[BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) CELL STRUCTURE CELL THEORY: ‘© Structural and functional unit of all living things ‘* New cells arise from already existing cells '* Cells contain information that instructs growth. This information can be passed onto new cells. MICROSCOPE: There are two main types of microscopes: Light and Electron Electron Micrographs- shown in colour Uses beam of light ‘Transmission Electron Microscope Scanning Electron ‘Magnification = x1500 (Tem) Microscope (SEM) Resolution = 200 nm Uses electromagnets to focus beam [Scan beam of electrons © Wide range of specimens | of electrons across specimen canbe used Denser parts of specimen absorb | Beam bounces off surface © Samples are fairly quick + | more electrons creating contrast | of specimen easy to prepare Can only be used on thin specimens | Produces 3D image © Cheaper and safer Produces 20 image Magnification = x100,000 © Limited resolution ‘Magnification = x500,000 Resolution = 5 nm (lower) © Limited magnification Resolution = 0.2 nm ‘© Can produce coloured | © Must be used in a vacuum (no alr)- images electrons are absorbed by molecules in © Better resolution air © Better magnification | @ Expensive ® Training is required © Natural colours can’t be seen © Dangerous- kills living cells MAGNIFICATION: SIZE ‘The degree to which the size of an image is larger than the object itself ‘Magnification Image size Actual size For light microscope: Overall magnification = objective lens X eyepiece lens RESOLUTION: DETAIL The ability to distinguish between two separate points 1[Page[BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) ‘* Used to have better visualisation of cells under a microscope ‘+ Used because some cell components are transparent ‘* ACETIC ORCEIN- stains DNA dark red '* GENETIAN VIOLET: stains bacterial cell walls ‘* IODINE: stains starch granules ‘+ METHYLENE BLUE/EOSIN- used for light microscope ‘+ Specimen dipped in METAL like lead (metal ions scatter electrons to contrast}- used for electron microscope SECTIONING ‘© Sections of tissue need to be cut into thin slices ‘+ Allows beam of light to pass through section of tissue Specimens are embedded in wax Makes it easier to identify tissue CELL ORGANELLES: EtG SnUennG Er ‘Nucleus ‘© Largest organelle with: | Chromatin made from protein and Chromatin DNA Nuclear envelope (double | * Controls cell activities membrane) ‘© Nucleolus makes RNA and ribosomes ‘Nuclear pore (holes) ‘+ Start process of cel division Nucleolus Cell Wall > Made of cellulose > Supports cell Rigid, protective barrier__| + _ Protects against mechanical damage CellSurface Membrane [* Made of lipids and |* Controls movement of substances in proteins and out of cells © Has receptor molecules that allows it to respond to chemicals (hormones) ‘© separate cell contents from outside the cell ‘© separate cell components from the cytoplasm ‘© Incell recognition and signalling + To hold some components of metabolic pathways in place © In regulating the transport of materials in and out of cells Cytoplasm = _Jelly-ike substance = Eukaryotic cells= contains organelles ‘+ Prokaryotic cells= contains enzymes needed for metabolic reactions. 21PageBF) (siotocy revision Notes) Double membrane Cristae (folded) ‘Matrix (central part) ATP produced during _aerabie respiration ATP is universal carrier energy Consist oF two subunits (large and small) Found in cytoplasm ‘Attached to Rough ER Protein synthesis occur Coded information (mRNA) is used to assemble protein from amino acid Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Cisternae (flattened membrane bound sacs) Rough- ribosomes present on outer surfaces of membranes Smooth- lacks ribosomes nits surface Studded with ribosomes Folds and processes proteins made at ribosome Provides pathway for transport of ‘materials through cell (proteins) ‘Synthesis and processes lipids Synthesis, stores and transports carbohydrates Golgi Apparatus ‘Stack of membrane bound sacs Receives and modifies proteins from ER Packages modified protein into vesicles to be transported ‘Makes lysosomes Produces secretory enzymes Vesicle Small fluid sac in cytoplasm with membrane Transports substances in and out cell Formed at Golgi apparatus, ER, cell surface membrane Tysosome Round organelle surrounded by membrane Contains digestive enaymes to break down materials Can be used to digest invading cells Releases enzymes to outside of cell Mesosome Tightly-folded area of the cell membrane Contains membrane bound proteins needed for respiration Plasmid ‘Small circle of DNA Exchange DNA easily and quickly between eukaryotic cells Used in genetic engineering Pilus (Pil) Hair-like structures Transfers DNA to other cells Made of protein Helps cells to stick to one another Capsule Protects bacterium from other cells 3|Page[BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) = Small, hairlike structures |» Microtubules allow cilia to move © Have ring of 9 pairs of |e Movement is used by cell to move protein microtubules | substances along cell surface inside © Have 2 pairs of microtubules. inthe middle Like cilia, but longer ‘> Microtubules contract to make ‘© Stick out from cell surface | flagellum move membrane ‘Used like outboard motors to propel © Have 2 microtubules in| cells forward (e.g. when sperm cell centre swims) ‘© Have 9 around the edge Centriole * Only foundin animal cell |» Produces spindle fibres for mitosis ‘© Small, hollow cylinders | Involves in separation of © Contains ring of | _ chromosomes (cell division) microtubules = Involved information of microtubules that make up cytoskeleton of cell Chloroplast |» Double membrane + Chlorophyll molecules present ~c © Thylakoid flattened | + site for photosynthesis, _| membrane sac) + Grana- carries out light dependent |. + Grana (stack of thylakoids) | stage of photosynthesis (Polar) Backbone. *— = Cholesterol rel —> Fatty acid chain roxsearane |S F (Non- polar) ‘* Membrane consist of arranged phospholipids ‘© Head is hydrophilic- attracts water ‘+ Tails hydrophobie- repels water '* Molecules arrange themselves into a bilayer- the heads face outwards on either side of the membrane ‘+ Centre of bilayer is hydrophobic so membrane doesn't allow water-soluble substances through it FLUID Mosaic moDEL: FLUID: Lipid bilayer that is constantly moving. Membrane is the consistency of olive cil at body temperature MOSAIC: Protein molecules that are embedded and span the bilayer = 10nmwide ‘MEMBRANES AND TEMPERATURI ‘+ Enzymes and co-enzymes attached to membrane, ‘© Eg. thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts Cristae in mitochondrion ‘+ Increasing temperature increases kinetic energy of molecule- move faster ‘+ This makes membranes “leaky”. allow substances that wouldn't normally enter or leave cell do so 61PageBWI isiovocy revision NorEs} Phospholipids ‘Allow lipid-soluble substances to enter and leave the cell Prevent water-soluble substance entering and leaving cell Give membrane fluidity Proteins Channel (intrinsic): ‘+ Span the phospholipid bilayer from one side to another ‘+ Allow movement of substances across membrane ‘+ Molecules of sugars e.g. glucose are too large and too hydrophobic to pass directly through Carrier: ‘+ Actively transport substances across membrane (requires ATP } ‘© Actas receptor sites for molecules to bind to protein, so cell response can be cartied out ‘+ Function as enzymes ‘+ _ Provide structural support Cholesterol |» Provides stability (eukaryotic cells) Reduces lateral movement of phospholipids- makes barrier complete Makes membranes less fluid and more rigid ‘+ _ Prevents leakage of water and dissolved ions from cell Glycoprotein | » Actas recognition sites for hormones © Actas receptor in cell binding. ‘+ Actas antigens allowing cells to recognise one another Giycolipids | » Actas receptors for cell signalling, cell binding and cell recognition Help maintain stability of membrane COMMUNICATION AND CELL SIGNALLING: CELL SIGNALLING: 1) Cells communicate messages to each other 2). Cell releases a messenger molecule (hormone) 3). Then travels to another cell 4) Hormone is detected by cell because it binds to a complementary receptor 5) Eg. cytokines aM er &A 1) Proteins act as receptors for messenger molecules om sermenetele ern 2), Have specific bonding sites for specific hormone 3). Transmission of receptor is via reversible binding of hormone to receptor 4) Eg. insulin RECEPTOR DRUGS: 1) Drugs work by binding to receptors in cell membranes 2). Triggers a response or blocks receptor and prevents it from working 3) E.g. beta blockers= slow heart rate down, schizophrenia drugs= affect brain VIRUSE 1) Enter by binding with receptors on cell surface membrane they normally bind to host's, signalling molecule 2) HIV can enter cell of human immune system. Has a shape that mimics cell signals that attach to lymphocytes 7|Page[BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) POISONS: 1) Bacteria known as “Clostridium Buctucinium” that 2). Releases prot ids receptors on muscle cells 3). Result = paralysis, IMPERMEABILITY OF CELL MEMBRANES: ‘© Cell surface membrane is impermeable to most molecules ‘+ They’re not soluble and therefore cannot pass through phospholipid layer ‘+ Small, non-polar substances- can pass through simple (passive) diffusion ‘+ Large substances- can enter by facilitated diffusion through carrier proteins ‘+ Polar (charged) substances- can pass by facilitated diffusion through channel proteins ‘TRANSPORT ACROSS CELL MEMBRANES: * Molecules have kinetic energy ‘+ Apassive process- no energy is needed *Diffuses down a concentration gradient ‘+ When molecules have evened out, they are evenly distributed + They still move around but there's no net movement RATE OF DIFFUSION: ‘© TEMPERATURE: Increasing the temperature increases kinetic energy- movernent of diffusion increases ‘* CONCENTRATION GRADIENT: The higher it is the faster the rate of diffusion SURFACE AREA: The larger the surface area the more rate of diffusion ‘* THICKNESS OF MEMBRANE: Thinner membrane- faster rate of diffusion (shorter the distance particles have to travel) + SIZE OF MOLECULES: Smaller molecules diffuse quickly than larger ones © MOVEMENT FACILITATED DIFFUSION: ‘* This is when large or charged molecules can’t diffuse directly through membrane e.g. slucose, amino acids * Doesn't need energy + Moves down a concentration gradient *Diffuses through: (CARRIER PROTEIN Correct molecule attaches to carrier > Protein changes shape > Then releases molecule to opposite side of membrane CHANNEL PROTEIN 2, e Foe % Shaped only to allow specific molecule = J through arth rn > Different proteins facilitate diffusion Bis of different charged particles os 8[Page[BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) * Against concentration gradient Requires ATP to make process “active” Involves carrier proteins * Proteins act as “pumps"- which are complementary ‘Molecule attaches to carrier protein and protein changes shape, then moves molecule across membrane releasing it to ONE side Active Transport: * Carries large or charged molecules * Carries molecules against concentration gradient * Carries molecules at faster + efficient rate * Can diffuse through lipid bilayer DIFFERENCES: ‘ACTIVE TRANSPORT FACILITATED DIFFUSION * Unidirectional (one way) ‘+ Both directions ‘Uses ATP for energy ‘+ Passive process- no energy needed = _ Specific for certain molecules + General: non-specific, + Faster than simple diffusion + Goat same speed as diffusion 7 Against concentration gradient + Down a concentration gradient WATER POTENTIAL- The measurement of tendency of water molecules to diffuse from one place to another W ‘Highest water potential of pure water = ZERO + As water potential DECREASES value becomes more NEGATIVE * Measurement of water potential is “kilopascals (kPa)" ‘ HYPOTONIC: Less concentration ~ Higher water potential ~ Net movement is INTO cell HYPERTONIC: High concentration — Lower water potential - Net movement is OUT of cell “ISOTONIC: Same concentration — Same water potential - Net movement is IN and OUT of cell ‘ANIMAL CELL: Fypotonic Hypertonic BOONE ames HAEMOLYSED: ‘CRENATED: EQUAL AMOUNT: ® Solution has higher water | | > Solution has lower water | | > Solution has seme water potential potential potential > Net movement of wateris | | > Net movement of wateris | | > Water molecules pass IN INTO cell OUT cell and OUT of cell > Cell BURSTS > Cell SHRINKS > Cell STAYS THE SAME[BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) Hypotorie Hypertonic Isotonic worm 0 #0 = Ho feweme “ woid Plasmolyzed sens! Flaccid TURGID: PLASMOLYSED: FLACCII > Solution has higher > Solution has lower water | | > Solution has same water potential potential water potential > Net movement of water > Net movement of water | | > Net movement of is INTO cell is OUT of cell water is IN and OUT of ® Vacuole + cytoplasm > Cytoplesm + membrane cell PUSH against cell wall PULL away from cell wall > Cell STAYS THE SAME 10| Page[BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) CELL DIVISION, DIVERSITY AND ORGANISATION Interphase- DNA replicates Mitosis- Nuclear divides and chromatids separate Cytokinesis- Cytoplasm divides or cleaves Growth phase- Each new cell grows to full size CELL CYCLE: New daughter cells form from parent cells in a series of events called the “CELL CYCLE”. Daughter cells must be able to carry out the same functions as the parent cells Chromosomes contain one molecule of DNA each, which contain specific lengths if DNA called genes Daughter cells produced need identical copies of all the instructions @ Human cells= 46 chromosomes (gametes= 23) Onion cells= 12 Chimpanzees= 48 Dogs= 78 Fern= 1000 M ‘+ G1- First growth stage, this includes making new Sonal proteins and organelles |S “Synthesis” where each chromosome is duplicated so that each has two chromatids ‘The cell “checks itself” after this stage to ensure it hhas two copies of each chromosome, if not, the cell cycle stops ‘+ G2 Second growth stage, the enlargement of the developing cell. There is another “checkpoint” next where the cell checks its progress ‘+ M- The nuclear division (mitosis) where the cell eventually divides. The line at the end of mitosis is “eytokenesis” (cleavage of cytoplasm). ‘To make genetically identical cells For growth of multicellular organisms For sexual reproduction To replace cells ‘To repair damaged cells, ‘Some organisms reproduce asexually by mitosis, such as plants, fungi and bacteria 11[Page[BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) STAGES: x ® ria 3 STAGE 1: PROPHASE STAGE 2: METAPHASE * Chromosomes supercoil (shorten and | * Chromosomes moves to equator thicken) {central region of spindle) and align ‘© Consist of a pair of sister chromatids themselves ‘© Daughter centrioles begin to move | © Chromosome attaches to spindle around the cell Spindle locks onto centromere of each * Centrioles move completely round to chromosome ‘opposite poles ‘+ Each centriole begins to make @ spindle é ‘© Nuclear envelope breaks down ‘ § aoe Pre : cad = 3 ‘ 4 ‘STAGE 4: TELOPHASE 7 os ‘New nuclear envelope reforms to create two new nuclear STAGE 3: ANAPHASE ‘© Spindle breaks down and disappears Centromere split and chromosomes uncoil agai + Chromatid has own chromosomes + Cell then splits into two, so that two + Spindle fibres shorten daughter cells have a nucleus and are Then pull chromatids further apart to genetically identical ‘opposite poles of cell '* This splitting action is called cyokenesis. ‘+ Has a V-shaped appearance Animal and plant cells: Which cells can divide by [Which structures are | Cytokenesis| mitosis? Involved? ‘Animals| Most cells, Centrioles Cell surface membrane “rips” in Plants ‘Only meristem calls No centrioles, Tubulin | Cytokenesis begins with the threads are made in | formation of a cell plate at cytoplasm the equator YEAST CELLS: ‘* Reproduce asexually by budding by mitosis [Page[BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) ‘+ Offspring produced are genetically identical to parent cell 1. Acbud forms at the surface of the cell 2. The cell undergoes interphase- the DNA and organelles are replicated ready for the cell to divide 3. The cell begins to undergo mitosis 4. Nuclear division is complete- the budding cell contains a nucleus that has an identical copy of the parent cell's DNA. 5. The bud separates off from the parent cell, producing a new, genetically identical yeast cell MEIOSIS: ‘= When two gametes join together at fertilisation to form zygote. The zygote then divides and develops into a new organism © The cells have the full number of chromosomes to cia Dest start with, but the cels that ae formed have half the a ‘number origi Alon '* The 1* meiotic division is a reduction division, where Independentty there are two daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes of the nucleus of the parent cell. The cells are haploid 1 vomsasves Senate * The chromosomes arrange themselves into homologous pairs (pairs of chromosomes that have same genes, but different versions of it called alleles aaniinas © The 2” meiotic division is when two haploid daughter Calls divide and forma daughter haploid cel esp +The cel ave genetically diffrent and have ferent ee ‘combination. © Importance of meiosis: Sngenicaltoracn Cal” ‘© During fertilisation, the chromosomes of each cell combine +The zygote receives full diploid set of chromosomes, but inherits a new combination of genes from the parents ‘+ The new individual inherit characteristics from both parents, rather than one ‘STEM CELLS and CELL SPECIALISATION: Cells can differentiate in a number of ways: ‘* Number of a particular organelle changes ‘+ Size/Shape of the cell changes ‘+ Content of the cell changes (for some) Cell differentiation is an irreversible process 1B [PageSencha [BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES} Biconcave disc (concave on | Provides an increased surface area for both sides of the cell) ‘exchange; and makes it more flexible to pass through narrow capillaries No nucleus: ‘Allows for more space for haemoglobin NEUTROPHIL Granual cytoplasm due to | Allows the breakdown of ingested {PHAGOCYTE) many lysosomes pathogens Lobed nucleus Gives cell greater flexibility to make movement easier ‘SPERM CELL Undulipodium Rapid undulation gives the cell propulsion for movement ‘Acrosome (with hydrolytic | Breaks down the outer coating of the enzymes) egg cell Haploid cell (only has half| Means that the full complement is the chromosomes of an | restored after fusion with the egg adult) Many mitochondria Produce ATP for movement PALISADE CELL large numbers of [Capture @ lot of sunlight for chloroplasts photosynthesis Chloroplasts circulate | Minimalises the heat damage to around cell organelles Tall, thin andlongin shape | Means there are fewer cell walls for the sunlight to pass through ROOT HAIR CELL Tong hairlike projection Tncreases cell surface area, allowing for ‘a more rapid absorption rate of water Thin permeable cell wall for entry of water and ions ‘GUARD CELLS alls that ine the stomata _| Pores in the surface for leaf is used for gas exchange Thin outer walls and thickened inner walls force them to bend outwards to open stomata. allows gaseous exchange TISSUES AND ORGANS: Organelles |—* | cells | —> | Tissue | —> | organ |—> | system | —> Organism ‘+ TISSUES: A collection of cells that are the same or have similar functions e.g. xylem and phloem in plants, epithelial and nervous tissues in animals. ‘* ORGANS: A collection of tissues working together to carry out a specific functions e.g, leaves of plants, liver in animal ‘+ ORGAN SYSTEM: A number of organs working together to make up a system to carry out a life function e.g. excretory system, reproductive system.Wee sere eee) (BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES} EXCHANGE SURFACES AND BREATHING This takes place in: © Intestine = Lungs * Liver © Root hair cells Adaptation of lungs for exchange: 1. Large surface area- for molecules to diffuse through. This increases rate of diffusion (alveoli) 2. Permeable bartier- for oxygen and carbon dioxide to be easily diffused 3. Thin barrier- which reduces diffusion distance (alveoli, capillary wall is one cell thick) 4. Maintain steep concentration gradient- having fresh supply of molecules to keep ‘concentration high and removal of required molecules to keep concentration low Venti INHALING (INSPIRATION) Diaphragm contracts and flattens External intercostals muscles contract to raise ribs Volume of chest cavity increases Pressure in chest cavity drops below atmospheric pressure Air moves into lungs An active process- requires energy oo oe oe Tissues In The Lungs: The Lungs: ‘The trachea, bronchi and bronchioles are airways that allow passage of air into the lungs and out again. To be effective, they need to be: ‘* Large to allow sufficient air to flow without obstructionRE eka (BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES} ‘+ Divided into smaller airways to deliver air to the alveoli ‘© Strong enough to prevent collapse when air pressure is low ‘+ Flexible to allow movement ‘+ Stretchable and re-coil to allow changes in volume The trachea, bronchi and bronchiole: ‘¢ Trachea and bronchi have similar structure- only differ in size © Both have thick walls, cartilage (layer of glandular tissue, connective tissue, elastic fibres, smooth muscle and blood vessels- “loose tissue”) ‘© Trachea-C shape cartilage, smooth muscle, elastic fibres, goblet cells and cilia epithelium + Bronchi- narrower, less regular cartilage, smooth muscle, elastic fibres, goblet cells and cilia epithelium '* Bronchioles- narrower than trachea and bronchi Function of each role: Larger bronchiole have cartilage, smaller ones don’t Wall is made of smooth muscle and elastic fibres They have cluster of alveoli (air sacs) attached to them TISSUE FUNCTION. Cartilage Supports trachea and bronchi Prevents collapse when air pressure is low Strong but allows flexibility Allows oesophagus to expand during swallowing ‘Smooth Muscle Can contract to constrict airway Makes lumen of airway narrower Can cause allergic response- asthma Elastic Fibres ‘When muscle contracts, reduces diameter of lumen Provides re-coll when smooth muscle relaxes This helps to dilate (widen) the airway Goblet Cells ‘Secret mucus to trap particles Cilia Epithelium Move in synchronised pattern to move mucus up the airway Measuring Lung Capacity: 1. TIDAL VOLUME- Volume of air in each breath, usually 0.4 drm* 2. VITAL CAPACITY. Maximum volume of air that is breathed in and out, 3. BREATHING RATE- How many breaths taken, usually in a minute 4, OXYGEN UPTAKE: The rate at which a person uses up oxygen- dim® per minute well area aa ca ct 5. RESIDUAL VOLUME: Volume of Se eS ey air that always remain in lungs, ce 6. DEAD SPACE-Airin bronchioles, whe bronchi and trachea no gas + exchange between this air and blood lung Volumes ond tng Capacities 16 |Page[BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) 7. INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME- How much more air can be breathed in and above normal tidal volume when you take in a big breath 8. EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME- How much more air can be breathed out and above ‘amount that is breathed in tidal volume breath Spirometers: ‘= Can be used to investigate breathing 2) Has an oxygen-filled chamber with a moveable lid 2), Person breathes through a tube connected to the oxygen chamber 3) As person breathes in and out, lid of chamber moves up and down 4) Movements are recorded by pen attached to lid of chamber- which writes on rotating drum, creating a spirometer trace 5) Soda lime in the tube the person breathes into absorbs the carbon dioxide TOTAL VOLUME OF GAS DECREASES OVER TIME BECAUSE AIR THAT IS BREATHED OUT IS A MISTURE OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE. THE CARBON DIOXIDE 1S ABSORBED BY ape consumption 1) In this trace, the ventilation rate in the first minute sna is 10 breaths per minute (there are 10 ‘peaks’ in the first minute). 2) The tidal volume may change from time to time, ieee but in this trace it's about 0.5 dm’. | a 3) The graph shows a vital capacity of 2.65 dm’, NN) 4) Oxygen consumption is the decrease in the volume of MW 28 in the spirometer chamber. tt can be read from the pein graph by taking the average slope of the trace. In this case, it drops by 0.7 dm’ in the first minute —so, oxygen consumption is 0.7 dm'/min, ‘THE SODA LIME AND THERE’S ONLY OXYGEN LEFT IN THE CHAMBER, WHICH IS THEN USED UP OVER TIME. TIN ANI Circulatory Syster Factors that affect transport system p © see [ LL oa eer cae ‘Surface area to volume ratio Level of activity [aaa eae aaa Toure [am avon fie TTFage wo Same w ‘Sevier[BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) Features of a good transport system: 1). FLUID- To carry nutrients and oxygen around the body (blood) 2) PUMP. To create pressure that will push fluid around (heart) 3) EXCHANGE SURFACE. To enable oxygen and nutrients to enter blood and leave it where it’s needed 4) TUBES- To carry blood 5) TWO CIRCUITS- One to pick up oxygen and another to deliver oxygen to tissues +P Singled cell organisms: small organisms can exchange molecules across their outer surfaces. jingle and double circulatory systems ‘They have a large surface area to volume ratio Large multi-cellular organisms: smaller surface area to volume ratio. This means that the ‘outer surface isn’t large enough to allow substances to diffuse in Ina single circulatory system, blood only passes through the heart once In.a double circulatory system, blood only passes through the heart twice In fish, the he2rt pumps blood to the «ls, then through the rest of the boxy and back to the heart ina singe circuit FISH MAMMAL (DOUBLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM) Heart can increase blood pressure after its passed through lungs This means blood flows more quickly to body tissues systemic circulation can carry blood at higher pressure than pulmonary circulation Blood pressure mustn't be too high in pulmonary circulation, or it may damage capillaries ‘Are active Maintain body temperature ire lots of 18 |Page[BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) ‘OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM- In invertebrates (e.g. insects), blood isn’t held within vessels always Is free to circulate the body cavity Only works for insects because they're small Cannot contain any pressure, blood pressure is low, blood flow is slow, not directed to particular organs and wouldn't meet demand of large animals CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM- Y- Invertebrates (e.g. fish & mammals), blood is never released into the body cavity Y Blood circulates through series of blood vessels- artery, vein, capillary Y Blood can be pumped under pressure, blood flows quickly, can be directed to specific organs More responsive to changes in demand by increasing pressure to carry more oxygen Y- Dilate vessels and constrict flow to other organs KAR 8 The Hear + The mammalian heart is a muscular double pump made of thick cardiac muscle ‘+ The right side pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs + The left side pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body '* There are four chambers: the main two are the ventricles and the other two are the atria * Coronary arteries lay over the heart= supply the heart with fresh blood + (glucose & oxygen) ‘+ Deoxygenated blood flows from vena cava into right atrium. (pulmonary artery) ‘Oxygenated blood flows from lungs to pulmonary vein into left atrium ‘© Valves in aorta are called semi ‘© Valve separating right atria from right ventricles is tricuspid valve ‘© Valve separating left atria from left ventricle is bicuspid valve * Both called “atrioventriculsr valves” '* Blood flows from atria through the atrioventricular valves and into ventricles below. The AV valves are pocket tissues which fill with blood and shut when the ventricles contract, ‘ensuring blood flows upwards into the arteries, not back into the atria * Inside the ventricles are tendinous cords, which attach valves to the wall of the ventricle, preventing the valves from turning inside out nar valves- prevent backflow 19| Pageann TEM (BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) ‘+The ventricular septum is a wall of muscle separating ventricles: this ensures the oxygenated ‘and deoxygenated blood on either side of the heart DOESN'T Mi Thickness of chamber was depends on ther function: The more WORK a heart chamber has todo, the more MUSCLE it needs so the THICKER its wall is 1. ATRIA WALLS= Thin (only need to push blood into the ventricles-no high pressure needed) 2. LEFT VENTRICLE= Thickest (pumps blood all around body- need high pressure as it pushes blood further) 3, RIGHT VENTRICLE= Next thickest (pumps blood to lungs) ‘The Cardiac Cycle: a 4 © Consists of alternate contraction of chambers = SYSTOLE (atrial and ventricular) relaxations = DIASTOLE 2) ATRIAL SYSTOLE “Both atria contract, -Atria fills with blood, which decreases volume & increases pressure Higher pressure in atria causes atrioventricular valves to open, allowing blood to flow Into ventricles Blood flows from: atria > ventricles 2).VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE “Both ventricles contract -Pressure is higher in ventricle than atria, so atrioventricular valves close to prevent backflow atria 3) DIASTOLE -Ventricle and atria both relax, increasing their volume and decreasing their pressure Higher pressure in pulmonary artery and aorta causes semi lunar valves to close, preventing backflow Blood flows from: veins > atria > ventricles 20|PagePressure (kPa) [BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) The graph below shows the pressure changes of the left atrium, left ventricle and aorta in one heartbeat ‘The sound of the heart: The “lub-dup” sound made by the heart is made by the valves closing: © The 1* sound “lub”, is made by the atrioventricular viaves closing as the ventricles contract © The 2” sound “dup”, is the semi-lunar valves closing as the ventriles relax Control of the Cardiac Cycle: ‘b SINO-ATRIAL NODE (SAN) - The heart’s pacemaker. A small path of tissue that sets the rhythm of the heart by sending out regular waves of electrical excitation (activity) to atria walls +b PURKYNE TISSUE- Specially adapted muscle fibres that conduct the wave of excitation from the AVN (atrio-ventricular node) down the septum to the ventricles. Process starts in sinoatrial node (SAN)- in wall of right atrium SAN sends out regular waves of electrical excitation 3. Causes both walls of atria to contract at the same time- ATRIAL SYSTOLE 4. Then a band of non-conducting collagen tissue prevents waves of electrical activity from being passed directly from atria to ventricles 5, Instead, the waves are transferred from SAN to atrio-ventricular node(AVN) 6. AVNis responsible for passing waves onto purkyne tissue. But there's slight delay before- AVN reacts- to make sure ventricles contract after atria is emptied- VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE 21 [Page[BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) 7. Purkyne tissue than carries waves of electrical activity into muscular walls of right and left ventricles 8. Causes them to contract simultaneously from bottom up, PQR ST ECG of Normal Sinus Rhythm contraction of the atria wall shows diastole ‘excitation of ventricular wall beginning of ventricle (should be flat) delay of AV node to allow filling of ventricles Different types of EC af. : ‘Myocardial infarction (heart attack) ‘Anormal ECG ST segment is elevated ‘Atrial fibrillation (uncoordinated beat) P wave is unclear /missing. Ventricular hypertrophy (Thickened) Strough is deeper 2|PageBlood Vessels: ARTERY CAPILLARY | arenes . CAPILLARIES (he aithe > Carries Blood AWAY heart | > Carries blood TO heart Tow | > Smallest blood vessel > Carries oxygenated blood | pressure > Glucose, oxygen are except pulmonary artery: | > Carries deoxygenated blood | exchanged takes deoxygenated blood to | except pulmonary vein- takes | > Adapted for efficent lungs oxygenated blood to heart diffusion > No valves > Have valves- help blood flow | > Walls are only 1 cell > Small lumen- maintain high | back to heart & prevent | thick: short diffusion pressure backflow pathway > Thick, muscular wall contain | > Wider lumen- ease flow of | > Connected to veins collagen fibres for strength blood and arteries > Flastictissue- stretch + recoil | > Very little elastic and muscle | > Has flattened > Folded endothelium-expand | tissue endothelium and > Smooth muscle- to contract+ lumen constrict artery Blood and Tissue Fl '* BLOOD: Plasma proteins, carbon dioxide, oxygen, glucose, salts, fatty acids, hormones, erythrocytes (red blood cells), leucocytes (white blood cells) and platelets. ‘+ TISSUE FLUID: Fatty acids, amnio cacids, hormones, salts, carbon dioxide and glucose. Role: To transport oxygen and nutrients from blood to cells and carry carbon dioxide and waste products back to the blood, How is Tissue Fluid formed? 1) At the start of the capillary bed, the arteriole end, there's high pressure due to the contraction of the heart muscle. 2). This pressure is called hydrostatic pressure and it forces fluid out of the capillaries into the spaces around the capillary wall, forming tissue fli 3) As the fluid leaves the blood which consists of plasma with dissolved nutrients and oxygen {others are too big to be pushed out), there’s a lower pressure at the end of the capillary bed near the venules. 4). The fluid surrounds body cells, so that gaseous i exchange and nutrients can occur by diffusion and facilitated diffusion. How does fluid return to the blood? by tm 23|Page[BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) 1) Not only the hydrostatic pressure forces the fluid out, but the fluid itself has some hydrostatic pressure, which will push fluid back into capillaries. 2), Both the blood and tissue contain solutes giving them a negative water potential 3) The water potential of the blood is lower than that of tissue fluid 4) This means water re-enters into the capillaries from the tissue fluid at the venous end by osmosis. Formation of tymp! Role: Filter and engulf bacteria + foreign material 1) Not all the tissue fluid ty rag No returns to. the blood sot copilares cones sm emme es SS SSE Tee et ee ee Iymahatic system pny [ele -[e] — 3) Lymph moves towards teste ~~ dif ron noe so teen hohe tee es a caus 4) Valves in the lymph vessels stop the lymph going backwards 5) Lymphocytes is produced in lymph nodes, which are swellings in the lymphatic system RBC are too big to get through capillary walls in to tissue fluid Viymphocytes | WAC isin lymph system. Only enter tissue fluid when there's infection 7 = * Only present in tissue fluid if capillaries are damaged ‘Only antibodies | Plasma proteins too Big TE + lymph have higher water potential than blood ‘Can move freely between TF and lymph Very few Very few. ® Tn blood, transported as lipoproteins. Lymph has more than blood Very few. Very few. 7 Very few. Very few. Little w v 24|PageUnit One: Cells, Exchange and Transport CQO Maar Len MCCA) Carriage of Oxyger ‘+ When haemoglobin takes up oxygen, it becomes oxyhaemoglobin Haemoglobin + oxygen > oxyhaemoglobin Made up of 4 polypeptide chains (subunits) = Each is bound to a haem (non-protein) group ‘+ Haem consists of iron (Fe™) ion, which can attract and hold an oxygen molecule ‘+ Each haemoglobin molecule can carry four oxygen molecules ‘* Haem group has an affinity (attraction) for oxygen. —— (TONES) one oxisow Pick up (load) O Release (deliver) 0: Haemoglobin saturation depends on the partial pressure of oxygen Partial pressure of oxygen (p02) is a measure of oxygen concentration ‘When oxyhaemoglobin releases oxygen for aerobic respiration in cell, it's called dissociation ‘OXYGEN LOADS ONTO HAEMOGLOBIN TO FORM OXYHAEMOGLOBIN WHERE THERE’S HIGH pO. ‘+ OXYHAEMOGLOBIN UNLOADS ITS OXYGEN WHERE THERE’S LOW pO; Oxygen dissociation curve: '* Dissociation curve shows how saturated the haemoglobin (Hb) is with oxygen at partial pressure ‘+The graph is “s-shaped” because when haemoglobin combines with the 1* 0, molecules, its shape changes in a way that makes it easier for the molecules to join ‘+ As the haemoglobin starts to become saturated, it gets harder for more oxygen molecules to join ‘+ Where it’s STEEP= easy for oxygen molecules to join '* Where it's SHALLOW= hard for oxygen molecules to join 100% saturation means Where pO: Is high (in lungs), every (Hb) molecule is carrying maximum 4 molecules of 03. (0% saturation means none of (Ho) molecules are carrying any Os haemoglobin has high affinity for oxygen (i.e. will combine with O,). So it has high saturation of oxygen Where pO; is low (in respiring tissues), haemoglobin has low affinity for oxygen (i.e. will release 0,). So it has ow saturation of oxygen 25|PageFetal vs. adult haemoglobin dissociation curve: Fetal haemoglobin picks up mother's blood across placenta oxygen from By the time mother’s blood reaches placenta, oxygen saturation is decreased (because some has been used up by mothers’ body) For foetus to get enough oxygen to survive, its haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen So oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve for fetal haemoglobin is to the left of curve for adult BWI isiovocy revision NorEs} haemoglobin. Carriage of Carbon dioxi Dissolved plasma =5% Carbamnichaemglobin = 10% _Hydrogencarbonate ions = 85% 1) Most of CO, from respiring tissues diffuses into red blood cells and is combined with water to form carbonic acid, which is catalysed by enzyme carbonic anhydrase (CO; + #20 > H:COs) 2), Carbonic acid dissociates to release hydrogen ions and hydrogencarbonate ions (H:COs > HY + HCOs) 3) Hydrogencarbonate ions diffuse out of red blood cells- ions have negative charge meaning there's appositive charge inside cell as a result. 4) Therefore, chloride ions which have negative charge move into blood to balance out charges, returning it to neutral. This is called chloride shift 5) To prevent hydrogen ions causing blood to become acidic, hydrogen ions are taken up by haemoglobin to produce haemoglobinic acid 6)_ Increase in hydrogen ions causes oxyhaemoglobin to unload its oxygen 10 Fe § © jo a A= Low ood 00%) t Noval Blood (Peo, } = faenslod cos re The Bohr Effect: ‘As partial pressure of CO; increases, hydrogen ion also increases Meaning oxyhaemoglobin release more oxygen (less oxygen is saturated) Causing haemoglobin dissociation curve to. shift down and to the right ‘This happens when there are respiring tissues in muscles (exercise) Pana pressure of angen Pa TRANSPORT IN PLANTS Xylem and Phloem: Multi-cellular plants need transport systems: '* Plants need transport systems to move substances to and from individual cells quickly. '* They need substances like water, minerals and sugars to live, but also need to get rid of waste products 26|PageBF) (siotocy revision Notes) ‘© Uke animals, they are multicellular and have a small surface area : volume ratio ‘© Plants can’t use direct diffusion because it's too slow for exchange ‘Two types of tissue in transport system: ‘1. Xylem Tissue: Transports water and mineral ions 2. Phloem Tissue: Transports dissolved substances like sugars They're different in root, stem and leaf. Arrangement is determined by other functions of xylem- for support ——= Both xylem and phloem are | Both are near the outside to | Form network of veins to central to support root as it| provide scaffolding that | support thin leaves pushes through the soil reduces bending STRUCTURE OF XYLEM TISSU! + Long, tube-tke vessels ‘+ Forms when cells de and end walls + contents decay- leaves long column of dead cells ‘+ Thick walls made from lignin- which support xylem vessels & stops them collapsing inwards Lignin waterproofs walls of cells Lignin forms patterns in cell wall- are spirals (prevent vessel from being too Figid & allows flexibility of stem + Insome places, lignin leaves pores in wall of vessel called pits- allow water to move sideways © Narrow tubes- water isa con’ Adaptation of xylem to its functio ‘+ Dead cells are aligned to form a continuous column (hollow tubes) ‘+ Warrow tubes so water column doesn’t break easily and capilary action can be effective ‘+ Pits in lignified walls to allow water to move sideways from one vessel to another ‘+ Lignin patterns (spirals) allow xylem to stretch as plant grows and enables stem to bend Flow of water isnt impeded (delayed) because: ‘+ There are no end walls ‘© There are no cell contents ‘+ There's no nucleus or cytoplasm Lignin thickening prevents walls from collapsing uous stream STRUCTURE OF PHLOEM TISSUE Sm ‘+ Arranged in tubes Not used for support, only transport aera © Contains phloem fibres, phloem parenchyma, sieve tube elements and companion cells Seve tbe Groplasm:[BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) 41) SIEVE TUBE ELEMENTS: Living cells from tube to transport solutes Joined end to end to form sieve tubes “Sieve” parts are end walls, which have holes to allow solutes to pass through ‘They have: no nucleus, thin layer of cytoplasm, few organelles Cytoplasm of cells is connected through holes in sieve plates 2) COMPANION CELLS: Lack of nucleus and other organelles in sieve tube elements- can’t survive on their ‘There's a companion cell for every sieve tube element “Carry out metabolic functions needed for themselves and their sieve cells-lots of ‘mitochondria for energy of transport of solutes. oe oes Cells living or dead Dead Living Bordered pits Present ‘Absent present or absent Ugnin present or Present ‘Absent absent Substances Water & minerals Solutes transported Direction of Up Down transport Water Transport: Root hair cells: ‘* Water moves in from the soil by osmosis, ‘+ Minerals is absorbed by active transport- using ATP for enegry Passes through the root cortex, including the endodermis to reach xylem Water is drawn down a water potential gradient Soil around roots has high water potential and leaves have lower water potential because water constantly evaporates from them ‘* Carrier protein in membranes to pump ions + Large surface area, thin cell walls ‘casparian sine 28|PagePathways of wat [BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) ‘APOPLAST PATHWAY- Water moves along the cell walls ‘SYMPLAST PATHWAY- Water moves through the cytoplasm VACUOLAR PATHWAY- Water moves across the cell vacuole Casparian strip: Waterproof strip on endodermal layer Blocks apoplast pathway between cortex and xylem Ensures water and dissolve nitrate ions have to take symplast pathway through cell ‘membrane Cell membrane has transporter proteins that move nitrate ions into xylem This lowers water potential in xylem so water from cortex cells follows into xylem by ‘osmosis How does water move up the xylem? 1) 2) 3) 4 5) 6) 7 Water moves into the xylem, from the roots to the leaves by osmosis- because of root pressure at bottom of xylem forcing water up Water then evaporates from the leaves at the “top” of the xylem-transpiration ‘This creates tension (suction), which pulls more water into the leaf (creating low pressure at top of xylem) There is then cohesion force (attraction) between the water molecules in the xylem ‘There is also adhesion force of water molecules attracted to walls of xylem vessels (capillary action) ‘The water is in a continuous column called transpiration stream- water then moves up the xylem Going from a higher pressure to a lower pressure Water enters leaves in xylem and passes to mesophyll cells by osmosis Water evaporates from surface of cell (form water vapour) into air spaces between cells in leaf ‘As water vapour collects, the water vapour potential rises, then water molecules diffuse out Open stomata allows gaseous exchange for photosynthesis arts water moves fror (OSMOSIS: From xylem to mesophyll cells EVAPORATION: From mesophyll cells to intercellular spaces DIFFUSION: From intercellular spaces out through stomata 29|PageBWI isiovocy revision NorEs} Roots ~> cortex -> xylem -> mesophyll > stomata Why is water movement up stem useful? vvvvy Cool plant Needed in leaves for photosynthesis. Needed to allow cells to grow and elongate Keep cells turgid Carry minerals up plant Factors that affect transpiration rate UGHT Lghter= faster transpiration rate because stomata open in light closes in dark, - litte transpiration TEMPERATURE Higher= Taster transpiration rate because evaporation Is faster increases water potential gradient between inside outside of leaf- water diffuse out quickly HUMDITY Lowers faster transpiration rate, Ifa around plant is ary, there's higher water potential gradient WIND Windier= faster transpiration rate- air movement blows away water molecules from stomata increasing water potential gradient WATER Little water In soile plant can't replace water that's lost. Water loss in plants is vecucec when stomata is closed or when plants shed leaves in winter NO. OF LEAVES ‘Mores larger surface area, in which water vapour can be lost NO. SIZE, POSITION OF | Large stomata= water vapour is lost quickly STOMATA If stomata on lower surface, water vapour loss is slower PRESENCE OF CUTICLE ‘Waxy cuticle= reduces evaporation from leaf surface Potometer can be used to estimate transpiration rate Not exact measure- actually measures water uptake Water is drawn up capillary tube and bubble movement is measured Method: 1. Cut shoot underwater to prevent air entering xylem. Cut at a slant to increase surface area needed to maximise water uptake 2. Check apparatus is full of water and has no air bubbles 3. Inset shoot into apparatus underwater to prevent air entering 4. Remove potometer from water and make sure it’s airtight and watertight 5. Dry leaves, allow time for shoot to acclimatise(get used to), then shut tap 6. Keep conditions constant throughout experiment 7. Record starting position of air bubble 8. Start stopwatch and record distance moved by bubble per uni 30|Page[BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) '* Eg. cacti, pine trees and prickly pears ‘© Adapted to live in dry (arid) climates ‘* Adaptations prevent loss of water by transpiration ‘Smaller leaves (needle-shaped) Reduces surface area of leaves- less water is lost by Densely packed spongy mesophyll | Reduces cell surface area that’s exposed to air. Less water is arsssntadssburcdrsechaoterne Thier wey ete taterpost reduce evapoTon oa atanata han wate | Redon wer asd aed er OTST WaT valet ow Hairs on surface Trap layer of air. reducing diffusion of water vapour out through stomata Pits containing stomata Trap air and reduce gradient in water vapour potential by diffusion Rolled up leaves Lower epidermis that isn't exposed to atmosphere- reduce water vapour potential Lower water potential in leaf cells | Maintaining high salt concentration- reduces evaporation of water (Marram grass- special type (lives on sand dunes) ‘Translocation: ‘+ Energy-requiring process that happens in phloem ‘+ Apart of plant{leaf) that releases sucrose into phloem is a SOURCE (produces sucrose so it's photosynthetic) ‘+ Apart of plant (root) that removes sucrose from phloem is a SINK How sucrose is loaded up into phloem: 1. It's loaded by an active process 2. ATP is used by companion cells to actively transport hydrogen ions out of cytoplasm into surrounding tissue. 3. This sets upa sion gradient and hydrogen ions diffuse back into companion cells 31[Pageann hange and Transport [BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES) 4, Facilitated diffusion occurs through special co- transporter proteins, which enable hydrogen ions to bring back sucrose molecules into ‘companion cells 5. As concentration of sucrose molecules build Up inside, they diffuse into sieve tube element through numerous plasmodesmata (sucrose moves from high to low concentration) Cottransport is process of transport of molecules where two substances are attached together, so they can diffuse at the same time. Uses facilitated diffusion because sucrose molecules are large and polar. ‘Mechanism of transport in phloem (Mass flow hypothesis) AT.THE SOURCE ‘+ Sucrose is actively loaded into sieve tube element and reduces water potential ‘* Water follows by osmosis and increases hydrostatic pressure in sieve tube element ‘rp * Water moves down sieve tube from high hydrostatic \ pressure at source, to low hydrostatic pressure at sink {pressure gradient) et ATTHE SINK ‘© Sucrose is removed from sieve tube by surrounding cells Lev sneer senna and increases water potential in sieve tube © Water moves out of sieve tube by facilitated diffusion and reduces hydrostatic pressure ALONG THE PHLOEM * Water enter phloem at source, moving down hydrostatic pressure gradient and leaving phloem at sink ‘+ Produces flow of water carrying sucrose and assimilates along phloem- MASS FLOW * Occurs in any direction- up or down plant- depending on where sugars are needed Evidence both for and against mass flow: If you remove ring of bark from woody stem, a bulge forms above ring. If fluid from bulge is analysed, it will have higher concentration of sugars above ring than below- evidence that there will be downward flow of sugar ‘Sugar travels to many different sinks, not just one with highest water potential If aphids (animal), pierce phloem leaving mouthparts behind and sap flows out, it will flow quicker nearer leaves than further down in stem- evidence that there’s pressure gradient Sieve plates would create barrier to mass flow. Lot of pressure would be needed for solutes to get through at reasonable rate if metaboli itor (stops ATP production) is put Jnto phloem, translocation stops- evidence active transport is involved There’s experimental model for mass flow. 32| Page