 = 327 

  
 2.87

E 230
 Current I = = = 0.704 A.
Z 327

R 90
Power factor cos  = = .
Z 327
= 0.275 lagging.
Power consumed = EI cos .
= 230  0.704  0.275.
= 44.5 watts.
Example 33: A resistance of 100  and a capacitance of 40 F are
connected in series across a 400 V supply of 50 c/s. Find the current, power
factor and the power consumed in the circuit. Draw the vector diagram.
Solution:
R = 100 

1 1
XC = = = 79.5 
2  f .c. 2  50  40  10 6

Impedance Z = 1002  79.52 = 127.8 

400
 Current = = 3.13 A.
127.8

IR = 313 V

 = 38.5 I = 3.13 A
90

F = 400V I X c = 248.5

Fig. 2.61
2.90 

= 240  1.725  0.72

= 298 watts. Ans.
(f) Resonance will occur, when
XL = XC

1
or, 2 fL =
2  f .c.

1
 fo =
2 LC

1
= = 39.8 c/s. Ans.
2 .2  20  10 6

Example 35: A circuit consisting of resistance of 10  in series with an

XL = 15  is connected in parallel with another circuit consisting of resistance
of 12  and capacitive reactance of 20  combination is connected across a
230 V, 50 Hz supply. Find (a) Total current taken from supply (b) Power factor
of circuit.
Solution:
(a) The given circuit is shown in Fig. 2.63.

10 15
I

12 20
II

230V

Fig. 2.64

Branch I:

R1
Conductance g1 =
Z12

10
= = 0.0307 
10  152
2
  
 2.91

 15 
Susceptance b1 = 2 2
= 0.0461
10  15

Branch II:

R2 12 
Conductance g2 = 2
= 2 2
= 0.022
Z2 12  20
Since, branch II has capacitive susceptance, so it will be assigned ve sign.

 20 
 Susceptance b2 = 2 2
= + 0.0368
12  20
Combined circuit:

Total conductance g = 0.0307 + 0.022 = 0.0527

Total susceptance b = b2 b1 = 0.0368 0.0461 = 0.0093

 Total admittance Y = g 2  b2

= 0.0527 2  0.00932
= 0.0535 
 Current taken from supply,
I = E.Y = 230  0.0535 = 12.3 A Ans.
(b) Power factor

g
cos  =
Y

0.0527
= = 0.985 lagging Ans.
0.0535
Example 36: In a parallel circuit, branch I consists of a resistance of 20  in
series with an inductive reactance of 15  and branch II has a perfect
condenser of 50  reactance. The combination is connected across 200 V,
60 c/s supply. Calculate:
(a) Current taken by each branch.
(b) Total current taken.
(c) P.F. of the combination.
Draw vector diagram.
2.92 

Solution:

20  j5  I2 = 4A
I1
E = 200V
2 = 90
I2 j5 


1 = 36.9 I

200V
I1 = 8A

Fig. 2.65 Fig. 2.66

(a) Branch I:

Z1 = 202  152 = 25 

200
 I1 = =8A
25
15
1 = tan1 = 36.9 lagging.
20
Branch II:

Za = 0  (  50) 2 = 50 .

200
 I2 = = 4 A.
50
50
2 = tan1 = tan1 
0
= 90 leading.
(b) Combined circuit:
Total current I is the vector sum of the two branch currents I1 and I2.
Resolving the currents along E (i.e., in their active components).
I cos  = I1 cos 1 + I2 cos 2
= 8 cos 36.9 + 4 cos 90
= 8  0.8 = 6.4 A.
  
 2.95

equivalent impedance of the parallel circuit,

1 1 1
= 
Z 23 Z 2 Z3

1 1 (3  j 4)  (4  j 3)
=  =
4  j3 3  j 4 (4  j 3) (3  j 4)

7  j1
=
24  j 7

24  j 7
=
7  j1

(24  j 7) 7  j1
= 
7  j1 7  j1

175  j 25 175  j 25
= 
7 2  12 50

= 3.5 j 0.5.
Symbolic expression of the total impedance,
Z13 = Z1 + Z23
= (2.5 + j 1.5) + (3.5 j 0.5)
= 6 + j 1. Ans.
Taking the voltage as reference vector,
= E = 200 + j 0.

E 200  j 0
Total current I =
Z13 6  j1

= 200 (6 j 1) = 32.4 5.4 = 62 + 1

 I= 32.42  5.42 = 328 A Ans.

 5.4 
and,  = tan1   = tan1 (0.1665) = 9.5
 32.4 
2.96 

Voltage across the series branch,

E = I .Z1 = (32.4 j 5.4) (2.5 + j 1.5)

= 89.1 + j 35.1

 35.1
12 = tan1  = tan1 0.394 = 21.5
 89.1
 E23 = E13 E12
= 200 + j 0 (89.1 + j 35.1)
= 110.9 j 35.1

 35.1 
23 = tan1   = tan1(0.317) = 17.6
 110.9 

 E23 = 110.92  35.12

= 116 V.
Current in upper parallel branch,

E 110.9  j 35.1
I1 = 23 =
Z2 4  j3

(110.9  j 35.1) (4  j 3) 338.3  j 473.1

= 
42  32 25
= 13.55 j 18.9

 I1 = 13.52  18.92 = 23.2 A Ans.

 18.9 
and, 1 = tan1   = tan1(1.395) = 54.4.
 13.55 
Current in lower parallel branch,

E23 110.9  j 35.1 3  j 4

I2 = = 
Z3 3  j4 3  j4

473.1  j 338.3
= = 18.9 + j 13.55.
25
  
 2.99

100 5
=  cos 45 = 176.78 W
2 2

Example 40: A 100 V, 60 W lamp is to be operated on a 250 V 50 Hz supply.

Calculate the value of (a) non-inductive resistor, (b) pure inductance, lamp in
order that it may be used at its rated voltage. What would be required to place
in series with the lamp in order that it may be used as its rated voltage.
Solution:
Current taken by the lamp
P 60
I= = = 0.6 A
V1 100
If R1 is the resistance of the lamp,
P = I2R1
P 60
R1 = 2 = = 166.66 
I (0.6) 2
(a) Non-inductive resistor R
When a non-inductive resistance R is placed in series with the lamp, the
total resistance of the circuit becomes RT (say), where
RT = R1 + R = 166.66 + R
Since, the circuit is purely resistive
V = RTI
250 = (166.66 + R)  0.6

250
R= 166.66 = 250 
0.6
(b) Pure inductance L
When a pure inductance L placed in series with the lamp the total
impedance of the circuit is given by
Z2 = R1 + jXL = 166.66 + j 2  50L
By Ohms law
V = Z2I
250 = (166.66 + j 2  50L)  0.6
250
= (166.66) 2  (2  50 L ) 2
0.6
2.100 

2
 250  2 2
 0.6  (166.66) = (2  50L)

(173611  27775) = 2  50L

L = 1.2155 H
Example 41: Three sinusoidally alternating currents of RMS values 5, 7, 5
and 10 A are having same frequency of 50 Hz. with phase angles of 30, 60
and 45.
(i) Find their average values.
(ii) Write equation for their instantaneous values.
(iii) Draw wave forms and phasor diagrams taking first current as the
reference.
(iv) Find the instantaneous values at 100 m sec from the original reference.
[Nagpur Univ. Nov. 1996]
Solution:
(i) Average value of alternating quantity in case of sinusoidal nature of
variation = (RMS values)/1.11
Average value of 1st current = 5/1.11 = 4.50 A
Average value of 2nd current = 7.5/1.11 = 6.76 A
Average value of 3rd current = 10/1.11 = 9.00 A
(ii) Instantaneous values

i1(t) = 5 2 sin (314t + 30)

i2(t) = 7.5 2 sin (314t 60)

i3(t) = 10 2 sin (314t + 45)

(iii) First current is to be taken as a reference, none form the expression
second current lags, behind the first current by 90. Third current leads
the first current by 15 wave form with this description are drawn in Fig.
2.71 (a) and the phasor diagrams in Fig. 2.71 (b).
(iv) A 50 Hz AC quantity completes a cycle in 20 m sec. In 100 m sec, it
completes five cycles original reference is the starting point required for
this purpose. Hence, at 100 m sec from the reference.
  
 2.101

i3

i i1 i2

90 130 270 360

O

wt

Fig. 2.70(a)

I3 = 10A

I1 = 5A

I2 =7.5A

Fig. 2.70(b)

(v) Instantaneous value of i1(t) = 5 2 sin 30 = 3.53 A

Instantaneous value of i2(t) = 7.5 2 sin (60) = 9.816 A
Instantaneous value of i3(t) = 10 2 sin (45) = 10 A
Example 42: A resultant current wave is made up of two components.
5 A DC component and a 50 Hz AC component. Which is of sinusoidal wave
form and which has a maximum value of 5 A.
(i) Draw a sketch of the resultant wave.
(ii) Write an analytical expression for the current wave, reckoning t = 0 at a
point where the AC component is at zero value and when di/dt is +ve.
(iii) What is the average value of the resultant current over a cycle?
(iv) What is the effective or RMS value after resultant current?
  
 2.103

 RMS value I = 37.5 = 6.12 A.

Alternate
Let the effective value of resultant current is I.
Instantaneous current i = 5 + 5 sin t
2
2  5 
2
 I R=5 R+  R
 2 

25
I= 52   37.5
2
I = 6.12 amp
Example 43: If the current in a 20  resistor is given by i = 4 + 5 sin
t 3 cos 3 t. Determine the power consumed by the resistor.
Solution: P = P0 + P1 + P2
2 2
2  5   3 
= 4  20 + 20    + 20  
 2  2 
= (16 + 12.5 + 4.5)  20 = 660 watt.

660
effective value of current =  33 = 5.7 Amp
20
Example 44: A large coil of inductance 1.405 H and resistance of 40  is
connected in series with a capacitor of capacitance 20 F. Calculate the
frequency at which the circuit resonates. If a voltage of 100 V is applied to the
circuit at resonant condition, calculate the current drawn from the supply and
the voltage across the coil and the capacitor, quality factor, band width.
Solution:
R = 40 , L = 1.405 H, C = 20  106 F
1 1
resonant frequency f0 = = = 30 Hz.
2 LC 2 1.405  20  10 6

V 100
At resonance current I0 =  = 2.5 A
R 40
At resonance impedance Z0 = R + j X L0
2.104 

Z0 = R 2  X L20 = 402  264.82 = 267.8 

 Voltage across the coil at resonance is X L0

VL0 = I0 Z0 = 2.5  267.8  = 669.5 volt
 Capacitive reactance at resonance is X C0

1 1
X C0 =  = 265.2 
2 f0C 2  30  20  10 6
 Voltage across the capacitor
VC0 = X C0 I0 = 265.2  2.5 = 663 V

W0 L 2 f0 L 2  30  1.405
 Quality factor Q0 = =  = 6.6175 Ans.
R R 40
R 40
 Band width =  = 28.469
L 1.405
Example 45: A current of 120 j 50 flows through a circuit when the
applied voltage is 8 + j 2, determine (i) impedance (ii) power factor (iii) power
consumed and reactive power.
Solution:
V = (8 + j 2)V = 8.25  14 V
I = (120 j 50)A = 130  22.62 A

V 8.25 14
(i) Z=  = 0.0635  36.62 
I 130   22.62
 Z = 0.0635 
(ii)  = 36.62 lag.
 p.f. = cos  = cos 36.62 = 0.803 lag
(iii) Complex VA, S = Phasor voltage  conjugate of phasor current
or p + jQ = 8.25 14  130 22.62 = 1072.5  36.62 VA
= 1072.5 (cos 36.62 + j sin 36.62)
= (860.8 + j 639.75)VA
 Power consumed, P = 860.8 W
Reactive power, Q = 639.75 VAr.
  
 2.105

Example 46: In an R L series circuit R = 10  and XL = 8.66  if current in

the circuit is (5 j 10) A, find (i) the applied voltage (ii) power factor and
(iii) active power and reactive power.
Solution:
Z = R + jXL = (10 + j 8.66)  = 13.23  40.9 
I = (5 j 10)A = 11.18  63.43 A
(i) V = IZ = 11.18  63.43  13.23  40.9 = 148  22.53 V
 V = 148 Volts.
(ii)  = 63.43 22.53 = 40.9
p.f. = cos  = cos 40.9 = 0.756 lag.
(iii) S = phasor voltage  conjugate of phasor current.
or P + jQ = 148  22.53  11.18  63.43 = 1654.64  40.9 VA.
= (1250.66 + j 1083.36)VA
 Active power, P = 1250.66 W
Reactive power Q = 1083.36 VAr.
Example 47: Two circuits having the same numerical ohmic impedance are
joined in parallel. The power factor of one circuit is 0.8 and the other 0.6. What
is the power factor of the combination?
Solution:
Let Z be the impedance of each circuit
Z1 = Z  cos1 0.8 = Z  36.87 = Z (0.8 + j 0.6)
Z2 = Z  cos1 0.6 = Z  53.13 = Z (0.6 + j 0.8)
Since, the two impedances are connected in parallel, the equivalent
impedance of the combination is given by

Z1Z 2
Zp = Z1 || Z2 =
Z1  Z 2

( Z  36.87) ( Z  53.13) Z 2  90

= 
Z (0.8  j 0.6  0.6  j 0.8) Z (1.4  j 1.4)

Z 2  90 Z 45
= =
Z (1.98  45) 1.98
 The power factor of the combination is
cos  = cos 45 = 0.707
  
 2.107

1 1 6  j5
Y1 =  
Z1 6  j 5 (6  j 5) (6  j 5)

6  j5
= = 0.09836 j 0.08196 S
62  52
Z2 = 8 j 6 = 10  36.87 

1 1 8  j6 8 j6
Y2 =   
Z 2 8  j 6 (8  j 6) (8  j 6) 82  62
= 0.08 + j 0.06 S
Z3 = 8 + j10 = 12.8  51.34 

1 1 8  j 10 8  j 10
Y3 = =   2
Z3 8  j 10 (8  j 10) (8  j 10) 8  102
= 0.04878 j 0.06097 S
Total admittance of the circuit
Y = Y1 + Y2 + Y3
= 0.09836 j 0.08196 + 0.08 j 0.06 + 0.04878 j 0.06097
= 0.22714 j 0.08293 = 0.2418   20.06  S
Total circuit voltage

I 20  0
V = IZ = = = 82.71  20.06 V
Y 0.2418   20.06

V 82.71  20.06
I1 = =
Z1 7.81  39.8

= 10.59  19.74 A = 9.967 j 3.576 A

V 82.71  20.06
I2 = =
Z2 10   36.87

= 8.271  56.93 A = 4.513 + j 6.930 A

V 82.71  20.06
I3 = =
Z3 12.8   51.34
2.108 

= 6.46  31.28 A = 5.52 j 3.35 A

I1 + I2 + I3 = 20 + j 0 = I
Example 50: A single phase circuit consists of three parallel branches, the
admittance of the branches are
Y1 = 0.4 + j 0.6
Y2 = 0.1 + j 0.4
Y3 = 0.06 + j 0.23
Determine the total admittance and impedance of the circuit.
Solution: Since, the admittances are in parallel
Y = Y1 + Y2 + Y3
= (0.4 + j 0.6) + (0.1 + j 0.42) + (0.06 + j 0.23)
= (0.4 + 0.1 + 0.06) + j (0.6 + 0.42 + 0.23)
= 0.56 + j 1.25 = 1.369 65.86

1 1
Impedance = Z = = = 0.73   65.86
Y 1.369 65.86
Z = 0.298 j 0.666
Example 51: In the network shown in Fig. 2.74, determine (a) the total
impedance, (b) the total current (c) the current in each branch, (d) the overall
power factor, (e) volt-amperes, (f) active power, and (g) reactive volt-amperes.

7 0.015 H
A I 5 0.01 H I1 1 C
3
I2 12  2 180 F
230 V,
50 Hz

Fig. 2.72

Solution:
(a) Branch 1:
R1 = 7  L1 = 0.015 H
X L1 = 2fL1 = 2  50  0.015 = 4.71 

Z1 = R1 + j X L1 = 7 + j 4.71 = 8.437 33.93 

  
 2.109

Branch 2:
R2 = 12  C2 = 180 F = 180  106 F

1 1
X C2 = = = 17.68 
2 f C2 2  50  180  10 6

Z2 = R2 j X C2 = 12 j 17.68 = 21.37  55.83 

Since, Z1 and Z2 are connected in parallel, their equivalent impedance Zp is
given by

Z1Z 2
Zp = Z1 || Z2 =
Z1  Z 2

(8.437  33.93) (21.37   55.83)

=
(7  j 4.71)  (12  j 17.68)

180.3   21.9 180.3   21.9

= 
19  j 12.97 23   34.3
= 7.839  + 12.4 = 7.656 + j 1.68 
Branch 3:
R3 = 5 , L3 = 0.01 H
X L3 = 2fL3 = 2  50  0.01 = 3.14 

Z3 = R3 + j X L3 = 5 + j 3.14 = 5.9  32.13 

Since, Z3 and Zp are connected in series, the total impedance of the circuit
is
Z = Z3 + Zp = 5 + j 3.14 + 7.656 + j 1.68 = 12.656 + j 4.82 = 13.54 20.85 
(b) Let the supply voltage V be taken as reference phasor.
V = 230  0 V = 230 + j 0 V.
By Ohms law total circuit current is

V 230  0
I= = = 16.99  20.85 A
Z 13.54 20.85
= 15.87 j 6.046 A
  
 2.111

I120 60A IL40 30A

230 30V

Fig. 2.73

V 230  30
(i)  Z =  = 5.14 33.46 
I 44.7   3.46
(ii) P = V.I cos  = 230  44.7  cos 33.46 = 8577 W.
Example 53: A parallel circuit consists of a 2.5 F capacitor and a coil
whose resistance and inductance are 15  and 260 mH, respectively.
Determine (i) the resonant frequency (ii) Q-factor of the circuit at resonance
(iii) dynamic impedance of the circuit.
Solution:
(i) Resonant frequency,

1 1 R2
fr =  2
2 LC L

1 106  (15) 2
= = 197 Hz
2 0.260  2.5 (0.260) 2

2 f r L 2  197  0.260
(ii) Q-factor =  = 21.45
R 15
L 0.260
(iii) Zr =  = 6933 
CR 2.5  10 6  15

EXERCISE
1. What is meant by an alternating quantity? Explain how a sine wave is
produced.
2. Define: cycle, periodic time and frequency.
2.112 

3. What is understood by phase difference between two alternating

quantities? Explain the term lagging current and leading current with
the aid of suitable curves.
4. Define RMS value of an alternating current.
Derive RMS value in case of a:
(a) Sinusoidal wave
(b) Rectangular wave
(c) Triangular wave
(d) Semicircular wave
(e) Trapezoidal wave
(g) Stepped wave.
5. Define average value of an alternating current.
Derive average value in case of a:
(a) Sinusoidal wave
(b) Rectangular wave
(c) Triangular wave
(d) Semicircular wave
(e) Trapezoidal wave
(g) Stepped wave.
Also define form factor and find its value in case of all the above waves.
6. Define peak or crest factor and state its practical utility.
7. Determine average value, effective value and form factor of a triangular
wave whose half wave is suppressed in each cycle.

 
8. Two waves represented by e1 = 3 sin t. and e2 = 4 sin  t   are
 3
acting in a circuit. Find an expression of their resultant and check the
result by a graphical construction. Also find the peak and RMS values
of the resultant.

[ 37 sin (t. 0.605); 37 , 4.3]

9. An alternating current is given in amperes by the expression,
i = 50 sin 44 t.
Find (a) frequency.
(b) w in radians per second
(c) maximum value of the current
(d) effective value of the current
[(a) 70 c/s, (b) 440, (c) 50 A and (d) 35.35 A]
  
 2.115

Calculate also the total current supplied in each case if the applied
voltage is 240 V. [6.74 F, 16 A & 0.0648 A]
26. Define effective, equivalent or dynamic impedance of a rejecter circuit.
Find the current in a parallel circuit at resonance after making practical
assumptions.
27. Define Q-factor and determine its value in:
(a) Series resonant circuit
(b) Parallel resonant circuit