ESDEP Connections

11/12/12 ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG11]
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ESDEP WG 11
CONNECTION DESIGN: STATIC LOADING
Lecture 11.1.1 Connections in Buildings

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To identify the ways in which structural connections are made in steel buildings, to discuss the importance of a proper choice of
connection type on both overall structural behaviour and economics and to present the basic principles of connection design.
PRE-REQUISITES
Lecture 1B.5.1: Introduction to Design of Simple Industrial Buildings
Lecture 1B.7.1: Introduction to Design of Multi-Storey Buildings
Lecture 3.1.1: General Fabrication of Steel Structures I
Lecture 3.5: Fabrication/Erection of Buildings
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 11.1.2: Introduction to Connection Design
Lectures 11.2: Welded Connections
Lectures 11.3: Bolted Connections
Lecture 11.4: Analysis of Connections
Lecture 11.5: Simple Connections for Buildings
Lecture 11.6: Moment Connections for Continuous Framing
Lecture 11.7: Partial Strength Connections for Semi-Continuous Framing
Lecture 11.8: Splices
Lectures 13: Tubular Structures
SUMMARY
The need for various forms of structural connections in steel buildings is established and their basic forms are identified. Methods of
making connections are discussed within the context of transferring local forces between components, ensuring consistency of overall
structural behaviour and the practical aspects of fabrication and erection. The basic principles of connection design are thus established.
1. INTRODUCTION
Steel frame buildings consist of a number of different types of structural elements, each of which has to be properly attached to the
neighbouring parts of the structure. This will involve the use of several forms of connection. The main classes of connection are:
i) Where a change of direction occurs, e.g. beam-to-column connections, beam-to-beam connections and connections between different
members in trusses.
ii) To ensure manageable sizes of steelwork for transportation and erection e.g. columns are normally spliced every two or three storeys.
iii) Where a change of component occurs, including connection of the steelwork to other parts of the building, e.g. column bases,
connections to concrete cores and connections with walls, floors and roofs.
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Figure 1 gives examples of connections within the context of a multi-storey frame.
Connections are important parts of every steel structure. The mechanical properties of the connections are of great influence on the
strength, stiffness and stability of the whole structure.
The number and the complexity of the connections have a decisive influence on the time that is necessary for the statical analysis and the
production of drawings.
Production of connections, i.e. cutting, drilling and welding of main members, plates, cleats and stiffeners, consumes much of the work
content in the fabrication shop. The ease with which the site connections can actually be made is a key factor in erection.
Thus the selection, design and detailing of the connections in a building frame has a very significant influence on costs.
2. COMPONENTS OF CONNECTIONS
Connections in steel structures are normally made using welds and/or bolts.
Welds
Although various forms of structural welds are possible, fillet welding of the type illustrated in Figure 2a is normally to be preferred to butt
welding as shown in Figure 2b, since it requires only simple preparation of the parts to be joined, can usually be accomplished with
relatively simple equipment and does not require special skills of the welder.
Although welding may be conducted on site, it tends to be expensive for the following reasons:
Temporary platforms with safe access have to be provided.

Work can be delayed unless welds are protected from the weather.
Electric current has to be supplied to the working point.
Temporary bolts and cleats are still needed to hold members together.
Cost of inspection.
The longer erection period means that the client cannot take over the building as quickly.
Site joints are, therefore, normally made using bolts.
Bolts
Depending on the shape of the connection and the location of the bolts, they are loaded in tension, in shear or in combined tension and
shear, see Figures 3 and 4.
To accommodate some mismatch in hole distances and bolt diameters, holes are normally drilled 2mm in diameter greater than the bolt
diameter (clearance holes). Where displacements due to these clearances are not acceptable, the bolts may be preloaded to prevent slip.
For statically loaded structures, such as buildings, preloaded bolts should normally be avoided. The special treatment of the contact
surfaces to obtain a high and reliable value for the slip factor and the procedures to achieve the design preload are expensive.
Other Parts
In addition to bolts and welds, other parts are often also necessary to transfer forces, e.g. plates and angle cleats. Figure 5 shows some
examples in beam-to-column connections.
Potentially weak areas may occur in connections. In the beam-to-column connection in Figure 6 such areas may be the column flange and
the column web. The transmission of high localised forces in the column may cause local yielding and local buckling. These failure modes
may be decisive for the moment resistance of a connection. For example, the moment resistance of the connection shown in Figure 6 is
lower than the full plastic moment of the beam.
If necessary, the moment resistance can be increased by strengthening the relevant weak areas of the connections, see Figure 7.
3. TYPES OF CONNECTIONS
For buildings designed to resist essentially static loading, including wind loads, it will normally be sufficient to design connections to resist
forces that primarily act in one direction only. However, in seismic zones large load reversals may occur. This load reversal will normally
require a different approach to the design of the load-resisting structure, leading to different forms of connection.
For multi-storey buildings the connections between the main structural elements may conveniently be classified as:
Beam-to-beam connections
Beam-to-column connections
Column splices
Column bases
Bracing connections.
This list does not, of course, include connections between the main framework and other parts of the structure, e.g. beams to floors,
attachment of the cladding, etc. Despite the different geometrical configurations and detailed structural requirements of the five different
types, certain general functional requirements must always be addressed:
The connections should be strong enough to transmit the design loads. To this end, they should be arranged to transmit internal
forces from one member to another along smooth load paths so as to avoid severe stress concentrations.
They must posses the intended degree of flexibility or rigidity.
The connecting elements (plates or cleats) should be arranged such that, as far as possible, they are self-positioning, accessible for
fixing (in the shop and on site), and capable of providing a 'good fit'.
Thus the design of any steelwork connection must simultaneously satisfy the needs of structural adequacy, an appropriate type of
behaviour and practical engineering. Clearly it will often be possible that different arrangements satisfy each of these needs to differing
degrees. A certain amount of judgement and experience in deciding the relative importance of the different design criteria is required to
decide which requirement should be given the greatest emphasis in a given situation. Of course, the designer does not have a completely
free choice as he must always ensure that the connection is able to transmit the required level of loads. His choice in this respect relates to
the exact arrangement selected and, perhaps, to the extent to which a more easily fabricated connection might provide more strength than
is actually required.
In this respect also the workshop should have an influence on the design. Its capabilities and equipment should be taken into
consideration when detailing connections. Therefore, the detailing work should be undertaken in consultation with the workshop.
Connections involving tubular members require special care as the arrangements used for open sections may not simply be adapted. The
main factor is, of course, the limited access that prevents the use of bolts with nuts inside the tube. In cases where the connections may be
made wholly by welding, e.g. shop fabrication of trusses, the solution is clear. However, site joints need particular attention, especially if
the clean lines which are often a factor in selecting a tubular configuration are to be preserved. More information is provided in the
Lectures in group 13.
In order to give an impression of the wide variety of possible designs, the following descriptions include figures to provide examples of
the connection types mentioned above.
3.1 Column Splices (Figure 8)
8.1 and 8.2: These are welded splices. Where there are different thicknesses of the plates, cheaper fillet welds can be used. It should be
recalled that welding may not be the most appropriate connection means for site connections.
8.3: Bolted splice. The vertical forces may be assumed to be transmitted by bearing and/or through the plates. The plates also serve to
transmit bending moments and shear forces. Where there is unequal thickness of the flanges/webs, intermediate plates are necessary.
8.4: A frequently used splice connection. Due to the welding in the workshop, the plates may not be perfectly flat. Normally no
subsequent machining is necessary to flatten these plates.
8.5: Sometimes it is easier to make the beam continuous. To transmit the forces and for stability reasons, it is necessary to stiffen the
beam between the column flanges.
3.2 Column Bases (Figure 9)
9.1 and 9.2: Thick base plates need no stiffening. Normally this is the cheapest solution.
9.3: Thinner base plate with stiffeners as used in old designs.
3.3 Simple Beam-to-Column Connections (Figure 10)
10.1: Connection with fin plates welded to the column. The beam is connected single sided.
10.2: Bolted connection with angle cleats. Cleats may be welded to either member as an alternative.
10.3: Connection with thin flexible endplates welded to the beam.
10.4: Bolted connection with angle cleats. The horizontal angle cleat provides extra bearing resistance.
10.5: For a thick wall of a tube, the plates can be welded directly to the wall without making a sleeve in the tube to have a continuous
plate. For more details involving tubes, see Lectures 13.
10.6: The stiffness depends largely on the thickness of the end plate on the column and the thickness of the flange of the beam. The
stiffening plates may be omitted in many cases.
3.4 Moment Resisting Beam-to-Column Connections (Figure 11)
11.1: Fully welded connection.
11.2: Bolted knee - connection.
11.3: Knee-connection with welded end plates.
11.4: Welded T-connection.
11.5: Bolted T-connection.
11.6: Bolted end plate connection. It is assumed that another beam is connected on the other side of the web.
3.5 Simple Beam-to-Beam Connections (Figure 12)
12.1: Depending on the geometry and the applied forces, stiffeners may or may not be necessary. This connection has the advantage of
cheap fabrication but the disadvantage that its total construction height is higher than that of the other designs in Figure 12.
12.2: In this connection there is no need to make a cope as in the connection 12.3. Therefore it is also a cheap design to fabricate.
12.3: The top flanges are at the same height. The cope makes this design more costly than the design of 12.2.
12.4: The beam to be connected is higher than the main beam. This design is rather cheap to fabricate. The hinge will be located where
the plate is welded to the web.
3.6 Moment Resisting Beam-to-Beam Connections (Figure 13)
13.1: This design is comparable to the design of 12.1. Of course stiffeners should be omitted where possible.
13.2: The tensile force in the top flange is transmitted via the flange plate that crosses the web of the main beam through a sleeve. On the
compression side, small compression parts may be necessary to introduce the compression force.
13.3: In this design also a cope of the beam is necessary, as in 12.3.
13.4: Both beams have the same height.
3.7 Horizontal Bracing Connections (Figure 14)
14.1, 14.2, 14.3: The gusset plates on the top flanges may be a problem when metal roof or floor decking is used.
14.4, 14.5, 14.6: The channel section in Figure 14.4 is needed as a chord for the horizontal truss.
3.8 Vertical Bracing Connections (Figure 15)
15.1, 15.2, 15.3, 15.4: Various possibilities for the connections of bracings.
4. REQUIREMENTS FOR ECONOMY

As already indicated, there are a great number of requirements to be met when designing connections. The requirements relating to
structural behaviour are examined further in other Lectures 11. The basic requirements for economy are discussed further below.
The costs for a steel structure can be divided into costs for material and costs for labour as follows:
Material 20 - 40%
Calculation }
Drawings }
Fabrication } 60 - 80%
Protection }
Erection. }
From this division of costs it can be concluded that a saving of labour costs has potentially more influence on the overall costs of steel
structures than saving on material.
An influencing factor is the relation between cost per kg steel and cost per man hour.
In the past decades the price of steel has increased considerably less than the price of labour. This trend, together with developments in
fabrication technology, means that structural designs that were optimal 10 years ago may not be competitive now.
A major part of labour costs has a direct relation to the design and fabrication of connections. It is often better in design to save labour at
the expense of material. This fact can be illustrated with some simple examples. To estimate the costs, the following assumptions are
made:
the costs for 1cm3 of weld is equivalent to 0,7 kg of steel.

the costs for fabrication of stiffening plates are equal to the welding costs.
the costs per hole are equivalent to 2 kg of steel.
In Figure 16 a beam in a braced frame is given. The basis is a design with simple connections to transmit shear force only. When the
"hinges" are replaced by moment connection as in [B] and [C], then for the beam an IPE 140 can be selected instead of an IPE 180.
However, due to the extra costs for the connections, the alternatives [B] and [C] are more expensive, especially [B]. The difference with
[C] which uses backing plates to strengthen the column flanges is less. When the same exercise is carried out for a beam with greater
span, e.g. 10m, it is found that alternative C is the cheapest.
The balance between moment resistance in the connection and in the beam is discussed further in Lecture 11.7 on semi-continuous
design.
Another example is the base plates illustrated in Figure 9. It can easily be shown that the thick base plate without stiffeners is the cheapest
in nearly all cases.
For the example with the beam-column connections, it should be mentioned that the alternative A has no welds. This may mean that the
flow of material in the fabricator's shop is simpler as no stop is needed at the welding station.
Some other aspects which facilitiate economy in design are:
limit the number of bolt diameters, bolt lengths and bolt grades as far as possible. Use for instance standard M20 bolts in grade
8.8 (ultimate strength 800 N/mm2 and proof strength 640 N/mm2), see also Lecture 11.3.
Ensure good access so that welds can be made easily.
Minimise situations where precise fitting is required.
Achieve repetition of standard details.
Provide ease of access for site bolting.
Provide means for supporting the self weight of the piece quickly, so that the crane can be released.
Achieve ease of adjustment for alignment.
Consider maintenance where necessary.
For more information on these aspects, reference is made to the Lectures in group 3, on fabrication and Lectures in group 4A on
corrosion.
5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Connections are required when a change of component occurs, at changes in framing directions, and to ensure manageable
member sizes.
Connections must satisfy the requirements of structural behaviour. They should be strong enough to transmit the design loads and
at the same time have the intended degree of flexibility or rigidity.
Connection design has a major influence on the costs of real structures.
Two types of fasteners are used for connections - welds and bolts.
Normally welding is applied in the fabrication shop and bolts are used for erection.
When detailing connections, thought should be given to fabrication practicalities and erection sequence and method.
6. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Boston, R.M. and Pask, J.W. 'Structural Fasteners and their Applications', BCSA 1978.
Drawings of bolts of all kinds and photographs of fixings procedures, plus examples of connection design.
2. Interfaces: Connections between Steel and other Materials, Ove Arup and Partners. Edited by R. G. Ogden, 1994.
3. Hogan, T.J. and Firkins, A., 'Standardized structural connections', Australian Institute of Steel Construction, 1981, 3rd Ed, 1985.
Presents design models and resistance tables for the main connection types.
4. Blodgett, O.W., 'Design of welded structures', James F Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio, USA, 1972.
Informative and well illustrated reference manual covering all aspects of welded design and construction.
5. Ballio, G. and Mazzolani, F.M., 'Theory and design of steel structures', Chapman and Hall, London, 1983.
Comprehensive text on theory and design of steel structures. Deals extensively with connections. A detailed treatment of combined
loads on fillet welds is of particular interest.
6. Draft for Development DD ENV 1993-1-1: 1992 Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures, Part 1, General Rules and Rules for
Buildings.
Chapter 6 presents rules covering the design of individual items of connections, e.g. bolts, welds, hole edge distances, etc. Annex J
deals in more detail with the design of bolted and welded beam-to-column connections.
7. Essentials of Eurocode 3, Design Manual for Structures in Buildings, ECCS Publication 65, 1991.
8. Bijlaard, F.S.K. et al, Structural Properties of Semi-Rigid Joints in Steel Frames, IABSE Publications, 1989.
Explains how flexibility arises in beam-to-column connections and presents methods for assessing stiffness and strength properties.
9. Joints in simple construction, Volume 1: Design methods,
SCI/BCSA Publication 205, 2nd Ed, 1993.
Provides design models and some background for the most popular types of: beams to columns, beam to beam, column splice and
column base.
10. Joints in Simple Construction, Volume 2: Practical Applications, SCI/BCSA Pub 206, 1st Ed, 1992.
Expands on the more practical aspects of connection design; provides tables to facilitate connection design in a "look-up" basis.
11. Owens, G. W. and Cheal, B. D., Structural Steelwork Connections, 1st Ed, 1989.
Comprehensive coverage of many aspects of connection behaviour and design.
ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.1.2: Introduction to Connection

Design
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To introduce connection design, concentrating on the mechanics of load transfer in various forms of connection.
PREREQUISITES:
Basic understanding of applied mechanics, and the theories of elasticity and plasticity.
Lecture 2.3: Engineering Properties of Steels
Lecture 2.4: Steel Grades and Qualities
Lecture 11.1.1: Connections in Buildings
RELATED LECTURES:
Lectures 11.4: Analysis of Connections
Lecture 11.8: Splices
Lectures 13: Tubular Structures
SUMMARY:
The principal components of welded and bolted connections are described. The concept of load transfer from the supported member into the supporting
member is presented and the different types of load component are identified. The steps involved in tracing the load path, assessing the strength requirements
and checking the resistance of components are established in general terms as a prelude to more detailed coverage of the subject in Lectures 11.2, 11.3 and
11.4.
1. INTRODUCTION
The reasons for connections in all forms of steel construction have already been explained in Lecture 11.1.1. The principal structural and economical
requirements were also presented. In this Lecture 11.1.2 the structural requirements (strength, stiffness and deformation capacity) are discussed in greater
detail. The Eurocode 3 [1] classification for connections is introduced. This classification considers the stiffness and strength of beam to column connections.
The freedom of the designer to choose the type of connection, and to choose the details for each type, leads to a great variety of connections, see for
example the figures in Lecture 11.1.1. The analysis of the structural properties of connections is presented in Section 4, where a number of basic load
transfers are identified.
2. REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR

Relevant properties of steel are its strength, its stiffness and its ductility or deformation capacity. These properties can be demonstrated in a tensile test, see
Figure 1. A well designed steel structure should possess the same good properties.
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The basic requirements for structural elements/connections concern the strength, the stiffness and the deformation capacity.
Figure 2 defines the strength, stiffness and deformation capacity of a beam-to-column connection designed to transfer a moment from the beam into the
column.
The rotation capacity is a measure of the deformation that can be obtained before failure somewhere in the connection causes a drop in the moment
resistance.
The strength, stiffness and deformation capacity of connections are discussed in greater detail below:
Strength
For the determination of the forces on the connection, a static analysis must be carried out. Such analysis includes the determination of the design loads and
the modelling of the structure, see Figure 3. In the schematization of the structure, the stiffness of the connections is an important element. Connections can
be assumed rigid, as hinges or as having a stiffness between these two. The deformation capacity of the members (beams and columns) and of the
connections plays an important role in the ultimate distribution of forces in the structure.
All parts of the structure must be designed so that they can resist the calculated forces and have a deformation capacity that is consistent with the
assumptions made in the global analysis.
Stiffness
The stiffness of the connection affects the level of loading for which it should be designed. A connection of low rotational stiffness does not attract major
bending moments and therefore may be assumed as a pinned connection in the schematization of the structure.
Of course, the stiffness of the connections affects the deflections of the beams. Especially in non-braced frames the stiffness of the connections may have a
major effect on the deflections of the structure as a whole and on its stability.
If the connections are assumed rigid in the modelling for the static analysis of the structure, then consequently the form of the connections should be such that
their deformations have a negligible influence on the load distribution and the deformations of the structure.
On the other hand, if pinned connections are assumed, they should have sufficient flexibility to accommodate rotations without causing significant bending
moments that may lead to premature failure of (parts of) the connection or connected members.
The schematization of connection stiffness is discussed further in Section 3. In many instances it is acceptable to design connections giving explicit
consideration only to their strength.
Deformation Capacity
The requirements for strength and stiffness are clear. They result from the static calculation.
The requirement for deformation capacity is more qualitative. In practice it is sometimes difficult to check this requirement.
Ductile connections that have a great deformation capacity contribute to the overall safety of the structure in the event that the connection becomes
overloaded. Such connections may also be a design requirement in certain instances, e.g. when plastic design is employed with plastic hinges forming in the
connections.
3. CLASSIFICATION AS A BASIS FOR DESIGN

Connections should be designed according to their required behaviour. Many design approaches are possible for stiffness and strength. In Figure 4 three
designs for a beam-to-column connection are given with their moment rotation characteristics.
These characteristics may be described as follows:
I Both the rotational stiffness and the moment resistance are small and may reasonably be neglected, leading to the concept of a pinned or hinged
connection. Only vertical shear is required to be transferred, with the value being equal to the beam end reaction necessary to resist the beam loading.
II Behaviour intermediate between characteristics I and III, in which the connections possess a finite moment resistance less than the full moment resistance
of the beam and a rotational stiffness that permits some relative rotation. (Such connections are usually both semi-rigid and partial strength. However it is
possible to have connections that are full-strength and semi-rigid or fully-rigid but only partial strength.)
III The rotational stiffness is very high and the connection's moment resistance is at least that of the beam. Continuity is thus preserved with no rotation of the
beam relative to the column; both the beam end reaction and its end moment are transferred to the column.
All three possibilities can be applied in multi-storey frames. Type III can be applied in both braced and unbraced frames; Type I is only suitable for braced
frames. Type II may be used for both braced and unbraced frames, but in the latter case the influence of connection flexibility on frame behaviour needs to
be considered. Figure 5 gives the schematization of rotational stiffness for the frame analysis.
Eurocode 3 [1] provides design rules for both the rotational stiffness and the moment resistance.
M-f curves as measured in tests are in general non-linear. Another phenomenon is that stiff connections have sometimes a low moment resistance and vice
versa. Some examples are shown in Figure 6. M-f curve E is characteristic for some types of bolted connections in clearance holes. At small moments, slip
causes a rotation before a higher moment is obtained.
For practical application, it is necessary to idealise the M-f curves. For design a non-linear idealisation or linear idealisations like the bi-linear or tri-linear
ones in Figure 7 may be used.
Eurocode 3 [1] gives a classification on the basis of strength and stiffness.
For strength, the following classes can be distinguished:
nominally pinned MRd £ 0,25 Mpl.Rd

partial-strength 0,25 Mpl.Rd < MRd < Mpl.Rd
full-strength MRd ³ Mpl.Rd
full-strength if rotation capacity is not MRd ³ 1,2 Mpl.Rd
checked
where
MRd is the design moment resistance of the connection
Mpl.Rd is the design strength of the beam (full plastic moment).
This classification on strength is applicable if the structure is analysed using the theory of plasticity. In a full-strength connection, the plastic hinge is
theoretically formed in the beam. In reality however, it is possible that the yield strength of the beam material may be (considerably) higher than its minimum
specified value. Therefore it is possible that the plastic hinge will form in the connection despite the calculated MRd > Mpl.Rd . In such cases, it is still
necessary that the connection has sufficient rotation capacity to develop the plastic mechanism. Rotation capacity must be proven in all cases. An upper limit
is defined, above which it may be assumed that the plastic hinge is always in the beam (1,2 Mpl.Rd ).
For stiffness, the classification is as follows:
nominally pinned Sj £ 0,5 EIb /Lb

semi-rigid 0,5 EIb /Lb < Sj < 8 EIb /Lb (braced frames) or 25 EIb /Lb (unbraced frames)
rigid Sj ³ 8 EIb /Lb (braced frames) or 25 EIb /Lb (unbraced frames)
where
Sj is the (secant) rotational stiffness of the connection
EIb is the bending stiffness of the beam
Lb is the span of the beam (see Figure 5).
Design of pinned connections only involves consideration of shear strength and is covered in Lecture 11.5.
For moment connections both shear resistance and moment resistance must be considered. Rigid and/or full strength connections are covered in Lecture
11.6.
Design assuming semi-rigid and/or partial-strength behaviour is explained in Lecture 11.7.
4. LOAD TRANSFER
In Section 2 it is indicated that connections should be designed to transfer moments and/or shear forces and/or normal forces, e.g. the connection in Figure
3. The next step in the analysis is to determine the distribution of forces within the connection, Figure 8. It is not necessary and often not feasible to
determine the real internal distribution of forces. It is sufficient to assume a realistic distribution, provided that:
the internal forces are in equilibrium with the applied loading

each component is capable of resisting the forces
the deformations implied by the assumed distribution are within the deformation capacity of the fasteners (bolts, welds) and of the connected parts.
Determining the distribution of forces is the most difficult part of the procedure, because, of necessity, it entails the making of certain simplifying assumptions
about the way the connection "works".
In Lectures 11.4 (Analysis of Connections) this subject is covered in detail.
As already indicated in Lecture 11.1.1, a great variety of connection types and connection forms exist.
To cover the large variety of types and forms of connections, it is useful to apply the concept of a set of basic force transfers, that can be found in the
components of connections. These basic forms are shown in Figure 9. More examples of the basic force transfers are shown in Figures 10 - 14. For each of
these basic force transfers a number of failure modes are possible. All of these should be checked. The weakest link determines the resistance of the
connection to the applied load. This procedure is illustrated in Figure 15 for the introduction of a tension force in an unreinforced (column) web.
Detailed information on fasteners is given in Lectures 11.2 (Welds) and 11.3 (Bolts), whilst Lectures 11.4 cover the detailed analysis and design of
connections using the basic force transfer concept.
The principal structural requirement of a connection is that it be capable of safely transferring load from the supported members to the supporting
member.
The above requirement implies that three properties of the connection needs to be considered: strength, stiffness and deformation capacity.
Beam-to-column connections can be classified by their stiffness as nominally pinned, semi-rigid or rigid. For their capability to transfer moments, they
can be classified as nominally pinned, partial-strength and full-strength connections.
The analysis of connections implies the assumption of a realistic internal distribution of forces that are in equilibrium with the external forces, where
each element is capable of transferring the assumed force and the deformations are within the deformation capacity of the elements.
In the analysis of connections, a number of basic load transfers can generally be identified.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of steel structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
Chapter 6 covers the design of fasteners and of connection components: Annexes J and L deal with the design of beam-to-column connections and column
base connections.
1. Essentials of Eurocode 3, Design manual for steel structures in buildings. ECCS, Publication No 65, Brussels 1991.
Design aid to facilitate the use of Eurocode 3; contains tables and guidelines.
2. Design examples to Eurocode 3
ECCS, Publication No 71, Brussels, 1993
Contains numerous worked examples for the design of bolted and welded connections.
3. Kulak, G. L., Fisher, J. W. and Struik, J. H. A., "Guide to design criteria for bolted and riveted joints". 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1987.
Gives a comprehensive appraisal of bolted joints and reviews in detail methods for design and analysis.
4. Hart, F., Henn, W. and Sontag, H., "Stahlbau Atlas - Gesehossbauten", International Architekture Dorkumentation, Munich, 1982
This book presents a wide range of practical solutions for connections in steel and composite buildings. It was translated into four different European
languages (French, English, Dutch, Italian).
5. Pask, J. W., "Manual on Connections", Volume 1 - Joints in Simple Connections, BCSA, 1982
Thorough treatment of design of multi-storey frame connections. Proposes a range of standardised connections.
6. Ballio, G. and Mazzolani, F. M., Theory and design of steel structures. Chapman and Hall, London, 1983
Comprehensive text on theory and design of steel structures. Deals extensively with connections.
7. Bijlaard F. S. K. et al, Structural properties of semi-rigid joints in steel frames IABSE publications 1989
Explains how flexibility arises in beam to column connections and presents methods for assessing stiffness and strength properties.
8. Owens, G. W. and Cheal, B. D., Structural Steelwork Connections, 1stEd, 1989.
Comprehensive coverage of several aspects of connection behaviour and design.
9. Joints in Simple Construction, Volume 1: Design Methods & Volume 2: Practical Applications. SCI/BCSA Publications 205 and 206. SCI/BCSA
Publications 205 and 206.
Expands on the more practical aspects of connection design; provides tables to facilitate rigid design in a "look-up" basis.
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ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.2.1: Generalities on Welded

Connections
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To describe the different types of structural welds and give basic information on weld preparation and weld
quality.
PREREQUISITES
Lectures 1B.5: Introduction to Design of Buildings
Lecture 2.1: Characteristics of Iron-Carbon Alloys
Lectures 2.3: Engineering Properties of Steels
Lectures 3.2: Erection
Lecture 3.6: Inspection/Quality Assurance
RELATED LECTURES:
Lecture 2.6: Weldability of Structural Steels
Lecture 3.3: Principles of Welding
Lecture 3.4: Welding Processes
SUMMARY:
Mechanical and geometrical characteristics of welds are described. Fundamental principles concerning edge
preparation, fit-up, and quality of welds are given.
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NOTATION
As % Elongation of steel at failure
a Throat thickness of welds [mm]
fy Nominal yield stress of parent metal [MPa]
fu Nominal ultimate stress of parent metal [MPa]
1. INTRODUCTION
Where there are favourable working conditions, welding is the most economical way to make strong
connections. Therefore, workshop connections are usually welded. Where site connections are necessary
(erection) they are usually bolted, but the connections are often prepared in the workshop with welded plates,
etc. necessary for the bolted joint.
Figures 1-3 show some examples on welded connections and the way they carry external loads.
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2. TYPES OF WELDS
In welded construction for buildings approximately 80% of the welds are fillet welds and 15% are butt welds.
The remaining 5% are plug, slot and spot welds.
2.1 Butt Welds
A butt weld is made within the cross-section of the abutting plates in a butt or tee joint. Normally, the plate
edges have to be prepared before welding, see Figure 4b. In some cases, if the plate thickness is less than about
5mm, edge preparation can be avoided, see Figure 4a.
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The bevelled plate edges in a butt weld may take various geometrical forms, see Figure 5.
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For butt welds, a distinction is made between:
full penetration butt weld in which there is a complete penetration and fusion of weld and parent metal
throughout the thickness of the joint, see Figure 4.
partial penetration butt weld, in which there is a weld penetration less than the full thickness of the joint,
see Figure 6.
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2.2 Fillet Welds
A fillet weld is a weld of approximately triangular cross-section applied to the surface profile of the plates. No
edge preparation is needed. Therefore, fillet welds are usually cheaper than butt welds. According to the relative
position of the parts to be welded, there are three types of fillet weld applications:
lap joint, in which the parts welded are in parallel planes, see Figure 7a.
tee or cruciform joint, in which the parts welded are more or less perpendicular to one another, see
Figure 7b.
corner joint, in which the parts are also more or less perpendicular to one another, see Figure 7c. To
improve the strength and stiffness of the joint, the outer corner is normally butt welded, see Figure 8.
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Fillet welds that can be laid in a single run are particularly economic; in the workshop 8mm welds are often
possible but if site welding is to be used this figure may be reduced e.g. to 6mm.
2.3 Plug and Slot Welds
Slot and plug welds, see Figure 9, are seldom used in building structures. They principally prevent buckling or
separation of lapped plates.
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2.4 Spot Welds
Spot welds are seldom used in building structures. The parts to be joined, which must be thin, are clamped
together by two electrodes, see Figure 10. A current passing through the electrodes melts the pieces locally, and
the clamping pressure forces them together, forming a fused spot. A line of such spots constitutes a joint.
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3. DESCRIPTION OF WELDS - DEFINITIONS

In this chapter some terms often used in weld design are defined.
The parent metal or the base metal is the steel material which is welded.
The filler metal or the weld metal is the electrode material used in the welding process.
Figure 11 shows the terminology used to describe the various parts of the weld:
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The root is the point of the joint line reached by the penetration of the filler metal.
The face is the outside surface of the weld.
The toe is the line on the weld face between the filler metal and the parent metal.
The heat affected zone is a part of the parent metal which has not been melted with the filler metal, but
which undergoes fast heating and cooling during the passage of the welding arc. In this zone, the parent
metal is subject to a hardening treatment and can consequently become brittle.
The shape of a fillet welded cross-section can be convex or concave, see Figure 12.
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For design, two geometrical weld parameters are used:
The throat thickness, a, is the minimum distance from the root to the weld face ignoring the convex zone.
Figure 13 shows the throat thickness a of a butt weld and a fillet weld.
The length is the longitudinal weld dimension in the direction of the welding arc displacement. Figure 13
shows welds for which the length l is the full length of the plates; for the lap joint of Figure 2 l would be
the sum of twice the overlapped length plus the width of the smaller plate.
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4. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

4.1 Parent Metal
The parent metal must have the weldability properties defined by the steel qualities of each steel grade. The
weldability of a steel depends on its chemical composition and metallurgical characteristics. These aspects are
described in Lecture 2.6.
In accordance with Eurocode 3 [1] and EN 10025 [2], hot-rolled steel grades S235, S275 and S355 with
quality B, C or D are suitable for all welding processes.
The mechanical characteristics adopted in calculations are the yield strength fy and the ultimate tensile strength
fu . Further, in the case of plastic analysis, steel must have an ultimate strain at least 20 times the yield strain and
have a minimum elongation As at failure of at least 15%. The values of these characteristics are given in Table 1.
Nominal steel Thickness t

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grade
t < 40mm 40 mm < t < 100mm
fy MPa fu MPa As % fy MPa fu MPa As %
Fe 360 235 360 26 215 340 24
Fe 430 275 430 22 255 410 20
Fe 510 355 510 22 335 490 20
Table 1 - Mechanical properties of hot rolled steels
The steel quality B, C, or D reflects the impact resistance determined by a Charpy-V impact test in which the
impact energy needed to fracture a V-notch specimen with a certain temperature is measured. The quality class
indicates if the steel is suitable for the application. For example, steel quality B, corresponding to an impact test
at +20°C, is used for structures with normal working conditions. The steel quality D (impact test at -20°C) is
suitable when factors such as, for example, low service temperature of the structure, thick steel material and/or
impact loading are present.
4.2 Filler metal
According to Eurocode 3 the filler metal must have mechanical properties (yield strength, ultimate tensile
strength, elongation at failure and minimum Charpy V-notch energy value) equal to or better than the values
specified for the steel grade being welded.
The selection of welding consumable is to a great extent governed by the welding process, see Lectures 3.3 and
3.4. The basic principles are:
Welding consumables shall be appropriate to the welding process used, the parent metal welded and the
welding procedure adopted.
Welding consumables must be stored and handled with care and in conformity with the recommendations
of the manufacturer.
Electrodes for manual arc welding shall be stored in their original containers in a dry and warm place,
efficiently protected from adverse effects of weather.
Flux shall be stored and transported in containers which protect it from absorbing moisture.
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5. EDGE PREPARATION AND FIT-UP

Some important aspects, which are described in detail in Lectures 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5, are summarised here.
One of the following arc welding processes may be used:
metal arc-welding with covered electrodes

flux-cored arc welding
submerged arc welding
MIG (metal inert gas) welding
MAG (metal active gas) welding.
All these processes can be used in the workshop. Usually, only bolting or metal arc welding with covered
electrodes is employed in the erection phase on the building site. With the metal arc welding process, welds can
be made in all positions. The various weld positions are shown in Figure 14, where the arrows give the arc
direction during the welding operation. It is clear that welding in the flat position is easily carried out, allowing a
greater rate of metal deposition than the other positions;by welding in this favourable position, the maximum size
of weld run can be obtained. With ordinary welding consumables and favourable welding conditions, a fillet
weld with a throat thickness of 6mm can be produced with only one run. For welds of greater thickness, more
than one run is necessary. In this case, the welding sequence must be carefully planned, see Figure 15.
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The welding conditions, particularly the current limitation of the welding equipment, constitute a limit to the depth
of penetration into the parent plate. For example, if a closed butt joint (no gap between the two plates) is
welded with one run on each side, the penetration may not be complete and the central part of the joint will
remain unfused (Figure 16a). With a gap between the two parts of the joint, full penetration can be achieved
with the same welding equipment. The limitation is then set by the thickness of the plates to be joined. In
practice, the limit for butt welds with square edges, i.e. without preparation, is 10mm plate thickness with a
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5mm gap. When the plate thickness exceeds this value, bevelled edges permit full penetration by several runs,
see Figure 16b.
Edge preparation consists essentially of cutting and bevelling the edges of the plates which are to be welded.
These operations can be done by thermal cutting, by machining or by chipping or grinding. The resulting surfaces
of the bevelled edges should be smooth, uniform, free from cracks and without rust. If thermal cutting or another
process which hardens the material is used, the approved welding procedure must take account of this weld
preparation process. Different bevel geometries are shown in Figure 3. Practical recommendations, for example
Eurocode 3, Annex W (1), give some tolerance values for various weld types. Finally, before welding, surfaces
and edges adjacent to the weld location must be cleaned to remove oil, grease, paint or any other contaminants,
which can affect the quality of the weld and the weld strength.
The appropriate welding method and procedure are defined in a project specification provided by the designer,
see Lecture 11.5.
6. WELD QUALITY - DISCONTINUITIES

Quality control has been for some time an important part of industrial activity. The term quality includes all the
characteristics of a product which affect its ability to serve its purpose. In the lectures of Working Group 3, and
particularly in Lecture 3.4, attention is drawn to quality control applied to welding, including the qualification of
firms and the procedure qualification for welding tests.
Normally, all welded structures undergo some weld inspection. The type and the extent for the inspection, as
well as the choice of welds to be inspected are selected in accordance with the project specification.
The principal purpose of weld inspection is to discover possible weld defects. Examples on weld defects are,
see Figure 17:
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Undercut. The thickness of the parent metal is reduced near the weld toe.
Porosity or gas inclusions. Air or gas bubbles are incorporated in the melted metal, where they remain
after cooling.
Insufficient throat. The throat thickness is smaller than the design thickness. The resistance of the joint
might be insufficient.
Incomplete penetration. The throat thickness is smaller than the design thickness. The resistance of the
joint might be insufficient.
All these defects can be measured. Codes of Practice specify the allowable tolerances for each defect, see for
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example Eurocode 3, Annex W [1].
Providing the right conditions with respect to welding - particularly fillet welding - normally represents the
most economical way to join two pieces of steel.
Two types of structural weld - fillet welds and butt welds - are in common use. Wherever possible fillet
welds should be used.
A number of standard terms are used when referring to welds. Throat thickness and length are the two
most important descriptions for determining load carrying capacity.
Weld metal (electrodes) and parent metal (the parts to be joined) must be properly matched in terms of
their physical properties.
For butt welds suitable edge preparations will normally be required.
Welds must be inspected for possible defects so as to ensure adequate structural performance.
8. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of steel structures": ENV 1993-1-1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] En 10025: European Standard 10025, Hot rolled products of non-alloy structural steels - technical delivery
conditions.
1. Bludgett, O. W., Welded Connections Chapter 3.3 Constructional Steel Design: An International Guide,
1992.
2. Pratt, J. L., Introduction to the Welding of Structural Steelwork, 3rd Revised Edition, 1989.
ESDEP WG 11
CONNECTIONS DESIGN: STATIC LOADING
Lecture 11.2.2: Welded Connections -

Basis for Weld Calculation
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To present the general methods for conducting calculations to determine the strength of butt and fillet welds.
PREREQUISITES:
Lecture 3.2: Erection
Lecture 11.2.1: Generalities on Welded Connections
RELATED LECTURES:
Lecture 2.6: The Weldability of Structural Steels
SUMMARY:
The bases for the calculation of weld strength are set out. A large part of the lecture deals with the actual
stress distribution and the deformability of fillet and butt welds. Some experimental results are presented to
show the relevance of the design formulae.

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show the relevance of the design formulae.
NOTATION
a throat thickness of weld [mm]
F external force [N]
Fs^ normal force perpendicular to the plane of the throat area of the weld [N]
Ft^ shear force in the plane of the throat area transverse to the weld axis [N]
Ft// shear force in the plane of the throat area parallel to the weld axis [N]
fu nominal ultimate tensile stress of parent metal [MPa]
fvw design shear strength of weld [MPa]
Lj length of lap joint [mm]
Lw length of weld (in long joint) [m]
l length of weld [mm]
b w correlation factor
b LW reduction factor for long weld
gMW partial safety factor for welds
s1 normal stress perpendicular to the plane of the throat area of the weld [MPa]
s2 normal stress parallel to the axis of the weld [MPa]
seq equivalent stress [MPa]
t1 shear stress in the plane of the throat area transverse to the weld axis [MPa]
t2 shear stress in the plane of the throat area parallel to the weld axis [MPa]
1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this lecture is to present the basis for weld strength calculation according to Eurocode 3 [1],
to discuss the assumptions on which the methods are based and to examine the general methods used to
determine stresses in welds. In practice, weld calculations are principally concerned with fillet welds since
these account for approximately 80% of all structural welds. For this reason the lecture concentrates on fillet
welds and gives less attention to other weld types (butt, slot, plug).

For weld design, three fundamental assumptions are made [2]:
The welds are homogeneous and isotropic elements.

The parts connected by the welds are rigid and their deformations are negligible.
Only nominal stresses due to external loads are considered. Effects of residual stresses, stress
concentrations and shape of the welds are neglected in static design.
These assumptions lead to a uniform stress distribution in the weld, whereas variation of stress and strain are
observed along the weld. In fact, stress concentrations and residual stresses can reach the yield stress locally.
However, the ductility of the material leads to a redistribution of stresses along the weld length, producing an
appreciable reduction of stress magnitude. The redistribution also occurs when the weld is subject to the
action of external loads. According to the theory of plasticity, the final stress distribution will be optimum
when the yield stress is reached over the full length of the weld.
Eurocode 3 [1] specifies that the filler metal shall have mechanical properties (yield strength, ultimate tensile
strength, elongation at failure and minimum Charpy V-notch energy value) equal to, or better than, the
corresponding properties of the parent material. Therefore, for weld calculation and design, the strength of the
parent material is normally taken as the reference strength.
Although fillet welds are the more important case, butt welds are treated first since the design requirements
are simpler.
2. BUTT WELD CALCULATION

Providing the welding process has been correctly carried out, the butt weld filler metal may be considered as
parent metal. Hence, to determine the resistance of the joint, the calculation is based on the throat area, i.e.
the penetration area. Depending on the penetration, two kinds of butt welds are defined: full and partial
penetration welds.
2.1 Full Penetration Butt Welds
For a full penetration butt weld, calculation is not necessary because the filler metal strength is at least as high
as the parent metal strength of the weaker part joined and the throat thickness of the weld is equal to the
thickness of the plate, see Figure 1. Thus the butt weld may effectively be regarded simply as replacing the
parent material.

2.2 Partial Penetration Butt Welds
For a partial penetration butt weld, the throat thickness considered in the design is the depth of preparation,
slightly reduced. According to Eurocode 3 [1], the throat thickness must be taken as the depth of the butt
preparation minus 2mm, where the preparation is the depth of the bevel, see Figure 2. However, if
appropriate procedure trials have been made, the throat thickness can be taken as equal to the preparation.

A partial penetration tee-butt joint with superimposed fillet welds may be considered as a full penetration butt
weld, if the total throat thickness is greater than the material thickness and the gap dimension meets certain
conditions (Figure 3).

2.3 Stress Distribution in Butt Welds
As already pointed out, in weld calculation a uniform stress distribution along the weld length is assumed. In
the ultimate state a plastic redistribution of stresses makes this assumption more or less true. In the elastic
stage, which is of interest in fatigue design, the stresses are not uniformly distributed, especially not when the
filler metal yield point is much higher than that of the parent metal. For example, consider a bar loaded by an
axial tensile force as shown in Figure 4. The bar will elongate and, due to the Poisson's ratio effect, its initial
width will decrease. This lateral contraction is uniform if the bar is homogeneous. But near the weld line,
which has a different yield point, the lateral contraction is less than in the parent metal. This effect causes a
varying stress distribution along the weld (Figure 4), in which the tensile stress at the centre is greater than the
average stress.

It is good engineering practice to avoid high stress concentrations occurring at sharp re-entrant corners in
joints connecting different cross-sections. Avoiding stress concentrations is especially important if the
connection will be subject to fatigue loads. To reduce the stress concentration, a gradual transition from one
section to the other is recommended (Figure 5). These aspects are also discussed in the lecture on fatigue
design and in Lecture 3.5 and Lecture 3.6 concerning fabrication and erection of steel structures.
3. FILLET WELD CALCULATION

3.1 Assumptions
The assumptions adopted for fillet weld calculations according to Eurocode 3 [1] concern mechanical and
geometric characteristics. As already pointed out, the mechanical properties of the filler metal shall be
compatible with the parent material properties. The throat area of a fillet weld considered in the calculation is
shown in Figure 6. This throat area is the product of the throat thickness and the effective length of the weld.
Generally, the effective length of a fillet weld is equal to the overall length of the full size fillet, including end
returns, if the fillet weld is continuous. For long welds and intermittent welds, the effective length may be
reduced.

Fillet welds required to carry loads are normally produced with a throat thickness of at least 4mm. Welds
with effective lengths shorter than 40mm or 6 times the throat thickness, whichever is larger, should be
ignored for transmission of forces.
3.2 Basic Method
The basic method for the design of fillet welds is described here. It is given in Eurocode 3, Annex M [1] as an
alternative design method.
The load acting on the fillet weld is resolved into load components parallel and transverse to the longitudinal
axis of the weld and normal and transverse to the plan of its throat (see Figure 6). The corresponding stresses
are calculated:
s1 = Fs^ /al is the normal stress perpendicular to the plane of the throat area.
t1 = Ft^ /al is the shear stress in the plane of the throat area, transverse to the weld axis.
t2 = Ft///al is the shear stress in the plane of the throat area, parallel to the weld axis.
s2 is the normal stress parallel to the weld axis.
The normal stress s2 is not considered because the cross-section of the weld is very small and has negligible
strength in comparison with the strength of the throat area subjected to the shear stress component t2.
Application of the von Mises criterion to these stress components gives the equivalent stress seq in the throat
area of the weld:
seq = Ö[s12 + 3(t12 + t22)] (1)
Eurocode 3, Annex M [1] specifies that the fillet weld will be adequate if both the following conditions are
satisfied:
seq £ fu /(b wgMw) (2)
and s1 £ fu /gMw
where
fu is the nominal ultimate tensile strength of the weaker part joined.
gMw is the partial safety factor for welds (= 1,25).
The value of the correlation factor b w should be taken as follows:
EN10025 Steel Grade Ultimate tensile strength fu Correlation factor b w
S235 360 N/mm2 0,8
S275 430 N/mm2 0,85
S355 0,9
510 N/mm2
For intermediate values of fu the value of b w may be determined by linear interpolation.
3.3 Mean Stress Method
Eurocode 3 gives, in the main text, a simplified design formula which does not require determination of the
stress components in the weld. The formula is based on the mean stress method which considers the weld
strength as being equal to the shear strength, independent of the direction of the force acting on it. Since the
weld is weakest in pure shear the mean stress method always gives results on the safe side.
The fillet welds must satisfy:
F/a1 £ fvw = fu /[Ö3.b wgMw](3)
where

F is the external force acting on the weld.
fvw is the design shear strength of the weld.
3.4 Long welds
Figure 7 indicates the stress distribution for long welds in a lap joint. The distribution is analogous to that
observed in long riveted or bolted joints (see Lectures 11.3). Large stresses occur at the ends of the
connection. In the ultimate state, just before failure, the plastic deformation near the ends contributes to a
more uniform shear stress in the welds. However, if the connection is long the stress redistribution will not be
fully uniform.
Eurocode 3 specifies that the design resistance for a long weld in a lap joint shall be multiplied by a reduction
factor b lw to allow for the effects of non-uniform stress distribution. If the lap joint is longer than 150a
b LW = 1,2 - £1
where
Lj is the overall length of the lap in the direction of the force transfer.
For fillet welds longer than 1,7 metres connecting transverse stiffeners in plated members
b LW = 1,1 -
but 0,6 £ b LW £ 1,0
where
Lw is the length of the weld (in metres)
4. SLOT AND PLUG WELD CALCULATION

The strength of slot and plug welds is calculated with the mean stress method as for fillet welds. In the
calculation, the effective area of the slot or plug weld is taken as the area of the slot or hole.
calculation, the effective area of the slot or plug weld is taken as the area of the slot or hole.
The basis for calculating the strength of welds is given.
It is noted that residual stresses and stress concentrations are neglected since there is a considerable
stress redistribution in the ultimate state. For long welds in lap joints, however, a non-uniform stress
distribution is taken into consideration.
Generally, butt welds require no calculations for design. Calculation is only required in the case of
partial penetration welds.
Following Eurocode 3, a mean stress method as well as an alternative method (Annex M) are given for
fillet weld design. The mean stress method does not require calculation of individual stress comments in
the welds but generally leads to more conservative results.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of steel structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1: General rules and rules for buildings,
CEN, 1992.
[2] Bresler, B., Lim, T. Y., Scalzi, J. B., Design of steel structures, 2nd Edition, 1968.
1. Owens, G. W. and Cheal, B. D., Structural Steelwork Connections, 1st Edition, 1989.
2. Bludgett, O.W., 'Design of welded structures', James F Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, Cleveland,
Ohio, USA, 1972.

ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.2.3: Welded Connections -

Applications of Fillet
Weld Calculation
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To use the design methods given in Eurocode 3 for fillet welds.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 3.2: Erection
RELATED LECTURES:
Lecture 2.6: Weldability of Structural Steels
Lectures 11.2.1 & 11.2.2: Other lectures on Welded Connections
SUMMARY
This lecture illustrates the design of fillet welds subject to loads of different directions. A comparison is made
between the mean stress method and the alternative method in Eurocode 3 [1].
NOTATION
A cross-section area of plate [mm2]
a throat thickness of weld [mm]
b width of flange [mm]
beff effective breadth [mm]
F external load [N]
fy , fyp nominal yield stress of parent metal [MPa]
fu nominal ultimate tensile stress of parent metal [MPa]
fvw design shear strength of weld metal [MPa]
l, l2 length of fillet welds [mm]
r radius of fillet in rolled sections [mm]
t, tp thickness of plate [mm]
tf thickness of flange [mm]
tw thickness of web [mm]
b w reduction factor
gMw partial safety factor for welds
gM2 partial safety factor for parent material
s1 normal stress perpendicular to the throat area of the weld [MPa]
t1 shear stress in the plane of the throat area transverse to the weld axis [MPa]
t2 shear stress in the plane of the throat area parallel to the weld axis [MPa]
1. INTRODUCTION
Lecture 11.2.2 sets out the two methods proposed in Eurocode 3 [1] for designing fillet welds, the mean
stress method and the alternative method.
The mean stress method (Eurocode 3 - Clause 6.6.5.3) is a simplification of the alternative method. The
welds, must satisfy
F/al £ fvw = fu /[Ö3.b wgMw] (1)
where
F is the external force (independent of orientation) transmitted by the fillet welds
a is the throat thickness
l is the length of the weld
fvw is the design shear strength of the weld.
The alternative method (Eurocode 3, Annex M) requires a calculation of the different stress components in
the weld to determine an equivalent stress. The following conditions must be satisfied:
Ö[s12 + 3(t12 + t22)] £ fu /[b wgMw] (2)
and s1 £ fu /gMw (3)
where
s1, t1, and t2 are the tensile and shear stress components (see Figure 1) applied to the throat area of the
weld
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fu is the nominal ultimate tensile strength of the weaker part joined
gMw is the partial safety factor for welds = 1,25
b w is the correlation factor for which the values are:
b w = 0,8 for S235 steel, (fu = 360MPa)
A comparison of designs produced by the two methods follows.
2. SIDE FILLET WELDS

Side fillet welds transfer an axial force F applied in a direction parallel to the weld length. Consider a lap joint
with two side fillet welds (Figure 2). Each weld transmits the force .
2.1 Application of the Mean Stress Method
Condition (1) gives F/(2al) £ fu /[Ö3.b wgMw]
Hence, the throat thickness must satisfy
a ³ (Ö3/2)F/(fu l).b wgMw (4)
2.2 Application of the Alternative Method
With this axial force, only the stress component t2 is considered:
t2 =
s1 = t1 = 0
Condition (2) gives
Ö(3t22) = Ö3F/(2al) £ fu /(b wgMw)
and the minimum throat thickness is:
a ³ (Ö3/2)Fy /(fu l).b wgMw
Condition (3) need not be considered here (s1 = 0). For side welds, the two methods lead to the same result
for the throat area of the welds.

2.3 Connection Strength Equal to Member Strength
The connection can be designed by comparison to be as strong as the connected member. For this purpose it
is not necessary to determine the magnitude of the force acting on the connection.
In the case of two side fillet welds transferring an axial force, the following condition for equal strength can be
set:
2alfu /(Ö3.b wgMw) ³ A fy
or
a ³ Ö3Afy /(2lfu ).b wgMw (5)
where
A is the cross-section area of the connected member
fy is the nominal yield strength of the member
3. END FILLET WELDS

End fillet welds transfer an axial force applied in a direction perpendicular to the weld length. Consider a tee
joint with two end fillet welds (Figure 3). Each weld transmits the force .
3.1 Application of the Mean Stress Method
Condition (1) gives

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F/(2al) £ fu /(Ö3.b wgMw)
and a ³ Ö3F/(2lfu ).b wgMw (6)
3.2 Application of the Alternative Method
Only the stress components s1 and t1 are determined in the throat area of the weld.
s1 = t1 =
t2 = 0
Using condition (2)
Ö[s12 + 3t12] £ fu /[b wgMw]
then
The minimum throat thickness for each weld is:
a ³ (Ö2/2)(F/fu l)[b wgMw] (7)
Condition (3) s1 = F/(2Ö2al) £ fu /gMw
gives a ³ Fx/(2Ö2fu l).gMw (7')
Comparison of (7) and (7') shows that the throat thickness given by (7) governs the choice of weld
dimensions.
For end welds, the alternative method is more advantageous than the mean stress method. The reduction of
the throat thickness is = 0,82.
From (7) and (4) the equivalent strength for an end fillet weld few and a side fillet weld fsw according to the
alternative method can easily be deduced. These values as well as condition (8) for different steel grades are
given in Table 1.
S235 S275 S355
few [N/mm2 ] (end fillets) 255 286 321
equal strength with two welds a ³ 0,46 t a ³ 0,48 t a ³ 0,55 t

ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG11]
fsw [N/mm2 ] (side fillets) 208 234 262
Table 1 Equivalent strength for end and side fillet welds for different steel grades
3.3 Connection Strength Equal to Member Strength
In the case of two end fillet welds transferring a force perpendicular to the weld length, the following condition
for equal strength applies (the alternative method):
2alfu /(Ö2b wgMw) ³ t l fy
or
a ³ (Ö2/2)(tfy /fu ).b w gMw (8)
where
t is the thickness of the connected member.
4. OBLIQUE LOADING
The two loading conditions described in chapters 2 and 3 occur frequently. A fillet weld may also be subject
to oblique loading. Figure 4 shows some cases of oblique loaded welds.
8/14
Using the mean stress method, the design of oblique loaded welds is very simple. With the alternative method
the design is made as follows:
1. The load is resolved into components parallel and transverse to the longitudinal axis of the weld and
normal and transverse to the plane of its throat, see Figure 1.
2. The stress components s1, t1, and t2 due to each load component are calculated.
3. Stress components of each kind are introduced into the basic formula (2).

Figure 5 shows the relation between the calculated required throat thickness according to the alternative and
the mean stress method for a tee-joint subject to an oblique load.
5. LOAD-DEFORMATION BEHAVIOUR
The load-deformation behaviour of fillet welds is illustrated in Figure 6. It is clear that an end fillet weld is
considerably stronger than a side fillet weld. The difference is actually larger than one would expect from the
calculation methods described here. One reason is that the failure plane for an end fillet weld differs from the
theoretical throat plane, resulting in a larger failure area of the weld. The failure plane for a side fillet weld,
however, is closer to the throat plane.

Figure 6 also shows that the ductility of an axially loaded weld is much larger than a weld loaded in the
transverse direction.
6. WELD TO UNSTIFFENED FLANGES

If a plate is welded to an unstiffened flange of an I- or a box section, loading will tend to deform the flange or
the box side unequally along the breadth. The result is that the parts of the weld near the web will be more
heavily loaded than the other parts, see Figure 7. Therefore a reduced effective breadth shall be taken into
account both for the parent material and for the welds.

For an I-section the effective breadth beff should be taken as:
beff = tw + 2r + 7 tf (9)
but
beff = tw + 2r + 7 (10)
where
the geometrical parameters tw, r, tf and tp are shown in Figure 7.
fy is the design yield strength of the member
fyp is the design yield strength of the plate.
If beff < 0,7 b the joint should be stiffened.
For a box section the effective breadth beff should be taken as:
beff = 2tw + 5tf (11)
but
beff £ 2tw + 5 (12)
7. BASE METAL CHECKING

Whatever weld design method is used it is also necessary to ascertain that the base metal of the connected
parts has sufficient resistance. To check the base metal three possible failures have to be considered, see
Figure 8:
Tensile failure in member 1 (path 1-1)

Tensile failure in member 2 (path 2-2)
Failure in member 2, along the line 3-3, with tensile failure (path b-c) and shearing rupture (paths a-b
and c-d). In this case, the total resistance can be taken as the sum of the ultimate strength of each
individual path.
{2l1/Ö3 + l2}t2fu2 /gM2 ³ fu2 (13)
where
t2 is the thickness of member 2
fu2 is the ultimate deign strength of member 2
gM2 is the partial safety factor against ultimate = 1,25.
Note that tensile failure in the members need not be checked again in the design of the connection. The
previous design of the members satisfies the strength requirements.
Eurocode 3 proposes two methods for the design of fillet welds. The alternative method in Annex M is
the more economical but involves more calculations. The calculation steps are:
i) determination of the load components acting on the throat section of the fillet welds,
ii) calculation of the corresponding stress components,
iii) checking with the basic formula.
End fillet welds are much stronger than side fillet welds but their ductility is less.
Both the basic and the alternative methods may be used for welds loaded obliquely.
For attachments to unstiffened flanges of members, concentration of load transfer in the stiffer regions
may be allowed for by using an effective breadth of weld.
The possibility of tensile failure in the base metal of the connected parts should always be checked.
9. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1: General rules and rules for buildings,
CEN, 1992.

[1] Blodgett, O.W., "Design of welded structures", James F Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, Cleveland,
Ohio, USA, 1972.
[2] Owens, G.W. and Cheal, B.D., Structural Steelwork Connections, 1st Ed., 1989.

NNLNOLNO bpa bm=i b` qr o b=k l qb=xt d NNz
ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.3.1: Connections with

Non-Preloaded Bolts
OBJECTIVE
To present the basic ideas of the design of connections using ordinary (non-preloaded) bolts.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 1B.1: Process of Design
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 11.3: Other lectures on the Design of Bolted Connections
Lecture 12.6: Fatigue Behaviour of Bolted Connections
SUMMARY
This lecture presents the geometrical and mechanical properties of ordinary bolts and describes their behaviour in shear, tension
or combined shear and tension.
The effects of the position of the bolts in a connection and of their dimensions on the potential failure modes are also discussed.
NOTATION
A Area of the shank - nominal area [mm2]
As Stress area [mm2]
d Nominal diameter of the bolt (shank) [mm]
do Nominal diameter of the hole [mm]
ds Diameter of the stress area (As ) [mm]
e1 End distance [mm]
e2 Edge distance [mm]
F Applied load [N]

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Fv Shear force [N]
Fv,Rd Design shear resistance of a bolt [N]
Ft Tensile force [N]
Ft,Rd Design tension resistance of a bolt [N]
Fb.Rd Design bearing resistance [N]
fu Ultimate tensile strength of a steel element [MPa]
fu,b Nominal ultimate stress of the bolt material [MPa]
fy,b Nominal yield stress of the bolt material [MPa]
p1, p2 Pitches [mm]
t Plate thickness [mm]
gMb Partial safety factor for the bolt [-]
1. INTRODUCTION
The resistance of a bolted connection is normally determined on the basis of the resistance of the individual fasteners and the
connected parts.
Linear-elastic analysis is most frequently used in the design of the connection. Alternatively non-linear analysis of the connection
may be employed, provided that it takes account of the load-deformation characteristics of all the components of the
connection. Further information about analysis of connections is given in Lectures 11.4.
The present lecture concentrates on the most common type of bolt, the non- preloaded bolt, often called an "ordinary bolt". It is
popular because of its low cost both to buy and to install. Connections made with this type of bolt are often referred to as
"bearing-type" so as to distinguish them from the slip resistant connections that employ preloaded bolts.
Where a joint loaded in shear is subject to impact or significant vibration, welding or bolts with locking devices, preloaded bolts
or other types of bolt which effectively prevent movement should be used.
Where slip is not acceptable in a joint subject to reversal of shear load (or for any other reason), preloaded bolts in a slip-
resistant connection, fitted bolts, injection bolts or other bolts with the same effect should be used, see Lectures 11.3.2 and
11.3.3.
For wind and/or stability bracing, bolts in bearing-type connections may normally be used.
2. PRINCIPLE OF LOAD TRANSMISSION

In structural connections, bolts are used to transfer loads from one plate to another. The following figures give some examples
where bolts are used, loaded by:
a. Shear force (Figure 1)
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The load is transmitted into and out of the bolts by bearing on the connected plates. The forces in the bolts are transmitted by
transverse shear.
b. Tension force (Figure 2, only M)
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In the case of moment loading (M) only, the tension part of the load is transmitted by axial tension in the bolt.
c. Combined tension and shear force (Figure 2, M and V)
In the case of combined moment (M) and transverse loading (V), the bolts may be required to transmit a combination of
transverse shear and axial tension.
In Figure 3, the bolts A transmit transverse shear, while the bolts B transmit a combination of shear and tension or shear and
compression.
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Bolts that are not preloaded to a predetermined preload, may be called "non-preloaded bolts" or "ordinary bolts". In case of a
shear connection (Figure 1), these bolts are also called "bearing type" bolts.
The principal action on a bolt in a splice joint of the type shown in Figure 4 is shearing on its cross-sectional plane caused by
bearing between opposing plates in the joint. The elastic distribution of these bearing stresses and the stresses produced in the
bolt are complex. However, for fully developed plastic conditions, the distribution of shear stress is effectively uniform so that
the shear strength is the product of the cross-section area of the bolt in the shear plane and the shear strength of the material.
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If threads are excluded from the shear plane, the shank area may be used. Otherwise the stress area of the threaded portion
should be used. In modern detailing practice it is common to use the smaller area and not to contrive to exclude the threads
from the shear plane.
3. DIMENSIONS OF THE BOLTS

Hexagon headed bolts and nuts are available in a range of sizes up to about 68 mm shank diameter.
The bolt sizes are indicated by the designation M followed by a number multiplied by another number, for example, M 20 x 60,
where the diameter of the shank is 20 mm and the length of the shank + the threaded part is 60 mm. The M stands for metric.
The length of the bolt should be such that, after allowing for tolerances, the threaded shank will protrude not less than one
thread beyond the nut after tightening and at least one full thread (in addition to the thread run-out) will remain clear between the
nut and the unthreaded part of the shank.
4. BOLT GRADES
Bolts and nuts are available in steels of minimum tensile strengths up to about 1370 MPa.
The grade of the bolts is indicated by two numbers. The most common grades are 4.6, 5.6, 6.5, 6.8, 8.8 and 10.9.
According to Eurocode 3 (2), the design yield stress fyb and the design ultimate stress fub of the usual bolts are as given in
Table 1.
Table 1: Mechanical properties of bolts
Grade 4.6 5.6 6.5 6.8 8.8 10.9
fyb (MPa) 240 300 300 480 640 900
fub (MPa) 400 500 600 600 800 1000
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The design yield stress fyb can be derived from the grade by multiplying the first number by the second number times 10. The
design ultimate stress fub is the first number times 100 (stresses in MPa).
Bolts of grade 8.8 are used most frequently.
5. DIAMETER OF THE HOLES

Because of the tolerances in the positioning of holes and the tolerances of the bolt diameter (d) and the hole diameter (db ), a
clearance is necessary (Figure 4).
For bearing-type connections, this clearance may cause slip of the plates when they are loaded.
In the case of alternating loading, this movement may occur at each loading reversal. Normally, such movement is not permitted.
Except for fitted bolts or where low-clearance or oversize holes are specified, the nominal clearance in standard holes shall be:
1mm for M12 and M14 bolts

2mm for M16 to M24 bolts
3mm for M27 and larger bolts.
Holes with smaller clearances than standard holes may be specified.
Holes with 2mm nominal clearance may also be specified for M12 and M14 bolts, provided that the design meets the following
requirements:
for bolts of strength grade 4.8, 5.8, 6.8 or 10.9, the design shear resistance Fv,Rd is taken as 0,85 times the value given
in formulae (3) to (5).
the design shear resistance Fv,Rd (reduced as above if applicable) is not less than the design bearing resistance Fb,Rd .
Holes will be formed by drilling or punching. Punching holes in steelwork is much faster than drilling but some cracking may
appear in the material and therefore, in some cases, holes will not be punched full size but must be punched 2mm diameter less
than full size and then reamed. New punching machines which operate at high speeds induce less distortion in the material, and it
is expected that more punching will be allowed in the future.
If there is no specification, punching is allowed for material up to 25mm in thickness provided that the hole diameter is not less
than the thickness of the material.
Burrs should be removed from holes before assembly except that, where holes are drilled in one operation through parts
clamped together which would not otherwise be separated after drilling, they need to be separated to remove the burrs.
6. NOMINAL AND STRESS SECTIONS OF A BOLT

Bolts in structural steelwork must comply with ISO 898/1 (1).
Figure 5 defines the various diameters of such bolts. the area of the shank that is used in design formulae is called the shank area
A:
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A = pd2/4 (1)
the area of the threaded part that is used in design formulae is called the stress area As :
As = pds 2 /4 (2)
The stress diameter ds is somewhat larger than the diameter of the core, because of the fact that a rupture plane always includes
at least one thread.
ds is the mean value between the core diameter (dc) and the flank diameter (df) of the thread; the flank diameter is the mean
value between the core diameter and the nominal diameter (d):
df =
ds =
The value of As for common bolt diameters is given in Table 2.
Table 2: Stress area of bolts
Nominal diameter Nominal area Stress area
db A As
(mm) (mm2) (mm2)
8 50,3 36,6
10 78,5 58,0
12 113 84,3
14 154 115
16 201 157
18 254 192
20 314 245
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22 380 303
24 452 353
27 573 459
30 707 561
7. SHEAR RESISTANCE
7.1 Normal Joints
Shearing tests on bolts have shown the shear strength to be about 60% of the tensile strength. The effective shear strength of
bolts in joints is reduced by secondary bending actions caused by uneven bearing of the plates and by bending of the bolt due to
excessive hole clearance. The reduction increases with the length of the bolt for a given diameter. It is particularly significant in
lap joints with a single bolt, where the loading tends to straighten out the joint and rotate the bolt as shown in Figure 6, causing
both shear and tension in the bolt and local bending stresses under the head and the nut. The reduction in shear resistance of a
single fastener may be about 10%. Increasing the length of the joint, i.e. the number of bolts, reduces the bending and hence the
loss of shear resistance.
The local bending stresses under the head and the nut in the single bolted connection of Figure 6 may give poor performance in
the case of fatigue loading.
The design shear resistance of a bolt (Fv.Rd ) in normal conditions, per shear plane, is:
(a) For the shear plane passing through the threaded portion of the bolt:
Fv,Rd = 0,6fub As /gMb (3)
for strength grades 4.6, 5.6 and 8.8
Fv,Rd = 0,5fub As /gMb (4)
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for strength grades 4.8, 5.8, 6.8 and 10.9
The coefficient 0,5 is the result of a statistical evaluation based on a very large number of test results. It appears that bolts of
these grades are less ductile and that the rupture occurs suddenly.
(b) For the shear plane passing through the unthreaded portion of the bolt:
Fv,Rd = 0,6fub A/gMb (5)
7.2 Long Joints
The distribution of load between the bolts in a joint when the hole clearance has been taken up depends on the length, the
relative cross-sectional areas of the joined plates, the bolt pitch and the shear deformation capacity of the bolts and their
immediately surrounding plate (fastener flexibility).
Figure 7 shows the distribution of loads between the bolts in a long joint. The loads transferred through the outer bolts (1 and 9
in the Figure) are greater than those through bolts towards the centre of the joint. If the total area of the cover plates exceeds
that of the centre plate the distribution will not be symmetrical, and bolt 1 will transfer more load than any other.
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When the fasteners yield, their flexibility increases causing a more uniform sharing of the load (the broken line in Figure 7).
However, for long steelwork joints of normal proportions this behaviour will be insufficient to produce an equal load
distribution. This the end-bolts will reach their deformation limit and so fail before the remaining ones have been fully loaded.
This will result in progressive failure at an average shear value per bolt below the single-bolt shear resistance. Tests have
confirmed that joint length, rather than the number of bolts, is the dominant parameter [3].
Where the distance Lj between the centres of the end fasteners in a joint, measured in the direction of the transfer of force (see
Figure 8), is more than 15d, (where d is the nominal diameter of the bolts) the design shear resistance of all the fasteners shall be
reduced by multiplying it by a reduction factor b Lf, given by:
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b Lf = 1 -
but b Lf £ 1,0 and b Lf ³ 0,75.
This provision does not apply where there is a uniform distribution of force transfer over the length of the joint, e.g. the transfer
of shear force from the web of a section to the flange.
8. BEARING RESISTANCE
Yielding due to pressure between the bolt shank and plate material may result in excessive deformation of the plate around the
bolt hole and possibly some distortion of the bolt.
The area resisting the bearing pressure is assumed to be the product of the plate thickness and the nominal bolt diameter.
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The distance (e1) of the bolt from the end of the plate must be sufficient to provide adequate resistance to the shearing-out
mode of failure shown in Figure 9, which is governed by the area of the shear path.
The presence of threads in the grip does not significantly affect the bearing resistance but will cause some increase of the
deformation.
If the shear resistance is greater than the bearing resistance of the plates, one of the failure modes shown in Figure 9 will occur.
In this case, the deformation capacity of the connection is very large. The joint has a "ductile" behaviour.
In the other case, when the failure is due to the shearing of the bolts, the deformation capacity of the connection is very small
and the joint has a "brittle" behaviour.
The design bearing resistance of a bolt [4] is given by:
Fb.Rd = 2,5afu dt/gMb (6)
where a is the smallest of:
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or 1,0
This reduction coefficient a is necessary, because when the end distance is short, the capacity of deformation is small.
If the net section of the member is small, net section rupture may govern the failure load of the connection (Figure 9).
Equation (6) for the design bearing resistance applies only where the edge distance e2 is not less than 1,5 do and the spacing p2
(Figure 12) measured transverse to the load direction is at least 3,0 do .
If e2 is reduced to 1,2 do and/or p2 is reduced to 2,4 do , then the bearing resistance Fb.Rd should be reduced to 2/3 of the
value given by Equation (6). For intermediate values 1,2 do < e2 £ 1,5 do and/or 2,4 do £ 3 do the value of Fb.Rd may be
determined by linear interpolation.
9. TENSION RESISTANCE
Axial tension resistance of a bolt is based on the stress area As and is given by:
Ft = fu,b . As
As a result of statistical evaluation based on a very large number of tests, the following formula should be adopted:
Ft = 0,9 . fu,b . As
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The design tension resistance of a bolt is given by:
Ft.Rd = 0,9fub As /gMb (7)
Generally, when the line of action of the applied force is eccentric to the axis of the bolt, additional tension will be induced in the
bolt by prying action.
This action is most easily illustrated in terms of the Tee stub, loaded by a tension force 2F shown in Figure 10. In the bending of
the flanges of the Tee, the bolts act as a pivot point so that there is a compressive reaction (Q) between the outer edges of the
flanges, which is defined as the Prying Force. The tension induced in the bolts, for equilibrium, is thus Fb = F + Q.
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The prying ratio, Q/F, depends upon the geometry and stiffness of the connected parts and the bolt stiffness. An estimate of the
prying ratio, taking full account of all the parameters, goes beyond the scope of this lecture. It will be treated in Lecture 11.4.
10. BOLTS SUBJECT TO SHEAR AND TENSION

Bolts may be subject to combined shear and tension stresses (Figure 3). Two forces are then acting in the shear plane; Fv
(shear) and Ft (tension).
The interaction between the two forces has been investigated in tests [5] and from the results it has been found that bolts subject
to shear and tensile force must satisfy the following bi-linear relationship.
£ 1,0
Thus the full tensile resistance is available for values of shear up to almost 30% of the shear capacity Fv.Rd as shown in Figure
11. This feature is useful when considering situations such as that shown in Figure 2 (M and V) or for bolts B in Figure 3.
The design resistances Fv,Rd and Ft,Rd for shear and tension through the threaded position are restricted to bolts manufactured
in conformity with the ISO Standard [1, 6]. For other items with cut threads, such as holding-down bolts or tie rods fabricated
from round steel bars where the threads are cut by the steelwork fabricator and not by a specialist bolt manufacturer, the
relevant values should be reduced by multiplying them by a factor of 0,85.
Due to the particular form of the head of a countersunk bolt (see Figure 12) the design tension and bearing resistance of such a
bolt have to be reduced.
11. SPACING REQUIREMENTS
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11.1 Basis
The positioning of holes for bolts should be such as to prevent corrosion and local buckling and to facilitate the installation of the
bolts.
The positioning of the holes shall also be in conformity with the limits of validity for the rules used to determine the design
resistances of the bolts with reference to Eurocode 3 (2).
11.2 Connections of plates
11.2.1 Minimum end distance
The end distance e1 from the centre of a fastener hole to the adjacent end of any part, measured in the direction of load transfer
(see Figure 12a), should not be less than 1,2 do , where do is the hole diameter.
The end distance should be increased if necessary to provide adequate bearing resistance, see Section 8.
11.2.2 Minimum edge distance
The edge distance e2 from the centre of a fastener hole to the adjacent edge of any part, measured at right angles to the
direction of load transfer (see Figure 13a), should normally be not less than 1,5 do .
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The edge distance may be reduced to not less than 1,2 do provided that the design bearing resistance is reduced accordingly as
given in Section 8.
11.3.3 Maximum end and edge distances
Where the members are exposed to the weather or other corrosive influences, the maximum end or edge distance should not
exceed 40 mm + 4t, where t is the thickness of the thinner outer connected part.
In other cases the end or edge distance should not exceed 12t or 150 mm, whichever is the larger.
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The edge distance should also not exceed the maximum to satisfy local buckling requirements for an outstanding element. This
requirement does not apply to fasteners interconnecting the components of back-to-back tension members. The end distance is
not affected by this requirement.
11.2.4 Minimum spacing
The spacing p1 between centres of fasteners in the direction of load (see Figure 13b) should not be less than 2,2 do . This
spacing should be increased if necessary to provide adequate bearing resistance, see Section 8.
The spacing p2 between rows of fasteners, measured perpendicular to the direction of load, (see Figure 13b), should normally
be not less than 3,0 do . This spacing may be reduced to 2,4 do if the design bearing resistance is reduced accordingly, see
Section 8.
11.2.5 Maximum spacing in compression members
The spacing p1 of the fasteners in each row and the spacing p2 between rows of fasteners, should not exceed the lesser of 14t
or 200 mm. Adjacent rows of fasteners may be symmetrically staggered, see Figure 13b.
The centre-to-centre spacing of fasteners should also not exceed the maximum to satisfy local buckling requirements for an
internal element.
11.2.6 Maximum spacing in tension members
In tension members the centre-to-centre spacing p1,i of fasteners in inner rows may be twice that given in Section 10.2.5 for
compression in members, provided that the spacing p1,o in the outer row along each edge does not exceed that given in Section
10.2.5, see Figure 13c.
Both of these values may be multiplied by 1,5 in members not exposed to the weather or other corrosive influences.
11.3 Angles Connected by One Leg
In the case of unsymmetrical or unsymmetrically connected members such as angles connected by one leg, the eccentricity of
fasteners in end connections and the effects of the spacing and edge determine the design resistance.
Angles connected by a single row of bolts in one leg, see Figure 14, may be treated as concentrically loaded and the design
ultimate resistance of the net section determined as follows:
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with 1 bolt: Nu,Rd = 2,0(e2 - 0,5do )tfu /gM2
with 2 bolts: Nu,Rd = b 3Anetfu /gM2
with 3 or more bolts: Nu,Rd = b 3Anetfu /gM2
where b 2 and b 3 are reduction factors dependant on the pitch p1 as given in Table 3. For intermediate values of p1 the value of
b may be determined by linear interpolation,
and Anet is the net section area of the angle. For an unequal-leg angle connected by its smaller leg, Anet should be taken as
equal to the net section area of an equivalent equal-leg angle of leg size equal to that of the smaller leg.
Table 3 - reduction factors b 2 and b 3
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Pitch p1 £ 2,5 do ³ 5,0 do
2 bolts b 2 0,4 0,7
3 bolts or more b 3 0,5 0,7

To design a bolt, it is necessary to always verify which plane is concerned, the shank or the threaded part.
The shear resistance of a bolt is less when the ratio between yield strength and ultimate tensile strength is larger.
The bearing resistance of the connected plates depends on the distance between bolts and on the distance between a bolt
and the edge or the end of the plates.
The tension resistance of a bolt decreases when the line of action of the applied force is eccentric.
The presence of axial tension reduces the shear resistance and vice versa.
When angles are connected by one leg, bending occurs in the profile, and the section must be reduced.
12. REFERENCES
[1] ISO 898/1 - International Standard Mechanical Properties of Fasteners.
Part 1: Bolts, screws and studs.
[2] DD ENV 1993-1-1: 1992, Eurocode 3 "Design of Steel Structures".
Part 1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings.
[3] Kulak, G. L., Fisher, J. W. and Struik, J. H., A Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints, 2nd ed, 1987,
Wiley.
[4] European Recommendations for Bolted Connections in Structural Steelwork. ECCS publication - Document No. 38.
[5] Shakir-Khalil, H and Ho, C. M., Black Bolts under Combined Tension and Shear, The Structural Engineer, 57B, No 4
(1979).
[6] ISO 898/2 - International Standard Mechanical Properties of Fasteners.
Part 2: Nuts with Specified Proof Load Values.
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ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.3.2: Connections with Preloaded

Bolts
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
Introduction to the design of connections using preloaded bolts in shear and/or tension.
PREREQUISITES:
RELATED LECTURES:
Lectures 11.3: Other lectures on Bolted Connections
Lecture 12.6: Fatigue Behaviour of Bolted Connections
SUMMARY:
The basic principles of connection design using high-strength preloaded bolts (HSFG bolts) are established. The load transmission is described
for both shear connections and tension connections. The influence of the preload and the tightening of the bolts are considered.
NOTATION
Nominal diameter of the bolt (shank) [mm]
do Diameter of a hole [mm]
Fv Shear force [N]
Ft Tensile force [N]
Fp Preloading force of a bolt [N]
Fs Slip resistance of a preloaded bolt [N]
Ma Applied torque [Nmm]
k Coefficient of friction between mating surfaces [-]
Q Rotation [degrees]
m Slip factor [-]
n Number of friction faces [-]

NNLNOLNO b p a b m=i b ` q r o b =k l q b =xt d NNz
gms Partial safety factors for a slip resistant bolt [-]
1. INTRODUCTION
When a connection is subject to a load reversal or to dynamic loading, a shear connection which acts by shear stress in the bolt and bearing
stress in the plates, is not acceptable (Lecture 11.3.1). By pretensioning of the bolts, however, a clamping pressure occurs between the
connected parts which enables load to be transferred by frictional resistance. Figure 1 compares the effect of using bearing and preloaded bolts
to make-up a double-cover plate butt joint. Until slip occurs the connection which uses preloaded bolts - usually termed High Strength Friction
Grip (HSFG) bolts - is seen to be much stiffer than that which employs bearing bolts. Once slip occurs the HSFG connection progressively
becomes a bearing one and, after the hole clearance has been taken up, both types of connection behave in a similar way.
In the case of bolts in axial tension, preloading improves the fatigue resistance by reducing the effective stress range.
2. LOAD TRANSMISSION
2.1 Friction Connections
Preloaded bolts exert a compressive stress on the connected plates. The compression gives rise to high frictional resistance, which enables load
to be transferred between the connected parts. When the applied load F in Figure 2 exceeds the frictional resistance which is developed
between the plates, the plates will slip relative to each other allowing the bolt to act in bearing.
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Bolts which transfer load by friction are known as High Strength Friction Grip (HSFG) bolts. Controlled tightening of the bolts allows the
frictional action to be quantified for design.
The main advantages of HSFG bolted connections are their greater stiffness and their ability to withstand alternating forces. Their behaviour
under fatigue loading is also better than that of bearing bolted connections.
Against these advantages are the costs of HSFG bolted connections. The preparation of the friction grip surfaces and the controlled tightening
require additional care (training of people). The costs are greater than for bearing connections. As a result, HSFG bolted connections are
usually used only where the stiffness of the connection is important, where alternating loading would cause alternating slip, or where fatigue
loading is present.
Typically HSFG bolts are used in bridges, cranes and crane girders.
2.2 Tension Connections
Figure 3 gives the relation between the elongation of the bolt and the shortening of the plate assembly due to preloading. When an external
tension force Fe is applied to the connection, the force in the bolt Ft will increase. At the same time the elongation of the bolt increases, and the
shortening of the plate assembly decreases by the same amount. As a result, the force in the plate assembly decreases. In practice, the stiffness
of the plate assembly is about 4 times the stiffness of the bolt.
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The relation between the various forces can be illustrated by the "force triangle" in Figure 4. In Figure 4(a) contact is limited to the central region
of the bolted connection. There is no increase in bolt force until separation occurs. In Figure 4(b), contact is limited to the edges of the bolted
connection. Any external tension will increase the bending in the plate increasing both Fc and DFb . Further explanation is provided in Chapter
17 of Reference 1 and in Reference 2.
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The percentage of the force which is transmitted by an increase in the force in the bolts and the other part which reduces the clamping forces
between the plates depends on the elastic behaviour of the connection (see Figure 3). Since the elastic behaviour is the same, the location of the
contact pressure produced by tightening of the bolts is of crucial importance with regard to bolt fatigue (see Figure 4).
3. PRELOAD IN BOLTS
In order to make practical use of the friction effect, high tensile steel bolts (usually grade 10.9) are used so that an adequate clamping force can
be obtained with reasonably sized bolts. The stress induced in the bolts by the pretensioning is at, or near, the proof stress.
The design preloading force of a bolt is given by:
Fp.Cd = 0,7 fub . As
where As is the tensile stress area of the bolt (see Lecture 11.3.1) and fub the nominal ultimate stress of the bolt.
4. TIGHTENING BOLTS
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Three methods of tightening are available:
a. Torque method
For this method of tightening a calibrated torque wrench is required which may be hand operated or, for bolts of larger diameters, power
operated.
The torque applied to the nut (or the head) is used partly to overcome friction between the nut and the surface against which it rotates, and
partly - approximately half - to drive the threads up the helix, overcoming the friction between the mating screw surfaces and the resolved
component of the axial force.
If the geometry of the screw head and the coefficient of friction between the various mating surfaces were known, it would be possible to
estimate the tension induced by a given torque. The uncertainties concerning distribution of contact pressures, and the variabilities of coefficients
of friction in practice, do not justify the use of anything other than a simple rule such as:
Ma = k d Fp (1)
where:
Ma is the applied torque (Nmm)
d is the bolt diameter (mm)
Fp is the preload in the bolt (N)
k is the coefficient of friction between mating surfaces
In practice k values have been measured for new bolts which vary between 0,12 and 0,20. For the as - delivered condition, slightly oiled the
ECCS recommendations [3] give k = 0,18 and, for case of the use of the thread lubricant molybdenum sulphide k = 0,14.
It may be concluded from the above that the scatter in the preloads obtained will be large (Figure 5). If the coefficient k appears to be very low,
there is a danger that the bolt will break. If k is unexpectedly large, then the desired preload will not be obtained.
Therefore, the torque method is not recommended by the ECCS [3] and Eurocode 3 [4]. If it is applied, then it is recommended that tests are
carried out before erection. Special devices are available ("bolt force metre") to measure the bolt force as a function of the torque Ma.
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b. Turn-of-nut method
This method is based on a predetermined rotation of the nut. The tightening can be achieved in two ways as follows:
the bolt is first made "hand tight" and then turned further by a specified amount. The contact surfaces must fit snugly before the bolts are
tightened.
using a percussion wrench, the bolt is first tightened until the plies of the joint achieve a snug fit (when the percussion wrench goes over to
hammering), after which the nut is further turned by the amount:
Q = 90° + S t + d (2)
where:
Q is the rotation in degrees
S t is the total thickness of connected parts in mm
d is the bolt diameter in mm.
The purpose of this method is to rotate the nut sufficiently to take the bolt well into the plastic state (Figure 6a). The shank tension
is then comparatively insensitive to variation in the nut rotation, while a large reserve exists before rupture occurs.
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It should be remembered that the ductility of the bolt largely depends on the length of the threaded portion. Care must be taken
with short bolts which have only a small amount of thread in the grip (5 threads is a minimum).
The danger of overloading (breaking) the bolt in the turn-of-nut method is far less than in the torque method.
Where the plates are not flat and parallel as indicated in Figure 6b, this method has the disadvantage that the preload will not be
reached if the construction worker does not pay enough attention to closing the gaps. A requirement of the method is that the
contact surfaces must fit snugly before the bolts are tightened up.
c. Combined method (the best)
In this method the torque method and the turn-of-nut method are combined.
1. First tighten all bolts to 75% of the full preload, using the torque method. By applying only 75%, the danger of overloading due to an
unexpected low friction between nut and thread is acceptably small. At the same time the clamping force is usually large enough to close any
gaps between the plates.
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2. Then tighten by a further turn of 90° to 120° (the lower value for small bolt lengths and the larger value for large bolt lengths).
This method has the advantage that it is not particularly sensitive to:
variation in the friction between the nut and the thread.

variation in the stiffness of the plate assembly (Figures 5 and 6). By applying the 75% torque, one is more sure that the plates fit snugly
than with the turn of nut method.
The above is illustrated in Figure 7:
If after preloading to a nominal 0,75 Fp (torque method), the actual preload appears very high, the turn-of-the-nut by Qp gives no
danger for rupture.
If the actual preload is low, the turn of nut by Qp gives a preload that is high enough for either assembly.
In connections with several bolts (Figure 8), it is necessary to tighten the bolts in two stages:
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Torque method. First stage: all bolts up to 75% of Ma. Second stage: all bolts to 100% of Ma.
Turn-of-nut method. First stage: all bolts "hand tight". Second stage: all bolts a second time "hand tight". Finally the turn-of-the-nuts.
Combined method. First stage: all bolts up to 75% of Ma. Second stage: all bolts a second time up to 75% of Ma. Finally the 90° - 120°
turn-of-the-nut.
The reason for the above is that after tightening the first bolt up to 75% of Fp or even Fp , the contact surfaces may not fit snugly. The fit
depends on the imperfections of the joint (the plates not being flat) and the stiffness of the plates, compared to the preload of the first tightened
bolt.
If the contact surfaces do not fit snug after the first bolt is tightened, tightening the second bolt will decrease the preload in the first bolt, and so
on.
By applying the two stage procedure, this effect is reduced to an acceptable level.
5. NUTS AND WASHERS

Failure of threaded fasteners due to over-tightening can occur by bolt shank fracture or by stripping of the threads of the nut and/or bolt. Shank
fracture is sudden and therefore easily noticed. Stripping is gradual and therefore difficult to detect. It introduces the danger of partly failed
fasteners being left in assemblies. Figure 9 gives the results of tension tests with both failure modes.
It would be desirable therefore to design threaded connections so that their mode of failure would always be by shank fracture. Unfortunately,
because of the many variables which govern stripping strength (nut and bolt material strengths, thread clearances, across-flats dimensions, etc.),
nuts would have to be abnormally thick to guarantee this mode in all cases.
Nuts with a width across flats according to ISO 898/2 [5] are used for preloaded bolts. Their nominal height is always greater than the classical
value 0.5 d; it is often equal to 0,8 d and it can reach 1,0 d.
In this respect an important quality requirement arises. The bolt with its nut in a tensile test as indicated in Figure 9 must have a rupture strength
of at least the so-called "proof stress". The proof stress for ISO 898/1 [6] bolts, for instance, differs somewhat from the design values for fub .
A hardened steel washer is placed under the part that is rotated (the nut or the head). This leads to a more uniform and not too high friction
between the rotated part and the underlying plates. When the bolt axis is not normal to the contact surface (difference of more than 3°), an
appropriate taper washer must be used.
6. HOLES
Clearance values are the same as for non-preloaded bolts (see Lecture 11.3.1.).
In normal circumstances, the clearance is 2mm for diameters up to and including 24mm and 3mm for larger diameters.
To improve the resistance of the connection, holes with smaller clearance than standard holes may be specified. As a result costs will be
greater.
7. SLIP RESISTANCE
HSFG bolts in shear connections transmit the force by friction between the contact faces (Figure 1). The resistance of these connections
depends on the preload Fp.Cd , the slip factor m and the number of friction faces n. The design slip resistance of a preloaded high strength bolt
has a value:
Fs,Rd = nmFp.Cd /gms (3)

The slip factor m depends on the preparation of the surfaces. Some values (1) are:
surface not treated m = 0,20

surface blasted with shot or grit, with any loose rust removed, no pitting m = 0,50
surface blasted with shot or grit and painted with ethyl-zinc silicate coat (thickness 30 - m = 0,30
60 m m)
surface blasted with shot or grit and hot dip galvanised m = 0,10
Painting may be necessary to prevent rust in the period before or during erection. Reference standard 8 of Eurocode 3 [4] gives more details.
Figure 2 compares the effect of using bearing and HSFG bolts to make up a double cover plate butt joint. Until slip occurs, the connection
which uses HSFG bolts is seen to be much stiffer than that which uses bearing bolts. Once slip occurs, the HSFG connection progressively
becomes a bearing connection and, after the hole clearance has been taken up, both connections behave in a similar way. The reason for the
large decrease of the force transmitted by friction can be explained by:
The decrease of the surface roughness during slip, which gives a decrease in m.
The fact that the tensile stresses in the plates around the holes increase when bearing becomes effective, reducing the thickness of the
plates (Poisson ratio) and hence decreasing the preload (consider the different longitudinal stress patterns in Figure 1).
For bolts in standard nominal clearance holes and for bolts in slotted holts (see Lecture 11.3.3) with the axis of the slot perpendicular to
the direction of the load transfer, the partial safety factor gms is taken as:
for the ultimate limit state gms = 1,25

× for the serviceability limit state gms = 1,10
8. SHEAR AND TENSION RESISTANCE

If a slip resistant connection is subjected to an applied tensile force Ft in addition to the shear force FV tending to produce slip, the slip
resistance per bolt is taken as follows:
Fs,Rd = nm(Fp.Cd - 0,8Ft) /gms
If, in a moment connection, the applied tensile force is counter balanced by a contact force on the compression side, no reduction of the slip
resistance is required.
9. PROVISIONS FOR FRICTION GRIP CONNECTIONS

Tests carried in several countries have shown that mill scale adhering to the contact surfaces causes a substantial reduction in the coefficient of
friction. Measures must therefore be taken to remove it.
Depending on the slip factor m assumed, the contact surfaces shall be cleaned and roughened by blasting or shot peening with an appropriate
material (sand, steel grit, etc.).
The material used for blasting should be carefully selected (sand, steel shot, cast iron shot, wire shot, etc.) and the treatment should be carried
out, making full use of all that is known of the process, so as to achieve a favourable slip factor. This treatment shall be followed immediately by
the application of an appropriate paint, if it is specified.
When flame-cleaning is used, it is particularly important that full use should be made of experience gained with regard to burner action (possible
use of two burners), the gas-oxygen mixture and the angle of inclination of the flame to the surface of the plate.
Parts to be joined with preloaded high strength bolts must be protected against corrosion by suitable measures designed to prevent moisture
penetrating to the contact surfaces and the bolt holes. Such a protection (e.g. sealing) may also be necessary as a temporary measure when
joint faces are left wholly or partially exposed during erection. All necessary precautions shall be taken, during fabrication and erection, to
ensure that the slip factors assumed for the calculation are achieved and maintained.
When the joint is assembled the contact surfaces must be free from dust, oil, paint, etc. Spots of oil cannot be removed by flame-cleaning
without leaving harmful residues and must be removed by suitable chemical means. If the parts cannot be assembled as soon as the contact
surfaces have been treated, it is sufficient to remove any thin films of rust or other loose material by brushing with a soft steel brush. During this
process the prepared surface must not be damaged, oiled or greased.
If structural components in which the contact surfaces have been prepared for friction grip bolting are stored for very long periods, there is a
risk of rusting. Under certain circumstances a lower slip factor must be considered. An effective means of protecting the contact surfaces is to
apply self-adhesive or sprayed-on films of plastic. Up to the present, however, no protective coating is known which does not affect the slip
factor adversely.
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HSFG bolted connections are very stiff and they have good performance under fatigue loading.
There are several methods of tightening; the best one is the combined method.
The shear resistance of a connection with HSFG bolts is determined by the compressive forces between the plies, caused by the
pretension of the bolts, and the slip factor of the mating surfaces of the plates. The presence of an external tension reduces shear
resistance and vice versa.
The control of the value of the slip factor between the connected parts is very important.
11. REFERENCES
[1] Kulak, G. L., Fischer, J. W. and Struik, J. H. A., "Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints", 2nd edition, John Wiley and
Sons, 1987.
[2] Bouwman, L. P., "Fatigue of Bolted Connections and Bolts Loaded in tension", Delft University of Technology, Department of Civil
Engineering, Report. 6-79-9, July 1979.
[3] European Recommendations for Bolted Connections in Structural Steelwork. European Convention for Constructional Steelwork (ECCS),
Publication No. 38, 1985.
[4] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992 (see Chapter 6: Connections
Subjected to Static Loading, and Chapter 7: Fabrication and Erection).
[5] ISO 898/2, International Standard Mechanical Properties of Fasteners.
Part 2: Nuts with Specified Proof Load Values.
[6] ISO 898/1, International Standard Mechanical Properties of Fasteners.
Part 1: Bolts, Screws and Studs.

ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.3.3: Particular Aspects in Bolted

Connections
OBJECTIVE:
To describe the influence of particular aspects on the design of bolted connections.
PREREQUISITES:
Lectures 11.3.1 & 11.3.2: Bolted Connections
RELATED LECTURES:
Lecture 12.6: Fatigue Behaviour of Bolted Joints
SUMMARY:
Non-conventional but practical situations occurring in bolted connections are discussed. The following
problems are considered:
oversize and slotted holes

fit of contact surfaces
determination of the slip factor
fitted and injection bolts
protected plates or bolts
hydrogen embrittlement - stress corrosion
NOTATION
A Area of the shank of a bolt [mm2]

d Nominal diameter of the bolt (shank) [mm]
Fs.Rd Design slip resistance [N]
Fp Preload of a bolt [N]
Fu,b Nominal tensile strength of a bolt [N/mm2]
ks Reduction coefficient of the slip factors
n Number of friction faces
gms Partial safety factor for a slip resistant bolt
1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The resistance of a connection should be determined on the basis of the resistance of the individual fasteners.
Bolts for structural steelwork are available in various sizes and grades. Non-preloaded bolts are used for the
majority of structures. Where special requirements on the stiffness, the prevention of slip during load reversal
or fatigue are to be met, high strength friction grip (HSFG) bolts may be used.
The resistance of a (non-preloaded) bearing connection depends on the shear resistance of the bolt and on
the bearing resistance of the plates. If the bearing resistance of the plates is lower than the shear resistance of
the bolt, the deformation capacity of the joint is large. This is particularly important in long joints and where
inaccuracies exist in the hole patterns.
The shear resistance of HSFG bolts is sensitive to the coefficient of friction m and the applied preload.
Lectures 11.3.1 and 11.3.2 describe standard connections with the types of bolts mentioned above.
Due to practical requirements it is often necessary to use different constructional designs. In addition there
may be a combination of forces on the connections making it difficult to evaluate the stresses in the bolts.
Particular aspects of bolted connection behaviour and design are reviewed herein.
2. OVERSIZE AND SLOTTED HOLES

Restricting the nominal hole diameter to the values given in Lecture 11.3.1 (for example, 2mm in excess of the
nominal bolt diameter) can impose rigid alignment conditions between structural members, particularly in large
joints. Sometimes erection problems occur when the holes in the plate material do not line up properly.
Occasionally, steel fabricators must preassemble structures to ensure that the joint will align properly during
erection. With a larger hole size, it is possible to eliminate the preassembly process and save time and money.
An average hole provides the same clearance in all directions to meet tolerances during erection. However, if
an adjustment is needed in a particular direction, slotted holes can be used. Slotted holes are identified by
their parallel or transverse alignment with respect to the direction of the applied load.
2/14
When oversize and slotted holes are used, additional plate material is removed from the vicinity of high
clamping forces. The influence of this condition on the behaviour of connections with preloaded bolts has
been investigated experimentally [1]. The effect of oversize and slotted holes on such factors as the loss in
bolt tension after installation and the slip resistance has been examined.
The use of oversize or slotted holes reduces slightly the mean clamping force in the fasteners. This reduction is
thought to result from plastic flow in the steel plates under the head of the bolt and the nut. The influence of
plastic flow can be reduced by using hardened washers. The reduction of clamping force influences also the
slip factors. The combined effect of the change of slip factor and reduction of the clamping force is estimated
to cause a 15% reduction in slip resistance for oversize and short slotted holes and a 30% reduction for long
slotted holes.
The design formulae for slip-resistant joints reflect the reduced slip resistance by introducing a reduction
factor ks .
The design slip resistance of a preloaded high strength friction grip bolt is therefore given by:
Fs,Rd = [(ks m)n/gms ]. Fp.Cd
(see Lecture 11.3.2 for the design slip resistance in a connection where the holes have nominal clearance).
The coefficient of reduction ks is equal to 0,85 for oversize and short slotted holes and to 0,70 for long
slotted holes.
The nominal sizes of short slotted holes for slip resistant connections may not be greater than:
(d + 1) mm by (d + 4) mm for M12 and M14 bolts

(d + 2) mm by (d + 6) mm for M16 and M22 bolts
(d + 2) mm by (d + 8) mm for M24 bolts
(d + 3) mm by (d + 10) mm for M27 and larger bolts
where d is the nominal bolt diameter in mm.
The nominal sizes of long slotted holes for slip resistant connections may not be greater than:
(d + 1) mm by 2,5 d for M12 and M14 bolts

(d + 2) mm by 2,5 d for M16 and M24 bolts
(d + 3) mm by 2,5 d for M27 and larger bolts
Long slots in an outer ply must be covered by cover plates of appropriate dimensions and thickness (see
above). The holes in the cover plates may not be larger than standard holes.
The sizes required for long slotted holes for movement joints have to be specified. Slots in an outer ply must
be covered by cover plates of appropriate dimensions and thickness (see above).
In those cases where oversize or slotted holes are used with non-preloaded bolts, then it is customary to
assume no reduction in design resistances due to the oversize effects.
3. FIT OF CONTACT SURFACES

The maximum step between adjacent surfaces in a joint may not exceed 2mm in order to avoid any reduction
of the resistance of the connection (Figure 1). When using preloaded bolts, the possible effects of lack of fit
have to be considered and smaller tolerances could be imposed. If it is not possible to adopt smaller
tolerances, packing plates should be used in order to transfer properly the load across the splice. The
minimum thickness of steel packing should be:
2mm if not exposed to corrosive influences

4mm in outdoor conditions.
Because of practical difficulties such as the need to connect plates of different thicknesses or poor fit-up after
erection on site it is sometimes necessary to insert thin steel plates to act as packs. Providing such packs are
no more than a few millimetres in thickness and good contacts are ensured, then structural performance
should not really be affected. Instances will arise, however, when their presence cannot be ignored at the
design stage:
· For connections made with ordinary bearing bolts the bolt shank will be subjected to an increasing degree
of bending as the packing thickness increases. This is covered by EC3, in the following rule:
Where bolts transmitting load in shear and bearing pass through packings of total thickness tp greater than
one third of the nominal diameter d, the design shear resistance shall be reduced by the factor
· When HSFG bolts are being used for clamping lengths greater than 10 times the bolt diameter, the
parameters controlling the tightening method must be determined by tests.
· For HSFG bolts creep and relaxation effects may well be higher, leading to a larger loss of preload.
4. DETERMINATION OF THE SLIP FACTOR

The slip factor for the proposed method of surface preparation may be obtained directly from published
information as explained in Lecture 11.3.2, (generally involving a surface coating). Sometimes, however it
may be necessary to determine the slip factor by tests, in accordance with the following procedure [2, 3].
The calculations must in this case be based on the value reached in 95% of all tests. With a normal
distribution of the results, this value corresponds to mmean times 1,64 S (S = standard deviation).
The following points must be observed when the tests are carried out:
The test specimens shall conform to the dimensional details shown in Figure 2a or 2b. The steel
material shall conform to EN 10025 grade Fe E 275 or Fe E 355.
To ensure that the two inner plates are the same thickness, they shall be produced by cutting them
consecutively from the same piece of material and the specimen should be assembled with them in their
original relative positions.
The plates shall not have thermally cut edges. They shall be sufficiently flat to permit the prepared
surfaces to be in full contact when the bolts have been preloaded.
The preload applied to the bolts shall be the specified minimum preload for the size and grade of bolt
used. An accurate method of measurement shall be used to verify the actual value of the preload.
The specified surface treatment and coating shall be applied to the contact surfaces of the test
specimens in a manner consistent with the intended structural application. The mean coating thickness
on the contact surface of the test specimens shall be at least 0,05 mm greater than the maximum mean
thickness specified for use in the structure.
The specimens shall be assembled in such a way that the bolts are bearing in the opposite direction to
the applied tension.
The preload Fp to be applied must be calculated from Fp = 0,7 fub As . It must be proved by
measurements that the effective preloads which are applied, correspond to these values. The
displacements of the a-c lines with respect to the b points (see Figures 2a and 2b) must be determined.
The slip in the bolted connection is denoted by the average of the displacement on both sides. The slip
load (Fs ) is defined as that load at which a slip of 150 mm is observed. The slip factor m can be
calculated from:
m = Fs /4 Fp
The slip factor of the two bolt fastenings in one testpiece must be determined. Five testpieces (10 bolt
fastenings) must be tested. Four testpieces must be loaded at normal speed (duration of the test
approximately 10-15 min).
With the fifth testpiece a creep test must be carried out with a specific load of 90% of the average slip
load in the first four tests. If, in the time between five minutes and three hours after the application of
the load, there are no displacements, (d) > 2 mm, the slip loads for this testpiece, too, can be
determined in the normal way.
If the standard deviation of the ten values obtained exceeds 8% of the mean value, further tests must
be carried out. The necessary number of testpieces in this case is given by the formula:
n³
where:
n is the necessary number of testpieces (two fastenings each) including the first tests
S is the standard deviation in first five testpieces (10 values) as a percentage of mean value.
If creep occurs in the joint in the fifth testpiece, further creep tests must be carried out.
It must be established, by means of at least 3 testpieces (6 fastenings), that the load associated with the
slip factor on which the calculation is based does not cause displacements greater than 300 mm during
the life of the construction. The displacement-log time curve (Figure 2c) can be linearly extrapolated as
soon as the tangent can be ascertained with sufficient certainty.

A useful summary of slip factor test results covering a range of different surface conditions that concludes with
a series of recommended factors, is available from the ECCS (4).
5. FITTED AND INJECTION BOLTS

When the deformation of a connection under load must be very low, it is possible to use fitted bolts.
The requirements concerning fitted bolts are:
The diameter of the screwed portion of turned barrel bolts shall be at least 1,5 mm smaller than the
diameter of the barrel. The specified diameter of the bolts shall be the nominal diameter of the barrel.
The diameter of the turned barrel shall be within the diameter tolerances for bolts as specified in ISO
4759/1 [5]. The length of the barrel shall be such that it bears fully on all the connected parts.
Steel plate washers not less than 6 mm thick with a hole diameter nominally 1,5 mm larger than the
diameter of the barrel shall be provided under the nut of turned barrel bolts.
Holes for fitted bolts to be used shall align with h11 and H11 in ISOR286 [6]. The difference between
the diameter of the bolt shank and the side of the hole shall not exceed 0,3 mm.
The nomenclature h11 and H11 refer to the fits relating to deviations.
An alternative to the fitted bolt is the injection bolt, i.e. bolts where the clearance between the bolt and the
wall of the hole is completely filled with a two component resin (Figure 3) [7]. The bolts may or may not be
pretensioned.

These bolts are used mainly: in new railway bridges, in heavily loaded crane runway girders and to repair
riveted connections in bridges.
Injection bolts are "normal" bolts with a small hole drilled in the head (Figure 4). The dimensions of the 5,5
mm hole in the top of the head offer sufficient support for the nozzle of the injection equipment. The other part
of the hole, 3,2 mm, is wide enough for injecting the resin.
A hardened washer is placed under the head with the inside machined as shown in Figure 4. The extra space
under the head facilitates the flow of the resin around the bolt, filling the clearance between the bolt and the
plates completely. The inner diameter of the washer must be at least 0,5 mm larger than the diameter of the

shank.
A hardened washer with a groove is placed under the nut to enable the air to escape (Figure 4). The washer
must be placed with the groove at the nut side. If the plates are painted, this position will prevent the groove
from being filled with paint during tightening.
The advantages of this type of bolt are:
Injection bolts are a reliable and relatively cheap means of making non-slip shear connections (Figure
5).
Injection bolts behave in almost the same way as fitted bolts. However, they are much cheaper,
especially in thick plate assemblies, where reaming may be very expensive.
Large hole clearances are allowed, which are helpful during the assembly of large connections.
Where there are low slip factors, e.g. hot dip galvanised or painted surfaces, injection may "help"
HSFG bolted connections considerably.
Because of the greater design strength of HSFG injection bolts, the number of bolts in such
connections can be reduced.
Sudden slip due to overloading is completely ruled out if injection bolts are used.
Injection bolts may be used as an alternative to HSFG bolts. Since neither special tightening equipment
nor skilled personnel are required for the pre-tensioning, cost savings may be obtained.
Internal corrosion is eliminated.

6. TC BOLTS - LOAD INDICATOR WASHERS

Many systems to control the preload in bolts have been tested; the most popular are "TC bolts" and "Load
Indicator washers". Their use is very simple, but the scatter of the preload magnitude is large. They represent
an alternative to the direct methods described in Lecture 11.3.2.
6.1 A "Tension Control" (TC) bolt has a torque control groove and a torque
control spline at the end of the threaded part as shown in Figure 6. When the
torque reaches a definite value determined by the groove, the end of the screw
breaks and the tightening is stopped.
This type of bolt has the advantages:
it eliminates the need for a back-up man on the bolt screw.

it removes the possibility of operator error and checking is very rapid.
the tool requires no calibration and tightening is not affected by field conditions.
On the other hand, the reduction in preload is rather large and tightening in two stages is not possible.
6.2 A Load Indicator washer is a specially hardened washer with protrusions on

one face, illustrated in Figure 7. The protrusions bear against the underside of
the bolt head leaving a gap. As the bolt is tightened the protrusions are flattened
and the gap reduced. At a specified average gap, measured by feeler gauge, the
induced shank tension will not be less than the minimum required by Standards.
Figure 8 shows a standard assembly in place before and after tightening the bolt.

All the bolts shall be tightened in accordance with the manufacturers instructions and to the required tension
indicator gap recommended by the manufacturer, as verified by calibration tests.
Tightening shall be carried out progressively from the middle of the joint to the free edges, to avoid loosening
previously tightened fasteners.
Tightening to the required gap shall be carried out in two stages to ensure consistency of preloading. In the
first stage 75% of the deformation of the protrusions of the tension indicator shall be reached. In the second
stage of final tightening the required gap shall be reached.

7. PLATES PROTECTED AGAINST CORROSION

The slip factor between protected plates must be determined by tests if not specified.
If the protective coating is thicker than 15 mm (hot dip galvanised plates, for example) preloaded bolts must
be retightened one or two times. The best procedure is to retighten them once after 2 weeks and a second
time after 3 months.
All necessary precautions shall be taken during fabrication and erection to ensure that the slip factor assumed
for the calculation is reached and maintained.
8. PROTECTED BOLTS
At the present time, a wide range of structures are being treated with a protective surface coating to prevent
corrosion and reduce maintenance costs.
To connect plates of weathering steel or plates with a protection against corrosion, zinc coated bolts
(galvanised bolts) or weathering steel bolts are often used.
The zinc coating on the surface of a bolt does not affect the bolt static strength, but it adds a frictional
resistance on the threads. The effect of high frictional resistance can be reduced substantially by employing
lubricants on the threads of galvanised bolts, such as molybdenumdisulphide or bee's wax for example.
Protected bolts are sometimes oiled by the manufacturers.
Although galvanising provides an excellent protection against corrosion of the bolt, it may increase its
susceptibility to stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement.
9. HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT - STRESS CORROSION

It is well known that high strength steels may be subject to delayed fracture caused by hydrogen [8].
Therefore attention must be paid to the hydrogen content when high strength bolts are used. The hydrogen in
bolts is absorbed during manufacture, for example from electrogalvanising. In addition, it is also absorbed
from their surroundings while in use, for instance, hydrogen produced during corrosion reactions.
Cracks generally start at locations with a severe tri-axial stress.
When bolts with a tensile strength higher than 1180MPa are used, a minute content of hydrogen may cause
delayed fracture. This small content of hydrogen in bolts cannot be quantitatively analysed by conventional
methods.
Stress-corrosion cracking may be defined as failure under combined action of corrosion and stress, whether
the stress be external (applied) or internal (residual). Cracking may be either intergranular or transgranular,
depending on the metal and the corrosive media.
Microscopic examinations of specimens from stress-corrosion tests on high strength bolts show that the crack
originates at the surface, where corrosion pits occur, and propagates transgranularly and intergranularly in a
direction approximately 90 degrees to the direction of the loading. The rust is localised in the area of the
corrosion pit prior to the initiation of a stress-corrosion crack.

Susceptibility to stress-corrosion cracking in bolts depends on (1) the amount of stress present, (2) the bolt
material (including its strength and corrosion resistance), (3) how the bolt is processed, and (4) the coating
used to protect it against corrosion.
Laboratory tests indicate that the higher the strength of the steel, the more sensitive the material becomes to
both stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement.

In a connection with oversize or slotted holes the outer ply must be covered by a hardened washer or
a coverplate.
The slip factor in slip resistant joints with oversize or slotted holes has to be reduced.
In a joint, the step between adjacent surfaces may not exceed 2mm.
The determination of the slip factor must be done; when necessary, in accordance with the standard
method.
Fitted bolts and injection bolts reduce the deformation of a connection.
Protected bolts must be lubricated with an adequate product.
12. REFERENCES
[1] Kulak, L.,Fisher J.W.,and Struik J.H.- Design criteria for bolted and riveted joints - 2nd edition - John
Wiley and Sons - 1987.
[2] European Recommendations for Bolted Connections in Structural Steelwork. European Convention for
constructional Steelwork (ECCS - Publication No. 38, 1985.
[3] DD ENV 1993-1-1: 1992
Eurocode No. 3: Design of Steel Structures - Part 1 - General Rules and Rules for Buildings.
[4] ECCS Publication No. 37 "Slip Factors of Connections With HSFG Bolts".
[5] ISO 4759/1: Tolerances for Fasteners.
Part 1: Bolts, screws and nuts with threaded diameters ³ 1.6 and £ 150 mm and product grades A, B and C.
[6] ISO/R286: ISO system for tolerances and adjustments. Part 1: General purposes, tolerances and gaps.
[7] Bouwman, L. P., Summary report of the research on injection bolts. Stevin Laboratory of the Delft
University of Technology.
[8] Hirth, F.W. and Speckhardt, H., "Contribution de l'hydrogène la fragilisation d'aciers de traitement
thermique", Le Trefile, Vol. 29, No. 3, 1979, pp 95-105 and Vol 29, No. 4, 1979, pp 182-187.

ESDEP WG 11
Lectures 11.4.1: Analysis of Connections I:

Basic Determination of Forces
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To review the behaviour and the basis for design of local elements in connections.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 1B.5: Introduction to Design of Industrial Buildings
Lecture 1B.7: Introduction to Design of Multi-Storey Buildings
Lecture 2.3: Engineering Properties of Metals
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
This group of 4 lectures (11.4.1 - 11.4.4) explains how the behaviour of local elements in connections may be analysed so
that each component may safely be proportioned to resist the loads it is required to transfer. It therefore develops the basic
concepts of force transfer that were presented in general terms in Lecture 11.1.2.
In this first lecture the general principles used in determining the forces for which each component in a connection must be
designed are explained. These make use of the fundamental structural concepts of equilibrium, stiffness and deformations to
decide how the externally developed loads are shared between the various components. This then leads to the idea of load
paths as being the most effective way that applied forces can pass through the connection.
NOTATION
The notation of Eurocode 3 [1] has been adopted.
1. INTRODUCTION
In Lecture 11.1.2 it was shown in general terms how the structural adequacy of connections can be checked by considering
the resistance of the local elements of the connection.
The resistance of a local element is determined on the basis of the resistance of the individual bolts or welds and plates.
The resistance of welds and bolts is covered in Lectures 11.2 and 11.3. In this Lecture 11.4.1 the resistance, stiffness and
deformation capacity of a number of components are discussed.
Thus the material of Lectures 11.1, 11.2 and 11.3 is brought together to explain how the individual components in
connections can be safely proportioned. This involves both a determination of the forces to which each is subjected and the
ways in which, acting in combination, the parts of the connection transfer these forces from the supported member to the
supporting member.
Having established the principles, Lectures 11.4.2 - 11.4.4 apply these to the consideration of the transfer of different types
of internal forces within connections e.g. direct tension, shear, tension as part of a moment etc., whilst Lectures 11.5 - 11.8
fully develop the ideas to cover the design of particular connection types.
2. DETERMINATION OF FORCES
2.1 Forces on the Connection
For the determination of the forces on the connection, a static analysis is carried out. Such an analysis includes the
determination of the design loads on the structure and the definition of the design basis for the structure.
In defining the design basis, consideration of the structural behaviour of the connections is necessary. Are the connections
pinned, or rigid, or semi-rigid? Are they partial strength or full strength connections? More details about the influence of the
type of connection on the distribution of forces in the structure are given in Lectures 11.1, 11.5, 11.6, 11.7 and 11.8.
2.2 Force Distribution in the Connection
After the determination of the normal forces, shear forces and bending moments on the connections, an internal distribution
of forces in the connection is chosen.
The distribution of forces in the connection may be determined in whatever rational way is best, provided that:
a. The assumed internal forces are in equilibrium with the applied forces and moments.
b. Each part of the connection is capable of resisting the forces assumed in the analysis.
c. The deformations imposed by the chosen distribution are within the deformation capacity of the fasteners,
welds and other parts of the connection.
Figure 1 gives an outline of the determination of the load on the individual elements of the connections, and the verification of
their resistance.
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It is not necessary and it is often not possible to determine the real distribution of forces in the connection. A realistic
assumption of internal forces, in equilibrium with the external forces on the connection, is sufficient. In fact selecting this
assumption is the most difficult part of the analysis. It requires a sound understanding of the structural behaviour of the
connection when it is loaded.
The following rules apply:
a. The distribution of forces in the parts to be connected requires consideration
If, for instance, an I-section loaded in bending and shear, has to be connected, then the shear force is largely
concentrated in the web, whilst the flanges carry most of the bending moment. A simple and usually acceptable
assumption for the load transfer in the connection is to connect the web for the full shear force and the flanges
for the full bending moment, see Figure 1.
b. The stiffness of the various parts in the connection requires consideration
Deformations caused by loads acting in the plane of a plate are much smaller than those produced by loads
acting perpendicular to a plate (normal force versus bending moment). In many cases the understanding of the
influence of the stiffness ratio on the force distribution can be improved by considering the situation after a small
deformation of the connection has occurred. This approach is illustrated in Section 3 by examples.
c. The assumed force distribution must be consistent for all parts in the connection
Violations against this rule may occur if a separate calculation is carried out for the different parts in the
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connection. An example is given in Figure 2. The indicated distribution of forces for the calculation of the bolts
is not consistent with the distribution of stresses in the beam assumed to design the welds between the beam
and the end plate. Overloading of the welds in the top flange of the beam results.
2.3 Basic Load Cases for Local Elements
The analysis of the structural behaviour of connections can be carried out by considering a number of basic load cases for
local elements. For a T-connection this analysis is demonstrated in Figure 3. The load transfer in nearly every type of
connection can be modelled with the five basic load cases. Use of these cases permits a systematic and clear presentation of
the calculation methods, despite the wide variety of possible connection types. Eurocode 3 (Chapter 6 and Annex J) follows
this approach.
In Lectures 11.4.3 and 11.4.4 calculations for the five basic load cases are presented for a number of connection designs.
For each part of the connection, a number of possible failure modes can be identified. They may refer to:
the fasteners (welds or bolts).

the members which are connected.
extra parts in the connection, e.g. plates and angle cleats.
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It has to be demonstrated that the weakest link in the connection system (chain) is strong enough to carry the load that acts
on it.
The design of the fasteners (welds and bolts) is dealt with in Lectures 11.2 and 11.3. The design of other parts in the
connection is dealt with in the present Lectures 11.4.
3. DISTRIBUTION OF FORCES
3.1 Influence of Stiffness Differences
When distributing normal forces, shear forces and bending moments in the connection, the stiffness differences in the
connection must be taken into account. In particular, the deformations due to normal forces in the plane of a plate are much
smaller than the deformations due to forces acting perpendicular to it.
A calculation for the example of Figure 4 gives a good demonstration of this principle. The plate 100 ´ 100 ´ 10 mm,
clamped on one side, is loaded with 1000 N perpendicular to the plate surface.
The deflection follows from:
d= = = 0,2 mm (3-1)
The same plate is loaded with an in-plane tensile force of the same magnitude. The displacement of the end of the plate is
now:
Dl = = = 0,0005 mm (3-2)
Both plates are now connected, see Figure 5, causing both displacements at the interface to be equal. A load of 1000 N is
applied to this structure. The load is carried by both plates, shared in proportion to the stiffness ratio. The plate loaded in
tension is 0,2/0,0005 = 400 times stiffer than the plate that is bent. Consequently, nearly the whole load is carried by the
plate loaded in tension, see Figure 5b.
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This knowledge is used to determine the distribution of forces for the brace connection shown in Figure 6, e.g. in a floor
structure. In this connection many distributions of the forces in the connections, each obeying equilibrium, are possible.
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First it is assumed that the force is carried by both connections, whilst the direction stays the same, see Figure 7. For the
analysis, the force 0,5 F is resolved as Fs = 0,35 F and Ft = 0,35 F.
The deformation in the shear direction (Fs ) is much smaller than the deformation in the tensile direction (Ft). The result is that
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the deformation D1 at point (1) is very different from the deformation D2 at point (2). The deformations D1 and D2 cannot
be accommodated by the gusset plate!
This means that the deformation at point (1) caused by Fs (DS1) must be the same as the deformation at point (2) caused by
Ft (DS2).
Therefore, Fs is much larger than Ft. The distribution of forces in Figure 7 is incorrect.
The correct distribution is indicated in Figure 8. The force F effectively causes only shear in the bolt groups (1) and (2). The
tension load in the bolts can be ignored.
Conclusion: If large differences in the stiffness between two possible types of load transfer exist, then ignore the load
transfer that gives the larger deformations (bending deformation of the plate), and assume that all load is transferred in the
way that gives the smaller deformations (deformation in the plane of the plate).
This approach also applies to welded structures, e.g. see Figure 9 which illustrates the connection of a plate to a square
hollow section. The assumed force distribution where the welds are only loaded in shear is correct.
The stiffness ratio in the connection may influence the assumption for the calculation of the bending moments. An example is
given in Figure 10. In the connection in Figure 10a, the rotation of the bolted connection is larger than the rotation of the
plate which is welded in the plane of the web of the column. Therefore, the hinge for the calculation of moments is assumed
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to be the bolt row. The bolts are loaded by a shear force V. The welds must be designed for a shear force V and a bending
moment V.e.
In the connection in Figure 10b, the plate is welded to the non-rigid wall of the square hollow section. Here the more logical
place for the hinge is this wall. The weld is now only loaded in shear and consequently, the bolt row is loaded in shear (V)
and bending (V.e).
3.2 Free Centre of Rotation and Forced Centre of Rotation
a. Free centre of rotation
The plates in Figure 11 are connected by bolts arranged in an arbitrary pattern. The connection is loaded by a bending
moment M. The plates are assumed to be rigid, compared with the stiffness of the fasteners. Therefore, the rotation q
between the plates is the result of the deformation of the fasteners. The plates rotate around the centre of rotation.
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In the case of small deformations of the fasteners, a linear relation between the bolt forces Ri and the displacements d i may
be assumed, giving bolt forces Fi proportional to the distance ri to the centre of rotation and the rotation q, see Figure 12.
d i = ri q (3-3)
Ri = (ri/rmax)Rmax (3-4)
Rxi = (yi/ri)Ri = (yi/rmax)Rmax (3-5)
Ryi = (xi/ri)Ri = (xi/rmax)Rmax (3-6)
If the load on the connection is a pure bending moment, equilibrium requires that the resultant forces in the x and y directions
must be zero:
SRxi = Rmax/rmax Syi = 0 ® Syi = 0 (3-7)
SRyi = Rmax/ rmax Sxi = 0 ® Syi = 0 (3-8)
The centre of rotation is therefore located at the centroid of the bolt group.
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M = Sri . Ri = S(Rmax/ rmax) . Rmax = (Rmax/rmax) Sri2 (3-9)
Rmax = (3-10)
This situation with the centre of rotation at the centroid of the bolt group is called "free centre of rotation".
If an eccentric force acts on a bolt group with free centre of rotation, the following analysis can be carried out, see Figure 13.
The eccentric force F can be replaced by a bending moment M = F . e and a force F through the centre of rotation. The
loads on the bolts are the summation of the loads caused by M (as explained above) and the loads caused by F. For n bolts,
each bolt carries F/n. The resultant force on each bolt can be determined by resolving the forces caused by M and F in the
x-direction and in the y-direction:
Fx = FxM + FxF (3-11)
Fy = FyM + FyF (3-12)
R= (3-13)
For an arbitrary bolt pattern it is not easy to determine in advance which bolt is the most heavily loaded. Several bolts have
therefore to be checked. In practice, however, the bolt pattern is usually regular and the more severely loaded bolts are
readily identified.
b. Forced centre of rotation
In an end plate connection of the type shown in Figure 14, there is an important difference between the stiffness of the
tension zone and the compression zone.
In the compression zone, the compression force is transmitted directly from the flange of the beam to the web of the column.
The deformations in the compression zone are very small compared to the deformations in the tension zone, where bending
of the end plate and bending of the column flange occurs.
Because of this difference in the stiffness, the centre of rotation is effectively located at point (1) in Figure 14. Sometimes, to
be more conservative, the centre of rotation is taken as the lowest bolt row.
If the end plate is thick and therefore stiff, then the centre of rotation may also be assumed at the lower end of the plate.
The above situation, where the centre of rotation is not in the centre of the bolt group, is called a connection with a "forced
centre of rotation".
Assuming that the stiffness at each bolt row is the same, the forces in the bolt rows are directly proportional to their distance
from the centre of rotation. With the centre of rotation at point (1), the following analysis can be carried out:
h1 2T1 + h2 2T2 + h3 2T3 + h4 2T4 + h5 2T5 + h6 2T6 = M (3-14)
With equal bolt sizes:
2T2 = 2T1
2T3 = 2T1
2T4 = 2T1
2T5 = 2T1
From these equations, the bolt force T1 in the most heavily loaded bolt can be determined:
(3-15)
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In reality, the stiffness of the bolt rows may differ considerably, e.g. the extended part of the end plate above the beam's top
flange in Figure 15 is less stiff than the part below the top flange where the web of the beam has a stiffening effect. As a
result, bolt row number 2 will transmit a higher load than bolt row number 1.
For thin end plates the differences in the stiffness of different bolt rows is more pronounced and the distribution of forces in
the bolt rows is more variable.
With "normal" dimensions of the end plate, it is reasonable to assume that the tension force in the top flange of the beam is
equally distributed between bolt rows 1 and 2.
If an end plate connection is loaded by a combination of bending moment M and a tensile force FH, the situation with a
forced centre of rotation may occur, but also a free centre of rotation is possible. This depends on the magnitude of FH, see
Figure 16.
If the centre of rotation is forced (FH is small), then FH is transferred through the rigid point (1). The bending moment about
(1) is:
M1 = M + FH . a = Shi2 (3-16)
where
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a is the distance between the centre line of the beam and the compression point (1).
From the condition of horizontal equilibrium it follows that:
D= S hi - FH (3-17)
If:
FH = S hi (3-18)
then D = 0. With D < 0, there is no longer a forced centre of rotation. From Equations (3-16) and (3-17) it follows that if:
a+ (3-19)
there is a forced centre of rotation, and if:
a+ (3-20)
there is a free centre of rotation.
All connection designs must satisfy three fundamental requirements:
i. Internal forces must be in equilibrium with the external applied forces and moments.
ii. Each part of the connection must be capable of safely resisting the forces in it assumed by the analysis.
iii. The deformations required by the assumed internal force distribution must be within the deformation
capabilities of the component parts.
Using 5 basic load cases the force transfers present in virtually every form of connection may be obtained by suitable
combination.
Load transfer follows routes in which the majority of load follows the stiffer paths.
Moment transfer by means of a group of fasteners may involve either a "free centre of rotation" or a "forced centre of
rotation".
5. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures" ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
1. Owens, G. W. and Cheal, B. D., "Structural Steelwork Connections", Butterworths & Co. (Publishers) Limited,
1989.
2. Kulak, G. L., Fisher, J. W. and Struik, J. H. A., "Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints", Willey -
Interscience, 2nd Edition, 1987.
3. Ballio, G. and Mazzolani, F. M., "Theory and Design of Steel Structures", Chapman & Hall 1983.
4. W. F. Chen "Joint Flexibility in Steel Frames" Journal of Constructional Steel Research Volume 8, 1987.

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ESDEP WG 11
Lectures 11.4.2: Analysis of Connections: Distribution

of Forces in Groups
of Bolts and Welds
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 11.4.1: Analysis of Connections: Basic Determination of Forces
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
This group of 4 lectures (11.4.1 - 11.4.4) explains how the behaviour of local elements in connections may be analysed so
that each component may safely be proportioned to resist the loads it is required to transfer. It therefore develops the basic
concepts of force transfer that were presented in general terms in Lecture 11.1.2.
This second lecture concentrates on the behaviour and design of groups of fasteners (bolts or welds) as used in the types of
connection described in Lecture 11.1.2. Methods are presented for assessing the load on each individual fastener (bolt or
length of weld) and for determining the total resistance of the group acting in combination. The specific topics covered
include: long bolted joints, long welded joints, weld groups, bolt groups and welds and bolts designed to act together in
resisting the same applied forces.
NOTATION
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1. DISTRIBUTION OF FORCES
1.1 LONG CONNECTIONS
1.1.1 Long bolted connection loaded in longitudinal direction
When several bolts are placed in a row, as is indicated in Figure 1, then assuming elastic behaviour, an uneven distribution of
forces occurs. This distribution can easily be demonstrated when two extreme situations are considered, see Figure 2.
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a. Assume the bolts are infinitely stiff and the plates are weak
The bolts do not deform. They remain straight and parallel to each other. Each piece of plate between a pair of
bolts therefore has the same length, the same strain and consequently also the same stress. In the example of
Figure 2, this means that the forces in the plates between bolt 1 and bolt 2 are: 0,5 F, 1,0 F and 0,5 F. But this
also applies to the plates between bolts 2 and 3 and between bolts 3 and 4.
Conclusion: the bolts 1 and 4 transmit the full load F. The other bolts are not loaded, see Figure 2a.
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b. Assume the plates are infinitely stiff and the bolts are weak
The plates between the bolts do not deform. In other words, every bolt has the same deformation and therefore
is loaded to the same extent. Every bolt carries 0,5 F, i.e. 0,25 F per shear area.
The real distribution of forces is between these two extremes, as is indicated by the solid line ("elastic") in Figure 2c.
The difference between the forces in the outer bolts and the inner bolts is greater when the stiffness of the plates is low. This
situation occurs when the connection is longer (more bolts) and the plate thickness compared to the bolt diameter is small.
For practical ratios of plate thickness to bolt diameter and practical values for the pitch, the following approximate
distributions (%) of bolt forces apply:
- with four bolts 29-21-21-29
- with six bolts 25-15-10-10-15-25
- with eight bolts 24-13-8-5-5-8-13-24
Design recommendation
The part of the connection between the outer bolts must be designed to be as short and stiff as possible, in order to minimise
the differences between the bolt forces.
In practice, however, it is normally permissible to assume an even distribution of forces, owing to the plastic deformation
capacity of the bolts and plates. When a bolt is overloaded, or a plate in bearing is overloaded, it will deform plastically.
Then, through redistribution of forces, a more even distribution of the forces in the bolts is obtained.
The amount of deformation capacity that is needed, is greatly influenced by the length of the connection:
A uniform distribution of forces is assumed if the distance between the outer bolts is not more than 15d, where d is the
nominal diameter of the bolt. This means six bolts at a pitch of 3d.
For longer connections, the design value of the shear force Fv.Rd per bolt and per shear plane must be reduced by a
factor b Lf, see also Figure 3.
b Lf = 1 - (Lj - 15d)/200d (1-1)
but b Lf £ 1,0 and b Lf ³ 0,75.
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The deformation capacity is provided by the bolt (bending and shear) and/or by the plates (yield of net area, ovalization of
the bolt hole caused by bearing stresses).
Another cause of uneven distribution of forces and thus of a need for deformation capacity is the possibility of misalignment
of bolt holes. Because of fabrication tolerances the diameter of the holes is chosen as the diameter of bolt plus a clearance.
For an M20 bolt, the normal hole diameter is 22 mm. Due to this clearance, it is possible that at low loads (elastic
deformations) only one bolt in the connection of Figure 2, for example, carries the whole load.
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Because the deformation capacity of plates is generally much bigger than the deformation capacity of the bolts, it is
recommended that the connection be designed such that yielding of the plates in bearing occurs before yielding of the bolts in
shear.
1.1.2 Distribution of shear stresses in long welds
In longitudinally loaded welded connections an uneven load distribution occurs, similar to that just described for bolted
connections. The highest stresses occur at the ends of the welds, see Figure 4.
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In this case also a uniform distribution of forces (stresses) may be assumed, provided that the deformation capacity is
sufficient to allow for the required redistribution of stresses.
In a similar way as for long bolted connections, the differences in the stress distribution depend on the stiffness ratio of the
connectors (welds) and the plates; the longer the connection the more uneven the stress distribution.
As with bolted connections, the deformation capacity is provided by the connector (the welds) and/or the adjacent plate
material, see Figure 4a. Clearly the deformation capacity of a thick weld is greater than that of a thin weld.
The plastic zone and the deformation capacity of a weld are proportional to the weld thickness. In addition the ductility of the
weld metal and the strength of the weld metal compared with the strength of the plate, have an influence on the deformation
capacity.
If the yield strength of the weld metal is higher than the yield strength of the plate material, then plasticity occurs mainly in the
plates. This is usually the case in common lower grades of steel (up to S275), where "overmatched" weld metals are applied
(as required by Eurocode 3).
In higher strength steels it is sometimes difficult to have an overmatched weld metal with sufficient ductility. Then an
"undermatched" weld metal with better ductility properties that is easier to weld may be considered. The consequence is that
the plastic deformations tend to concentrate in the weld metal. The deformation capacity depends on (a) the size of the
plastic zones in the weld and the adjacent plates and (b) on the ductility of the metal in these zones. If due to undermatching
weld metal the plastic zones in the plate are small, then for the same deformation the strains in the weld metal are great. This
means that the ductility requirements for undermatched weld metals should be higher than for overmatched weld metals.
Therefore, it depends on ductility and yield strength of plate and available weld metals what situation is favourable:
undermatched or overmatched weld metals.
The effect of the length of the weld on the distribution of stresses along the weld has been investigated by means of finite
element calculations. To illustrate this the results of a numerical simulation carried out by Feder [2] are presented in Figure 5.
The stress distribution and the shear deformations in side fillet welds have been determined for several values of the length l,
see Figure 5. For the weld metal, a linear relation between the shear stress t1 and the relative displacement g = Dl/a is
assumed. For other circumstances (geometry, cross-section of the plates, weld thickness, strength of weld metal and plate
metal, etc), other results will be obtained.
Figure 5 shows that up to a certain limited length of the weld (llim) yielding of the whole weld is possible. When the length of
the weld is equal to llim, ty is reached in the middle of the weld, at the same time as the ultimate shear stress tu and the
rupture displacement gu are attained at the ends. Then the average stress, tu , at the start of rupture is obtained by taking the
average of a parabola as:
tu = (tu + 2ty )/3 (1-2)
For l > llim the central region of the weld will not have reached yield when the rupture starts at the ends of the weld.
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Figure 6 gives results for a side fillet weld in steel S355 [2]. The members have the same cross-section area A1 = A2. The
assumed t11- g diagram is also given in Figure 6.
For the rupture strain (gu ) the value 0,110 is taken. For a weld with 5 mm throat thickness, a displacement of 0,55 mm is
obtained. A further assumption is that the plates do not yield at the gross cross-section when rupture of the weld occurs.
Under these assumptions, llim=230aw, where aw is the throat thickness of the weld.
With increasing weld length the average shear stress at rupture decreases rapidly. When l > 300a, the stress in the middle of
the weld remains zero!
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According to Eurocode 3, the design resistance of a fillet weld in a lap joint should be reduced by a factor b Lw.1 to allow for
the effects of non- uniform distribution of stress along its length when it is longer than 150a according to the relationship:
b Lw.1 = 1,2 - 0,2 (1-3)
where Lj is the overall length of the lap joint in the direction of force transfer. In practice, lap joints with fillet welds longer
than 100a or 150a are seldom used (for a = 5 mm, a length 150 a means 750 mm!).
Of course, when the distribution of applied loads on the weld is evenly distributed along the weld, the above limitation does
not apply. Examples are the welds between the web and the flange of welded beams and the connection of the web of a
beam to a column, see Figure 7.
1.2 Distribution of Forces in Weld Groups
The design of weld groups (Figure 8) is tackled by considering the strength of the individual welds.
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For this, two approaches based on the design assumptions of Clause 6.1.4 of Eurocode 3 can be followed:
1. Calculation based on the stresses in the parent material in the vicinity of the weld.
2. Calculation based on the load acting on the welded joint as a whole.
The calculation based on the stresses in the parent material is easier and quicker than the second method. The stresses in the
vicinity of the weld can be directly obtained from the structural design calculations. Because of the direct link between the
analysis for the parent material and that of the welds, it is clear that the stresses in the weld are consistent with those in the
parent material. Of course, it is necessary that in determining the stresses in the parent material, the stresses must be
consistent with other parts in the connection (Lecture 11.4.1 Section 2.2 and Figure 2). Use of the first method is
recommended.
However, there are cases where the first method cannot be applied because the stresses in the adjacent parent material
cannot be simply determined and the second method must be used. Examples are:
a lap joint.
the connection of a brace to a gusset plate.
1. Calculation based on the stresses in the parent material
In a double fillet weld shown in Figure 9, the following stresses act on the throat area (see also Lectures 11.2.2 and
11.2.3).
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s^ = t^ = {0,5tsz 0,5Ö2}/a = [t/(2aÖ2)]sz (1-4)
t// = (t/2a)tzy (1-5)
With the alternative method of Annex M of Eurocode 3 it follows:
(t/2a)Ö[sz2/2 + 3sz2/2 + 3tzy 2] £ fu /(b wgMw)
or:
(t/2a)Ö[2sz2 + 3tzy 2] £ fu /(b wgMw) (1-6)
The second requirement s^ £ fu /gMw is only decisive if t^ is small, i.e. if the resultant force is oblique to the plate.
If in the parent material only sz is present then it follows:
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a ³ (sz/fu )(b wgMw)t/Ö2 (1-7)
For S235: a ³ 0,71(sz/ fu )t (1-8)
For S355: a ³ 0,80(sz/ fu )t (1-9)
If the theory of plasticity is used for the design of the structure and the connection is located at a point where a plastic
hinge may develop, then the minimum throat thickness must be based on sz = fy :
This gives for S235: a ³ 0,46 t (1-10)
and for S355: a ³ 0,55 t (1-11)
This requirement also applies for statically indeterminate structures that are designed using the theory of elasticity. It is
important to remember that also in an elastic design, it is assumed (implicitly) that the members and the connections
have sufficient deformation capacity to accommodate loads and stresses that usually are not explicitly taken into
account in the design calculations (e.g. stresses due to uneven settlements of the supports; temperature loading;
tolerance during fabrication; local overloading by live loads, etc.) and further to allow for the approximations inherent
in the design models.
Therefore, it is necessary that the connected parts can yield before rupture of the welds.
When the design formulae of Eurocode 3 [1] are applied with sz = fy , then the real rupturing strength of the weld is at
least the real rupturing strength of the plate. In other words, actual rupture occurs in the plate and not in the weld.
Thus, for the above requirement (yield in the plate before rupture in the weld), the design of the weld can be based on:
sz = (fyr/fur)fy (1-12)
where fyr is the measured yield strength and fur the measured ultimate strength of the plate material.
For the design values of the yield strength and the ultimate strength, it follows for S355:
sz = (1-13)
Because the actual value of fyr /fur can be higher than 0,70, it is required that:
If deformation capacity is necessary, the welds must be designed to transfer at least 80% of the yield force in the
(weakest) connected member.
This requirement gives the following values for the minimum throat thickness of a double fillet as presented in Figure 9:
For S235: a ³ 0,37 t (1-14)
For S355: a ³ 0,44 t (1-15)
It should be noted that, using the mean stress method according to Eurocode 3, Chapter 6, greater throat thicknesses
are found for end fillet welds. The difference is a factor of 1,22!
Thus the application of the mean stress method results in 1,222=1,5 times more weld metal than necessary.
2. Calculation based on the load acting on the welded joint as a whole
This method must be applied if the first method is not applicable. For the determination of the strength of a weld group, the
design values for the strength of the separate welds may be added, provided that the equilibrium requirements are fulfilled.
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This approach is based on the assumption that the welds can yield to permit the redistribution of stresses necessary to
accommodate local overloading. In other words, the welds must posses sufficient deformation capacity.
To gain some idea of the deformation capacity of welds under various loading combinations, tests [3] have been carried out
as indicated in Figure 10. In these tests, the welds were thin compared with the plates in order to ensure yielding in the welds
and not in the plates. The measuring length lo is given in Figure 10. The deformation of the plates was subtracted from the
measured values, to obtain the deformation of the weld and the parent material in the direct vicinity of the weld, see Figure
4a.
As already discussed, it appears that the deformation (mm) at the same stress in the weld is proportional to the throat
thickness. Thus, when the thickness of a weld is doubled, not only is its strength doubled, but also its deformation capacity.
This is the reason why the deformations are given as Dl/a on the horizontal axis in Figure 11.
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To demonstrate the importance of the above findings, the lap joint of Figure 12 is analyzed. Suppose that the plates are
infinitely stiff compared with the stiffness of the welds. When the thicknesses of the end fillet weld and the side fillet welds are
about the same, then, at the start of rupture (in the welds), the forces in all welds are practically equal to their ultimate load.
This can easily be seen when the lines for t11 and s^ t^ are compared. With aside = aend and Dl for the side weld and end
weld about the same, Dl/a is the same for side weld and end weld. Therefore, the ultimate strength of both welds may be
added. This may not be true if one of the welds is very small, compared to the other. It can be concluded therefore, that the
ultimate strength of the lap joint is equal to the sum of the ultimate strengths of the separate welds.
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Now suppose that the throat thickness aend of the end fillet weld is only 10% of the throat thickness aside of the side fillet
welds. At the start of rupture of the end fillet weld, the elongation Dl=100.10-3. aend =10.10-3 aside, see Figure 11.
The stress t11 corresponding to Dl/aside = 10 . 10-3 is about 230N/mm2, whilst the rupture strength for t11 is about
350N/mm2.
In this case, the ultimate strength of the lap joint is less than the sum of the ultimate strengths of the separate welds. As a
result, it is recommended the following design rule is used:
Try to give the end fillet weld and the side fillet weld the same thickness, and never design the end fillet weld to
be less than 0,5 times the thickness of the side fillet welds.
The use of a thin weld at the front of the lap joint (point A in Figure 12), e.g. to prevent corrosion, must be avoided. If such a
weld is necessary, then it should be given the same thickness as the other welds. This is particularly important because the
plates are in reality not infinitely stiff compared with the welds. The required deformation capacity therefore is larger at the
front (point A) than at the back of the lap joint (point B).
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1.3 Non-Linear Distribution of Bolt Forces
In Section 3.2 of Lecture 11.4.1 it was assumed that the bolt forces Ri are proportional to the displacement d = r q. This
assumption is based on linear (elastic) behaviour of the connection. In the same way as for the design of welded connections,
the theory of plasticity may be used also for bolted connections, see Figure 13.
When the force on the connection increases, the force on the most heavily loaded bolt increases until the yield force Ry is
reached. Then, with increasing displacement, the bolt force stays constant until strain hardening starts.
After the start of yielding at the most heavily loaded bolt, the bolt forces in the bolts which are nearer to the centre of rotation
increase with increasing rotation. The moment increases until all bolts have reached the yield force.
From tests it may be concluded that the "plastic" moment of such bolted connections is normally reached at acceptable
displacements. Therefore, in statically loaded structures, the design of such bolted connections may be based on the theory
of plasticity.
In a plastic distribution of bolt forces, the centre of rotation does not need to be located at the centroid of the bolt group.
This can be demonstrated as follows (compare Figures 14 and Lecture 11.4.1 Figure 12).
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The "plastic" bolt force Ry may be distributed in the x-direction and y-direction:
Ry.xi = (1-16)
Ry.yi = (1-17)
If only bending moment is present, the following conditions must be fulfilled:
S Ry.xi = 0 or: S = 0 or: S sin y i = 0 (1-18)
S Ry.yi = 0 or: S = 0 or: S cos y i = 0 (1-19)
For the general case, a direct solution for the position of the centre of rotation is not easily found, as was the case for an
elastic bolt force distribution. Usually, the solution must be found by trial and error.
However, in practical cases, the bolt pattern is nearly always symmetric. For such cases it can be concluded that the centre
of rotation lies on the intersection point of the axes of symmetry (which is also the centroid).
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If the bolt group is subjected to a combination of shear force and bending moment, then the following approach can be
followed.
The bolts near the centre of rotation have a small moment arm, and therefore do not contribute very much to the moment
resistance of the connection. It is economical therefore to use these bolts for the transfer of shear force V, and to use the
outer bolts to resist the bending moment M.
Several possibilities are shown in Figure 15. The final choice depends on the proportions of the loads which must be carried:
VSd and MSd .
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The above design model is based on an elementary principle in the theory of plasticity:
Any distribution of forces, where the internal forces (bolt forces) are in equilibrium with the external forces in such a way that
nowhere is the internal load-carrying resistance (the design resistance of the bolts) exceeded, gives a lower bound to the
design resistance of the connection.
This principle is only valid if sufficient deformation capacity is available. In bolted connections this capacity can be assured by
designing the bolts such that they are not the controlling item of the strength of the connection:
In shear and bearing: let bearing be decisive, because the deformation capacity in bearing of the plate is much bigger
than the deformation capacity in shear of the bolt.
In tension: let yielding of the plates in bending be decisive rather than rupture of the bolt.
1.4 Combination of Different Types of Fasteners
In general, the load deformation behaviour of different fasteners is such that their design resistances are reached at different
deformations, see Figure 16. For this reason the use of more than one type of fastener in the design calculations is not
normally allowed. In this respect the deformation capacity of the types of fastener used is an important factor.
In the case of welds acting in combination with preloaded bolts that are preloaded after welding is completed, the design
resistances are reached at about the same deformation. Therefore, in this case it is permissible to add the design resistances
of the preloaded bolts and the welds when determining the design resistance of the connection.
For all other arrangements only one type of fastening may be assumed to be "active" and all load must be transferred by this
e.g. for a connection made originally with bolts that must be strengthened to withstand a higher load the welds must be
designed to carry the whole of the load (not just the additional part).
Long connections should be designed in such a way that the forces in the fasteners (bolts and welds) are, as far as
possible, equal.
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For weld groups, design should, wherever possible, be based on an approach which uses the stress in the parent
material in the vicinity of the weld as the controlling parameter.
Bolt groups may be designed using a plastic approach providing sufficient deformation capacity to permit full
redistribution of forces is present. Deformation capacity may be ensured by:
i. for bolts in shear and bearing, ensure that bearing governs.
ii. for bolts in tension, ensure that yield of the plates in tension governs.
Where more than one type of fastener is used to transfer the same load between the same two components in a
connection, the design should normally assume that all load is transferred by one type of fastener only.
3. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures" ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] Feder, D. and Werner, G., Ansätze zur Traglastberechnung von Schweissverbindungen des Stahlbaus. Schweissen und
Schneiden, 29 (1977), Heft 4.
[3] Ligtenberg, F. K. and Van Melle, F., Onderzoek naar de vervorming van statisch belaste hoeklassen. Heron 12 (1964)
No. 1 (Dutch). Investigation in the deformations of Statically Loaded Fillet Welds.
1. Owens, G. W. and Cheal, B. D., "Structural Steelwork Connections", Butterworths & Co. (Publishers) Limited,
1989.
2. Kulak, G. L., Fisher, J. W. and Struik, J. H. A., "Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints", Willey -
Interscience, 2nd Edition, 1987.
4. Chen, W. F., "Joint Flexibility in Steel Frames", Journal of Constructional Steel Research Vol 8, 1987.
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ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.4.3: Analysis of Connections:

Transfer of Direct Tension or
Compression and Shear
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 11.4.2: Analysis of Connections: Distribution of Forces in Groups of Bolts and Welds
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
This group of 4 lectures (11.4.1 - 11.4.4) explains how the behaviour of local elements in connections may

be analysed so that each component may safely be proportioned to resist the loads it is required to transfer. It
therefore develops the basic concepts of force transfer that were presented in general terms in Lecture
11.1.2.
This third lecture describes the ways in which the transfer of direct tension, compression or shear forces may
be arranged within a connection. It therefore deals with the analysis of cover plates, load transfer using gusset
plates and the transfer of shear forces in beam to column, beam to beam and beam splice connections.
NOTATION
1. TRANSFER OF AXIAL TENSILE OR COMPRESSIVE

FORCES
1.1 Butt Welds
The butt welded connections of Figure 1 require no real calculation, since butt welds are designed to have at
least the same strength as the connected plates.

1.2 Transfer of Axial Loads using Cover Plates
Figure 2 shows some connections in which the tensile force in the flanges or in the webs is transferred by
means of cover plates. These cover plates can be present on one side (single) or on both sides (double).
They can be connected with bolts or welds.
3/27
Double sided cover plates have the advantage that eccentricities in the load path and associated eccentric

deformations are excluded.
In the welded flange plate in Figure 3, the design strength may be governed by either the plate or by the
welds.
Plate:
F £ bp tp fy (1-1)
Welds:
The design resistances of the end fillet weld and the side fillet welds may be added (see Section 1.2 of
Lecture 11.4.2). When the mean stress method (EC3 main test) is applied, it follows:
F £ (2lp + bp ) . a . fvw.d (1-2)
where:
lp is the length of the side weld
bp is the length of the end weld
fvw.d = fu /(Ö3b wgMw) (1-3)
For FeE 235: F £ (2lp + bp ) . a . 208 (1-4)
If the stress component method according to Annex M of Eurocode 3 [1] is applied, then fvw.d is the same

for the side fillet welds, but for the end fillet welds, fvw.d is a factor greater, see Table 1.
FeE 235 FeE 275 FeE 355 FeE 40
fvw.d.end [N/mm2] 255 286 321 328
fvw.d.side [N/mm2] 208 234 262 268
Table 1: Design values for the stress in end fillet welds and in side fillet welds (based on Annex M
of EC3)
With the stress component method it follows:
F £ 2 lp a fvw.d.side + bp a fvw.d.end (1-5)
For FeE 235: F £ 2 lp a 208 + bp a 255 [N/mm2] (1-6)
Flange:
The force is transferred from the flange via the welds into the cover plate. The design resistances of these
elements must be consistent:
a . fvw.d.side £ tf . 0,58 fy (1-7)
a £ 0,58fy tf /fvw.d.side (1-8)
For FeE 235: a £ (0,58 . 235 / 208)tf = 0,65tf (1-9)
This requirement means that design of very short and very thick welds is not allowed, because the adjacent
plate material is overloaded.
For the bolted flange in Figure 4, the following checks should be carried out:

Plate:
Gross section I-I: F £ bp tp fy (1-10)
Net section II-II: F £ (1-11)
where do = hole diameter
Bolts:
If the length of the connection is less than 15 d, then the force may be assumed as uniformly distributed over
all bolts. Thus, for the connection in Figure 3a:
Fs.d = (1-12)
The bolt force Fs.d must not exceed either the shear resistance Fv.d or the bearing resistance Fc.d according
to Chapter 6 of Eurocode 3, see also Lecture 11.3.1.
The bearing resistance of both the flange plate with thickness tp and the flange with thickness tf must be

checked.
In the design of double cover plates (Figure 4b) it is usually assumed that each cover plate carries half the
force to be transferred. In this case the bolts have two shear planes, which means that the design shear
resistance Fv.d per bolt is twice that for the case of a single cover plate. For connections longer than 15d, see
Section 1.1 of Lecture 11.4.2.
For the design of a splice in rolled members, the following general rules should be applied:
a. Design the parts of the connection according to the stress situation in the connected members,
and make the connections as short as possible.
For the HE section in Figure 4 this rule means that the flanges must be connected and also the
web. The connection of the flanges must be designed to transfer the force in the flanges whilst
the connection of the web must be designed to transfer the force in the web.
b. Avoid eccentricities as much as possible.
Though the design resistance of the connections a and b in Figure 5 does not differ very much
(apart from the shear resistance of the bolts), the deformations differ considerably, especially
when the load approaches the design resistance of the connection. Symmetry can prevent
unfavourable deformations, see Figure 6a.
In connections with angles, the eccentricity moments usually can be carried by the other leg.
Using cover plates on the outside or a somewhat thicker angle section on the inside, assists in
avoiding large deformations due to eccentricity, see Figure 6b.

1.3 Connections to Gusset Plates
Braces are often connected via gusset plates to the main structure, e.g. the connection of the braces in Figure
7. Gussets are also used in trusses for the connection of braces to the chords.


In the connection of a channel-section to a gusset as shown in Figure 8, all elements in the load path must be
checked:
The resistance of the channel-section.

The resistance of the weld configuration.
The resistance of the section I-I in the gusset plate.
The design resistance of the weld configuration can be checked in the same way as discussed in Section 1.2.
The eccentricity between the force F in the channel-section and the gusset plate has little influence on the
resistance, and may normally be disregarded.
For the check of the gusset plate (section I-I in Figure 8) it follows that:
F £ (2 l tp . 0,58 fy + b tp fy ) (1-13)
If instead of the yield strength, the ultimate strength is taken for this check (which is consistent with the other
design calculations for connections), then as an alternative the following may be applied.
F£ (1-14)
11/27
In the welded connection of an angle to a gusset plate (Figure 9), the forces in both side fillet welds must be in
equilibrium with the axial force in the angle section. Because of the eccentric position of the centroid of the
angle relative to the welds, the forces F1 and F2 are not equal.
F1 = and F2 = (1-15)
Thus, the side fillet weld (1) must be thicker than weld (2). Usually also an end fillet weld is applied. For
reasons of deformation capacity, the thickness of such an end fillet weld should be chosen to be equal to the
thicker side fillet weld (1), as explained in Section 1.2 of Lecture 11.4.2. Alternatively, the lengths could be
adjusted to produce a balanced arrangement. In practice one of the following is usually adopted:
- give weld 2 the same thickness and length as weld 1;
- give weld 2 the same thickness as weld 1, but reduce its length;
- ignore the eccentricity according to 6.6.10 of EC3.
In a bolted connection of angles to a gusset plate (Figure 10), it is not possible to position the bolts on the
centre line of the angle because space is required for the bolt head or nut and for access for the tightening
equipment.

The eccentricity moment (F(w-e)) in Figure 11 causes extra forces in the bolts. The maximum bolt force is:
R= (1-1)
where:
H= and V = (1-17)

In practice the effect of eccentricity may be approximately accounted for by means of a multiplication factor
y on the force H. For usual dimensions of these connections, the following values may be used:
For 2 bolts y = 1,20

For 3 bolts y = 1,10
For more than 3 bolts, the effect of eccentricity is normally neglected.
In order to prevent the deformation caused by eccentricities in the action line of the force and the gusset plate
(Figure 9), see also Section 1.2, design the member with two angle sections or channel-sections, see Figure
12.

An exception can be made for secondary members, e.g. bracings with only small loads.
In trussed members with a 'material-free' axis, i.e. the centroidal axis does not coincide with any part of the
member, connected with two gusset plates, the deformation caused by eccentricity can be prevented by
means of a batten plate, see Figure 13.
In Lecture 11.3 it is explained that, for the determination of the design resistance in angle sections connected
on only one flange, the net section must be reduced to allow for the very uneven stress distribution. A similar
problem arises in truss members with an I-section, where only the flanges are connected (Figure 14). This
problem can be solved by giving the connection sufficient length to enable the force transfer from the web to
those parts of the flange where the force in the flange itself already has been transferred partly to the gusset
plate.

11/12/12
In the design of gusset plates the spread of forces acting on the plates must be taken into account. Figure 15
shows the stresses that are caused by a point load on a plate, when the theory of elasticity is applied.
Instead of the uneven stress distribution of Figure 15, the concept of an effective breadth may be adopted, as
is illustrated in Figure 16.
16/27
2. TRANSFER OF SHEAR FORCES

Figure 17 shows a number of connections which are designed to transfer shear force only from a beam into a
column. The designs (c) and (d) however, may also be used in moment connections, see for example Figure
3.

In the design of (a) and (b), it may be assumed that the fasteners (welds and/or bolts) are loaded by shear
force only. The design of the fasteners is virtually the same as in the design of the cover plates in Section 1.2.
Apart from the fasteners, the shear strength of the adjacent part of the web of the beam and the shear
strength of the end plate must also be checked. For example, for the flush end plate in design (b) the following
checks must be carried out.
Gross section: V £ 2 hp tp 0,58 fy (2-1)
Net section: V £ 2(hp - 2dh ) tp 0,6 fu /1,25 (2-2)
In the designs (c) and (d), the connection to the column or the connection to the beam must be designed for
the eccentricity moment, because the distance between the centroids of the fasteners is too big to be ignored.
The choice of the point where the bending moment is assumed to be zero, determines which fasteners must

be designed for the eccentricity moment. In Lecture 11.4.1: Section 3.1 it was shown that the stiffness ratio
should determine this choice, see also Lecture 11.4.1: Figure 10.
In Figures 17c and 17d, the point where the moment is assumed to be zero (the "hinge"), is indicated.
The design of the weld (Figure 17c) which connects the web plate to the column may readily be conducted
using the stresses in the parent material (see Lecture 11.4.2: Section 1.2). The maximum stresses are:
txy = and sz = (2-3)
The design of the weld configuration in Figure 17d must be based on the load acting on the welded joint as a
whole (see Lecture 11.4.2: Section 1.2). This design can be carried out in two ways, methods (a) and (b),
see Figure 18.

Method (a) is based on the assumption of a simple, equilibrium system of forces. It is assumed that the
vertical weld transfers the shear force V through shear. The eccentricity moment is accounted for by shear
forces in the horizontal welds:
F1 = V and F2 = (2-4)
A disadvantage of this method is that the calculated weld thickness may differ considerably for the vertical
and horizontal welds.

Method (b) is based on the same principle as the method discussed in Lecture 11.4.1: Section 3.2 for the
design of a bolt group with a free centre of rotation, see Lecture 11.4.1: Figure 13.
The shear force V is transferred to the centroid of the weld configuration. This force V is evenly distributed
over the welds and gives a small force p1 per unit of weld length, see Figure 18b. The remaining design
resistance of the welds
p2 = a fvw.d - p1 (2-5)
must allow for the eccentricity moment. It is assumed that the forces p2 are perpendicular to the line from the
centre of rotation (the centroid), and therefore contribute to the moment resistance by r . p2.
This method is more accurate and can be applied for weld groups with constant weld thickness. A
disadvantage is that this method is too laborious for manual calculations. In computer calculations this
disadvantage is absent.
Another possibility is the use of design charts that are based on this method. Figure 19 shows such a design
chart.

Figure 20 shows several types of beam-to-beam connections. Taking into account the very low torsional
rigidity of the main beam (I-section), it may be assumed that the line of action of the shear force is at the web
of the main beam.

Following this assumption, the design of the various fasteners and checks can be carried out as discussed
above.
If the top flanges of both beams must be situated at the same level, and it is desired to keep the eccentricity
moment as small as possible, then a part of the flange of the secondary beam must be cut away to form a
notch.
If the main beam and the secondary beam have the same depth, this work must be carried out on the top
flange and on the bottom flange.
The section in the secondary beam where the flange(s) is (are) cut away, are weakened. The weakened
section must be checked. Figure 21 shows the two sections that can be critical. The gross section II-II must
be checked for the combination of shear forces and bending moment. Further, the net section I-I must be
checked for block shear using Anet to Eurocode 3, see Figure 21.

In Section 1 of Lecture 11.4.3, the use of splices to transfer an axial force was discussed. Splices in beams
normally transfer shear force and may also be required to transfer a bending moment. However, in many
designs the splices are positioned at the point where the bending moment is zero. In such cases, only the
beam webs need to be connected, because the shear force is located there, see also Section 2 of Lecture
11.4.1.
Figure 22 shows two possibilities. Design (a) is the more common. Since both bolt groups I and II have the
same stiffness, it is logical to select the place where the bending moment is zero as the centre of the splice.
Both bolt groups must therefore be designed for the shear force V and the eccentricity moment V . a. For the
determination of the bolt forces see Figure 15 of Lecture 11.4.2.
If, in addition to the shear force V, a bending moment Msp must also be transferred, then the flanges may also
need to be connected. This connection may, however, not be necessary if the moment is sufficiently small that
it can safely be transferred via the web cover plates alone i.e. Msp £ Mweb in Figure 23a.
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The moment Msp is transferred partly by the flanges and partly the web, in proportions depending on the
relative contributions to the stiffness of the whole beam (Itot).
Moment in the flanges: Mfl = (Iflanges /Itot).Msp (2-6)

Moment in the web: Mweb = (Iweb /Itot). Msp (2-7)
The force in the flanges is therefore: Ffl = Mfl/(h - tfl) (2-8)
The bolt group II in Figure 23a is the more heavily loaded group in the web and must be designed for the
shear force V and a bending moment: Mweb + V . a.
Another possibility is to assume that the whole of the bending moment Msp is transferred by the cover plates
on the flanges as illustrated in Figure 23b such that:
Mfl = Msp /(h - tfl) (2-9)
In this case the web plates need only transfer the shear force V (including the eccentricity effect). The loading
and design calculations are then the same as for the splice in Figure 22a.
When transferring axial tension by means of splices, connections should be as short as possible and
eccentricities should be avoided.
For connections designed to transmit shear, the choice of position at which the shear force is actually
transferred determines the arrangement of eccentricity moments for which certain of the fasteners must
be designed.
When connecting beams of similar depth such that notching is required, the reduced net section must
be checked against the possibility of failure by block shear.
Various possibilities exist for apportioning the load between components in splices designed to transmit
shear and bending.
4. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General rules and rules for buildings,
CEN, 1992.
1. Owens, G. W. and Cheal, B. D., "Structural Steelwork Connections", Butterworths & Co.
(Publishers) Limited, 1989.
2. Kulak, G. L., Fisher, J. W. and Struik, J. H. A., "Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted
Joints", Willey - Interscience, 2nd Edition, 1987.
4. Reprinted from Journal of Constructional Steel Research Vol 8, Edition W. F. Chen "Joint Flexibility in
Steel Frames".

ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.4.4: Analysis of Connections:

Resistance to Moment by Combined Tension
and Compression
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 11.4.2: Analysis of Connections: Distribution of Forces in Groups of Bolts and Welds
Lecture 11.4.3: Analysis of Connections: Transfer of Direct Tension or Compression and Shear
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
This group of 4 lectures (11.4.1 - 11.4.4) explains how the behaviour of local elements in connections may be
analysed so that each component may safely be proportioned to resist the loads it is required to transfer. It
therefore develops the basic concepts of force transfer that were presented in general terms in Lecture 11.1.2.
This final lecture in concerned with the transfer of moments - particularly at beam to column connections. The
moment is broken down into a localised tensile and a localised compressive force acting at a suitable lever arm so
as to produce the couple that equates to the design moment. The need to consider also shear on the column zone
immediately adjacent to the connection in the case of loading by unbalanced moments is also addressed.
NOTATION
1. INTRODUCTION
The transfer of moment through a connection may best be appreciated by breaking the moment down into a pair of
localised tensile and compressive forces acting at a suitable lever arm so as to produce a couple, see for example
Figs. 2 and 3 of Lecture 11.4.1. The simplest form for this in a beam to column connection would be one in which
only the beam's flanges are attached to the column so that one flange transmits tension, the other transmits
compression and the lever arm is clearly the distance between flange centroids. (Any co-existing shear could, of
course, be transferred through a web cleat or finplate arrangement of the sort illustrated in Fig. 17 of Lecture
11.4.3). The introduction of these localised forces into the column requires a careful consideration of the possible
forms of failure and this topic is addressed in the first part of this lecture.
When the column is subject to unbalanced moment e.g. because a beam is present only on one side, then the
moment(s) also produce a shearing effect on the panel of the column corresponding to the depth of the beam(s),
see for example Fig. 3 of Lecture 11.4.1. This panel zone effect is considered in the second part of the lecture.
2. TRANSFER OF TENSILE FORCES

2.1 Criteria
Figure 1 shows various forms of unstiffened beam-to-column connections intended to transfer moments. In the
tension zone, marked with a circle, the tensile force must be transferred from the flange of the beam to the web of
the column.
The size of the tensile force which can be transferred without stiffening the column depends on the resistance at this
zone of the connection to a series of possible forms at failure. These possibilities are indicated in Figure 2 for
welded connections and for bolted connections.
11/12/12
Design consists of recognising that 'the strength of the chain is determined by the weakest link'. For each of the
potential failure possibilities, the design resistance T is calculated. Rules for these calculations are given in Annex J
of Eurocode 3 [1]. The smallest of the calculated values for T controls.
The presentation in Annex J of Eurocode 3 is based on beam-to-column connections. However, several calculation
rules are also applicable for other types of connections.
The calculation of the design resistance of the individual fasteners, welds and bolts, discussed in Lectures 11.2 and
11.3. Individual fasteners are covered by criteria 3 and 4 in Figure 2. The other criteria are discussed below.
Possibilities for strengthening the connection and the design of such strengthened connections are also described.
2.2 Plastic Failure of the Column Flange
A. Welded connection
Figure 3 shows a design model for a welded connection to a column flange.
A part of the tensile force is transferred by direct normal stresses without bending the flange. The width of this part
is twc+2rc. The tensile force through this part is:
Ftl = fyb . tfb (twc + 2 rc) (1-1)
The remaining part of the tensile force must be transferred via bending of the column flange to the web of the
column.
For this load case a design model can be adopted, as indicated in Figure 3, based on a plate clamped at three
edges with a line load in the middle.
Application of yield line theory gives a failure load that is proportional to the plastic moment resistance of the plate
mp .
Ft2 = 2 C mp (1-2)
mp = fyc tfc2 (1-3)
Ft2 = 2 C fyc tfc2 (1-4)
The coefficient C is derived from tests [2]. A safe lower bound appears to be:
C = 14.
Therefore, the total design resistance of the unstiffened column flange follows from Equations (1-1) and (1-4):
Ft = fyb tfb (twc + 2 rc) + 7 fyc tfc2 (1-5)
or:
Ft = fyb tfb beff (1-6)
with:
beff = twc + 2 rc + 7 (fyc/fyb )(tfc2/tfb ) (1-7)
This equation for beff is also discussed in Lecture 11.2.3.
Because of the limitations of the tests [3] which have been carried out to determine C, the effective width for the
determination of Ft2 is limited to 7 tfc:
Ft £ fyb tfb (twc + 2 rc + 7 tfc) (1-8)
In order to provide sufficient deformation capacity, it is necessary that the flange of the beam yields before rupture
of the weld or rupture of the flange of the column occurs. To obtain this behaviour the design resistance of the
unstiffened column flange must be at least 70% of the yield force of the beam flange:
Ft ³ 0,7 Fy.bf = 0,7 fyb tfb bfb (1-9)
If this requirement is not fulfilled, then the connection must be strengthened by welded stiffening plates as indicated
in Figure 4.
The application of short stiffening plates offers advantages during fabrication, because their dimensions do not need
to correspond to the actual distance between the column flanges. The thickness and the steel grade of the stiffening
plates are normally chosen to be equal to those of the beam flange.
B. Bolted connection
In contrast to the situation for a welded connection, when using a bolted arrangement the total tensile force to be
transferred via the column flange causes only bending moments (no direct load transfer), see Figure 5.
To gain insight into the various forces present in this type of connection, it is useful to consider first a more simple
case. Two T-stubs are chosen, connected by two bolts and loaded by a tensile force Ft, see Figure 6.
8/29
Initially, it is assumed that the force in each bolt is 0,5 Ft and that the flange is designed to transfer these bolt forces
via bending, see Figure 7. The necessary thickness tf follows from:
FB = 0,5 Ft (1-10)
0,5 Ft . m = Mpl (1-11)
Ft = (1-12)
ft = (1-13)
Ft = (1-14)
tf = (1-15)
In the above Equations, the dimensions of the bolts and the flange are such that the tensile resistance of the bolts
governs the strength of the connection. At the onset of failure, the flanges separate from each other over the entire
area.
If the bolts are chosen to be stronger, then the ultimate tensile force increases above the value given in Equation (1-
14). With stronger bolts the flanges of the T-stubs yield, while the bolt deformation is reduced, see Figure 8.
Now at the onset of failure the flanges do not separate over the entire area, but contact forces develop at the
edges. These contact forces are called prying forces. These prying forces produce an extra bending moment in the
flanges. When the prying forces are sufficiently large, this bending moment is equal to the plastic moment mpl. In
this situation four yield lines are present.
The following analysis can now be carried out:
0,5 Ft . m = 2 Mpl (1-16)
Ft = (1-17)
Ft = (1-18)
Ft = (1-19)
tf = √(Ft m/lfy ) (1-20)
Q= (1-21)
Q= (1-22)
Ft + 2 Q = S FB = S Ft.u (1-23)
Ft + 0,5 Ft = S Ft.u (1-24)
with:
g= (1-25)
it follows:
Ft = (1-26)
Between the two extremes (Figures 7 and 8), there is an intermediate case where prying forces are present, but
where the bolts rupture before the mechanism in the flanges with four yield lines has fully developed.
With the aid of the above Equations, a diagram can be drawn showing the relation between plate strength and bolt
strength and the accompanying failure modes, see Figure 9. In Figure 9, g and b have the following meaning:
g= but g £ 1,25 (1-27)
b= (1-28)
It is recommended the connection is designed such that failure mode (1) just controls, b = 2g /(1 + 2g), because
then the deformation capacity is provided in the best way and the bolt strength is consistent with the flange strength
(m). In failure mode (3) the deformation arises mainly from the bolt elongations. These deformations are small
compared with the plastic deformations of the flanges in failure mode (1). The deformation capacity of failure
modes (2) and (3) can be increased by selecting bolts with threads over the entire length of the bolt.
According to Annex H of Eurocode 3 [1], the tension zone of an unstiffened column flange should be assumed to
act as a series of equivalent T-stubs with a total length equal to the total effective length S leff of the bolt pattern in
the tension zone of the connection.
Using yield line theory, the effective length leff appropriate for each of those T-stubs may be calculated, see Figures
10 and 11.
11/12/12
If the distance between the bolt rows is large, then a separate yield line pattern around every bolt is formed, see
Figure 10.
The circle pattern governs if e is large with respect to m, i.e.
if e > 1,8 m (1-29)
The values for leff are:
For one bolt row:
leff = 4 m + 1,25 e (1-30)
leff = 2 pm (1-31)
For a combined T-stub:
leff = 0,5 p + 2 m + 0,625 e (1-32)
leff = 0,5 p + pm (1-33)
In contrast to welded connections, it is possible when using bolted connections to strengthen the connection with
stiffening plates such that the force can be transferred from the beam flange into the column web without bending of
the former, Figure 12.
If stiffening plates are used, the stiffness and strength of the column flange is increased. The increase is beneficial for
the design strength of the bolt rows near such stiffening plates.
The strength of such bolt rows can be calculated by introducing a T-stub with an equivalent length leff.
According to Annex J of Eurocode 3, the value of leff equals:
leff = a m1 (1-34)
Values for a are given in Figure 13. This diagram is established on the basis of yield line theory and test results [4].
The value of a depends on the geometry near the stiffening plate.
In the equation for l1 and l2 (the values on the horizontal and the vertical axes in Figure 13), m1 is the distance
between the bolt and the column web, and m2 is the distance between the bolt and the stiffening plate.
Alternatively the column flange may be strengthened by using loose backing plates as indicated in Figure 14.
The length of the backing plates should be at least the length of leff for the bolt pattern considered.
The backing plates increase the plastic moment on the yield line through the bolts, but not the plastic moment at the
junction of the flange with the web, see Figures 7 and 8.
Clearly backing plates are only effective if failure mode (1) in Figure 9 is decisive, see also Figure 8.
Equation (1-17) can be modified to account for the extra yield line:
Ft = (1-35)
Ft = (1-36)
Ft = (1-37)
It should be noted that, because of the appearance of only one yield line, a factor 2 must be used for 2 Mp.bp in
Equation (1-35).
From the above Equations, it may be concluded that, if tf = tbp , the use of backing plates gives an increase of 50%
in the design resistance of the column flange.
2.3 Yield/Rupture of the Column Web
The force Ft spreads in the column web over a length beff, see Figure 15.
20/29
It is assumed that the failure load is reached if the average stress due to Ft over the length beff equals the yield
stress:
Ft = fyc twc beff (1-38)
For a welded connection, the same expression for beff is used in the tension zone as in the compression zone.
Although tests [5] have shown that the strength in the tension zone is usually greater than in the compression zone,
the same equation is chosen for reasons of simplicity.
According to Eurocode 3, beff for a welded connection is given by:
beff = tfb + 2 ab + 5 (tfc + rc) (1-39)
For a bolted connection, the effective length of the column web in the tension zone is taken equal to the total
effective length of the equivalent T-stubs (see Section 1.2).
The column web can be strengthened by stiffening plates and/or by welded supplementary web plates, see Figure
16.
If the web plate is only single sided and is connected by butt welds, only half of the plate thickness may be used for
the calculation of the design resistance. The reasons are the eccentricity and the design of the welds. If fillet welds
are present, some spaces must be left between the flange and the edge of the plate to permit a reasonable
execution of the weld. For this reason, the force must be transferred through initially the thickness of the web.
Therefore, the effective thickness of the combined column web and supplementary web plate should not be taken
greater than 1,4 times the web thickness (1,4 twc).
3. TRANSFER OF COMPRESSION FORCES

The action of a compression force on an unstiffened column may cause local buckling of the column web. Using
tests on special test specimens [5], as shown in Figure 17, and on complete beam-to-column connections, research
has been carried out to establish a design model. The derived model is that the column web starts buckling if the
average stress over a certain effective length equals the yield stress. This model, therefore, is basically the same as
the model for the transfer of a tensile force in the web, as discussed above.
Fc = fyc twc beff (2-1)
In Figure 18 the equations for beff are given which apply for various designs of the compression zone. The basic
assumption in these equations is that the spread in the column flange and the column radius have a slope 2,5 : 1,
and the slope in other parts of the connection is 1 : 1.
In the model of Figure 18b and Figure 19 with the extended end plate, it is assumed that the end plate under the
beam flange yields before the buckling load in the column web is reached. In this case, the compression force Fc
spreads over the thickness of the end plate.
The projection of the end plate should obey the following condition:
fy Wpl.endplate £ Fc le (2-2)
fy bp tp 2 £ Fc le (2-3)
le ³ (2-4)
If the condition of Equation (2-4) is not fulfilled, then a hard point is formed at the edge of the end plate. The
effective length beff is then smaller:
beff = 5 (tc + rc) (2-5)
The moment arm, however, between the tensile force in the tension zone and the compression force is somewhat
greater. This is an advantage.
In the case of large axial forces in the column, the local buckling load in the compression zone is reduced. As long
as the axial stress sn is smaller than 0,5 fy , the influence can be ignored. For greater values of sn , the design
resistance for the compression force Fc should be calculated with the following equation:
Fc = fyc twc beff [1,25 - 0,5sn / fyc] (2-6)
In this equation the second part is the reduction factor:
R = 1,25 - 0,5 [sn / fyc] but R £ 1,0 (2-7)
The column can also be strengthened in the compression zone with stiffening plates between the flanges or with a
supplementary web plate.
4. TRANSFER OF SHEAR FORCES (SHEAR ZONE)

In non-symmetric connections, such as T- and corner connections, the column web is also loaded by a shear force
Fv . Loading by a shear force also occurs in symmetric connections that are loaded asymmetrically.
For instance in the T-connection of Figure 20, the tensile force in the upper flange of the beam must be transferred
through the shear panel to be in equilibrium with the compression force in the lower flange of the beam.
Assuming that the web is sufficiently stocky for shear buckling not to occur, the design resistance of the shear panel
is:
Fv = hc twc (3-1)
The column web can be strengthened with diagonal plates or with one or two supplementary web plates, see
Figure 21. When diagonal plates are designed, care should be taken to avoid problems with the installation of the
bolts; see for example Figure 21b.
The action of stiffeners sometimes can be better understood when thinking in terms of tension and compression; see
for example the arrangement in Figure 22.
27/29
In order to transfer moment a connection must be capable of resisting local tensile and compressive forces.
Design must address each item in the "chain" of components involved in transferring the loads, with
connection resistance being controlled by the weakest link in the chain.
For bolted connections a T-stub model provides a satisfactory explanation of all important aspects of
behaviour; yield line theory supported by test evidence forms the basis for detailed rules.
For semi-continuous framing, an acceptable balance between tensile resistance and adequate ductility may
be achieved by arranging for mode 1 failure to control; this corresponds to yielding of the plates without the
development of excessive bolt prying forces. In other moment resisting frames, it is usually more economic to
use connections that are governed by Mode 2 or Mode 3, i.e. with thicker end-plates.
For unsymmetrical beam-to-column connection arrangements, including unbalanced loading of symmetrical
connections, the resistance of the column web panel in shear should be checked.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures: European Prestandard 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for
buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] Wood, R. H., "Yield Line Theory", Research Paper nr. 22, Building Research Station, Watford, England,
1955.
[3] Zoetemeijer, P., Summary of the research on bolted beam-to-column connections, Delft University of
Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Stevin Laboratory report 6-90-02, 1990. This report is also published as
a background report for Eurocode 3, Chapter 6.
[4] WRC and ASCE, "Commentary on Plastic Design in Steel", Progress Report 6: Connections, Journal Eng.
Mech, Div., ASCE, 86, EM2, April 1960, pp 107-140.
[5] Graham, J. D., Sherbourne, A. N., Khabbaz, R. N., and Jensen, C. D., Welded Interior Beam-to-Column
Connections, Welding Research Council Bulletin nr 63, August 1960.
1. Owens, G. W. and Cheal, B. D., "Structural Steelwork Connections", Butterworths & Co. (Publishers)
Limited, 1989.
2. Kulak, G. L., Fisher, J. W. and Struik, J. H. A., "Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints",
Willey - Interscience, 2nd Edition, 1987.
4. W. F. Chen "Joint Flexibility in Steel Frames", Journal of Constructional Steel Research Vol 8, 1987.
ESDEP WG 11:
Lecture 11.5: Simple Connections for

Buildings
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To provide an initial introduction to the various aspects of connection design in simple steel construction.
PRE-REQUISITES
Lecture 1B.5.1: Introduction to Design of Simple Industrial Buildings
Lectures 1B.7: Introduction to Design of Multi-Storey Buildings
RELATED LECTURES (covering specific items in greater detail)
SUMMARY
The relation between the selection of the frame model and the connection design is first discussed. The various forms of connections in simple
buildings are identified for both the framework and the bracing system, and the main design criteria and checking procedures are presented. Reference
is also made to the economic implications concerning fabrication and erection. Detailed aspects of behaviour and design are referred back to earlier
lectures in the group.
1. INTRODUCTION
Simple connections are defined as joints between members that have not been designed with the intention that they transmit significant moments. Their
purpose is to transfer load from the supported member into the supporting member in such a way that essentially only direct forces are involved, e.g.
vertical shear in a beam to column or beam to beam connection, axial tension or compression in a lattice girder chord splice, column base or column
splice connection. They may, therefore, only be used in situations where sufficient bracing is present that, when the joints are assumed to function as
pins, adequate overall structural resistance is present. Popular arrangements include lattice girders and bracing systems or connections between beams
and columns in rectangular frames in which lateral loadings are resisted by stiff systems of shear walls, cores or braced bays.
Figures 1a and 1b illustrate multistorey frames in which simple connections may be used for each of the 6 different requirements A-E listed alongside
Figure 1a. Thus the structural idealisations suitable for determining the distribution of member forces will be as shown in Figure 1c and 1d, with all
lateral loading being resisted by the bracing or shear wall. When considering the design of the frame to withstand gravity loading, the assumption of pin
connections makes the overall structural analysis particularly straightforward, since loads can be traced from floors into beams into columns and
eventually into the foundations using a simple statical process.
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Simple joints also lead to easier fabrication and erection and as explained in Lecture 11.1.1 are, therefore, likely to produce the most cost-effective
steel frames. Taking the example of a beam to column connection, the simple joint must:
transfer the beam reaction into the column in shear

have sufficient flexibility not to transfer other than small moments into the column, e.g. due to some small eccentricity in the lines of force transfer
possess sufficient rotation capacity to permit the beam to develop its "simple" deflected shape.
Thus, in terms of the classification system introduced in Lecture 11.1.2., the connection should function as "nominally pinned" for both moment
capacity and rotational stiffness and the only form of load transfer required will be the vertical shear illustrated in Figs. 9(2) and 11 of that Lecture.
Simple connections will normally be either fully bolted, e.g. the arrangements using angle cleats of Fig. 10 of Lecture 11.1.1, or will involve a
combination of shop welding and site bolting, e.g. the fin plate and end plate arrangements of the same Figure. Except for connections subject to
vibration, e.g. in foundations for moving machinery or in crane support structures, untorqued bolts in clearance holes should be used.
This lecture discusses the structural design of several examples of each of the 6 connection arrangements listed in Figure 1. In doing this it makes use
of basic material on weld strength and bolt strength presented in Lectures 11.2 and 11.3 respectively, as well as the approach to the analysis of
connections given in Lecture 11.4.
2. BEAM-TO-BEAM CONNECTIONS
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Floor decks in buildings are usually supported by means of grids of secondary beams and main girders simply connected to each other.
Some typical connections are illustrated in Figure 2. Types A and C, which make use of web cleats bolted to both the girder and the beam, are the
most common forms. Type B with the cleats bolted to the girder and welded to the beam, and types D and E where a flush end plate is adopted, may
cause lack-of-fit problems during erection due to the dimensional tolerances. Connection types D and E possess some predictable stiffness and
strength, but their consequent partial continuity is usually neglected in design.
As shown in types C and D, the beam end may be coped removing part of one or both flanges, when the beam and girder flanges meet at the same
level. The beam is thus locally weakened. The appropriate checks must be made as discussed below. Nevertheless, this solution is less expensive than
type E, which requires that a tee stiffener is welded to the girder.
As a variant to A the web angles may be replaced by a fin plate, as shown in Type F, a single plate which is shop welded to the primary beam and
site bolted to the secondary beam. A fin plate connection is particularly simple to both fabricate and erect, but it requires careful design if it is to
function as a notional pin [1]. In particular, there is a need to decide where the "hinge" is located as explained in Section 3 of Lecture 11.6.
For web cleated connections, it is good practice to place the angles as close as possible to the upper flange of the girder in order to minimise cracking
of the concrete floor slab due to the beam rotation.
Bolts and welds in connections should be able to resist the beam reaction and any relevant moment due to the eccentricity of the force to the
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centerline of the connecting components as explained in Section 2 of Lecture 11.4.3.
When a beam is coped, as in connection type C, it should be verified that no failure may occur at the section that has been weakened (block shear) as
explained in Section 2 of Lecture 11.4.3.
3. BEAM-TO-COLUMN CONNECTIONS
Several forms of simple beam-to-column connections are illustrated in Figure 3.
Type A, which is shown as fully bolted, may also be configured by welding the cleats to the beam end. For lightly loaded beams, a single sided cleat
may be used but the additional eccentricities must then be allowed for when checking bolt strength, etc.
The finplate Type B requires the same form of attention when deciding on the design model as discussed in the previous section where its use in beam
to beam situations was discussed. It is one of the few arrangements obviously suitable for use with SHS (either RHS or CHS) columns as no bolting
to the column is necessary.
Both types A and B provide some allowance for tolerance (through the clearance in the beam web holes) on member length. Type B permits beams
to be lifted in from one side.
Types C and D require a more strict control of beam length and of squareness of the cross-section at the end of the beam. The flush end plate scheme
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of type D is sometimes preferred to the part depth end plate (type C) in order to reduce the chances of damage during transportation. Partial depth
endplates should not normally be less than about 0.6 times the beam depth or the end torsional restraint to the beam may be reduced. Figure 4
illustrates how flexibility and rotation capacity is provided. Depending on the details, the connection behaviour of type D could change from a
notational pin; it may be more appropriate to acknowledge this semi-rigid behaviour (see Lecture 11.7). This may be avoided by keeping the endplate
thickness down to a maximum of 8-10 mm and making the bolt cross-centres as large as is practical so as to ensure adequate flexibility and rotation
capacity.
As for beam-to-beam connections, the bolts and the welds should be able to resist the beam reactions and the relevant moment due to the eccentricity
of the force to the centreline of the connecting material as explained in Lecture 11.4.3. Since this eccentricity is relatively small the column bending
moment for such a connection is much smaller than from a moment connection as discussed in Lecture 11.6.
Since the general approach to the design of all forms of simple connections is essentially the same, it will be sufficient to consider only one type in
some detail. Figure 5 illustrates the 6 possible failure modes for a finplate connection; the load carrying capacity for each must be calculated and the
lowest value compared with the design requirements. Methods for doing this have already been presented in Lectures 11.4. It is also necessary to
ensure - usually by means of appropriate detailing - that the connection will function in the manner intended, i.e. will not be too stiff and will possess
adequate rotation capacity. This may be achieved by:
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ensuring that strength is governed by a ductile mode of failure.
Bearing of the bolts in either the finplate or the beam web is usually arranged to form the governing condition. When performing the structural checks it
is necessary to be consistent in the assumption of the location of the line of shear transfer, i.e. the "hinge" line. One approach (1) that removes the need
for a decision is to design both the bolt group and the welds for the combination of shear and eccentricity moment. Alternatively, the location can be
chosen as the bolt group for the stiff support arrangement illustrated in Figure 5 or the weld if the support is more flexible as would be the case, for
example, if a RHS column were used (due to bending of the column face as a plate).
4. COLUMN SPLICES
In simple frames columns are predominantly stressed in compression. In theory no splice connection is required, since the compression force is
transmittable by direct bearing. Due to the presence of geometric imperfections (lack of straightness of the column) as well as of unavoidable
eccentricities, and to the fact that even carefully machined surfaces will never assure full contact, connections have to be provided. They should be
designed to resist the internal forces (other than compression) determined in the column at the point where they are located.
Even when the column is subject to simple compression, and full contact in bearing is assumed, codes specify stiffness and strength requirements to be
fulfilled. Eurocode 3 prescribes that the splice should provide continuity of flexural stiffness about both axes, and should be able to carry a force,
acting at the abutting ends in any direction perpendicular to the axis of the member, not less than 2,5% of the compression.
The location of the splice should be selected so that any adverse effect on column stability is avoided, i.e. the distance of the connection from the floor
level should be kept as low as possible. A limit of 1/5th of the storey height is usually accepted. If this requirement cannot be fulfilled, account should
be taken of the (second order) moment induced by member imperfections.
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More significant bending resistance may be required in splices when columns are subject to primary moments, as in a frame model assuming hinges at,
or outside, the column outer face. In addition, in columns acting as chords of cantilever bracing trusses, tensile forces may arise (uplift) in some loading
conditions, which must be transmitted by splices.
Typical column splices suitable for use in simply designed frames are shown in Figure 6. They are of two basic types: A, B and C all transmit the
whole of the force through the cover plates, whilst D-G rely on direct bearing.
When a bolted solution is adopted (types A, B and C), both flanges and the web are usually connected. Type A uses a double cover plate, whilst
type C uses single cover plates for the flanges. These may be positioned on the outside faces of the flanges so as to reduce the plan area occupied by
the splice. Forces are distributed among the connecting plates in proportion to the stress resultant in the cross-sectional elements, e.g. for simple
compression in proportion to the areas of the flanges and of the web. Differences in column flange thickness may be accommodated by the use of
packs.
When the surfaces of the end cross-sections of the two column shapes are sawn and considered to be flat, and squareness between these surfaces
and the member axis is guaranteed, the axial force may be assumed to be transmitted by bearing. Fillet welds (type D) or light cover plates (type E)
are provided to resist possible secondary shear force and bending moment when the upper and lower columns differ in serial size. A plate may be
interposed, and welded to both column sections as in connection type F, or, alternatively, two welded plates bolted to each other may be used (type
G). Plates are flattened by presses in the range of thicknesses up to 50m, and machined by planing for thicknesses greater than 100mm. For
intermediate thicknesses either working process may be selected.
Where there is a significant variation of cross-sectional dimensions in the arrangement of type F, the plate(s) must be checked for bending resistance.
A possible conservative model assumes the plate is a cantilever of breadth equal to the width of, and clamped to, the upper column flange. The axial
force, which is transmitted between the corresponding column flanges, is applied as an external load at the mean plane of the flange of the lower
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column.
Full details of this approach are presented in ref. 2, from which it is clear that if plate thicknesses are to remain reasonable, then only moderate offsets
of the order of the column flange thickness are possible. For larger differences in column size, a short vertical stiffener may be located directly below
the flange(s) of the upper column to directly assist in transferring the locally high force.
5. BRACING CONNECTIONS
Connections within the bracing system or between the bracing system and the main framing have to transfer forces between a number of differently
oriented members. Since the triangulated bracing arrangement will have been designed on the basis that each member carries only axial forces (apart
from any relatively small bending effects due to non-coincidence of centroidal axes), the design requirement for the bracing connections is essentially
the transfer of direct forces between a number of differently oriented members.
Two basic arrangements are illustrated in Figure 7: Type A attaches the bracing to the main framing, Type B is an internal bracing connection. Types
C and D combine both functions by making the beams part of the bracing system. Details of the design considerations and the calculations necessary
to effect these have already been provided in Section 1.3 of Lecture 11.4.3.
6. COLUMN BASES
A column base connection always consists of a plate welded to the foot of the column and bolted down to the foundations. A second, usually rather
thicker, steel plate is normally incorporated into the top of the foundation, as illustrated in Figure 8. It helps both to locate the foot of the column
accurately and in spreading the load into the weaker (concrete or masonry) foundation material.
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Baseplate connections in simple construction are generally modelled as pins, and designed to transfer either concentric force (compression or tension)
or a combination of axial and shear force (usually when the column is part of the bracing system (Figure 8c)). In some instances they may, however,
be designed to transmit also bending moments due to moderate load eccentricity, or for erection stability.
The plate is always attached to the column by means of fillet welds. However, if the column carries only compression loads, direct bearing may be
assumed, provided that the contact surfaces are machined or can be considered to be flat. No verification of the welds is then required. Machining
may be omitted if loads are relatively small.
Where there are moderate tension forces or no net tension the holding down bolts are usually cast into the foundation (Figure 9). They anchor the
baseplate by bonding (Figure 9a), by bonding and bearing (Figure 9 b, c), or by bearing (Figure 9d).
When tensile forces are significant, it is necessary to provide appropriate anchorage to the bolts. For example threaded bolts may be used in
conjunction with channel sections embedded in the concrete.
In tension connections the baseplate thickness is often dictated by the bending moments produced by the holding down bolts. The bending moments
may require the use of stiffeners (Figures 8c and 8d). Such an arrangement significantly increases the fabrication content and therefore the cost of the
column base as compared with the "simple" case.
7. BEAM-TO-CONCRETE WALL CONNECTIONS

In high-rise buildings it may be convenient to combine the steel structure resisting gravity loads with a concrete core resisting horizontal forces.
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Attaching the steel frame to a concrete core is mainly a practical problem, since the two systems are built with dimensional tolerances of a different
order of magnitude. Special care should be taken to account for the relative sequence of erection of the concrete and steel system, the method of
construction of the core (on which concrete tolerances also depend), as well as the feasibility of compensating for misalignments.
The connection should be able to transfer to the core vertical forces, V, due to loads applied to the beam, and horizontal forces, H, due to wind and
frame geometrical imperfections (lack of verticality). Some connection types are illustrated in Figure 10. It is important to stress that the details in the
concrete wall must be suitably designed to disperse connection forces safely. In particular the details are especially important when deep beams are
required to transmit high vertical loads.
The type shown in Figure 10a, with pockets in the wall, is convenient for ease of adjustment, but complex in terms of core erection. Types illustrated
in Figures 10b to 10h where part of the connection is encased in the core wall during concrete pouring, may be preferable.
The steel plate may be flush with the wall surface, as in types b-f, or extended outwards as in types g and h. In the first case, which is usually the more
convenient because the steel plate can be supported on the inside face of the formwork, a single web plate is welded on site to which the steel beam is
then attached. In the latter case the beam can be connected directly to the encased plate. Reinforcing bars (rebars) and/or headed studs can be used
in order to transmit both components of the beam action. Full penetration welds are preferred when the rebars are connected directly to the flush plate
(Figure 10d), so that eccentricity of the force with respect to the weldment is avoided (Figure10c).
Checking of the various components within the connection should be conducted in a consistent manner, ensuring that the principles of connection
design, e.g. the assumed distribution of forces satisfies equilibrium, are observed. As an illustration of this, consider the structural requirements for the
arrangement of Figure 10h. Assuming that the shear transfer plane, ie. the "hinge" location of the simple connection, is the mid-plane of the wall, then
the set of headed studs must resist only shear. Alternatively, if the "hinge" is assumed as the wall face, then the studs should be designed to resist a
combination of shear and moment. This general requirement for a consistent approach to modelling the force transfers is further explained in Figure
11, which details the load transfer for the arrangement of case 10e. The shear force V is assumed to be resisted entirely by the shear studs, whilst the
moment M is carried by a couple consisting of tension in the upper rebars and compression transmitted by contact stresses between the concrete and
the steel plate. Whichever arrangement is adopted, however, the main requirement is to ensure a proper dispersion of forces into the core wall.
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Simple connections should be designed to transfer loads from the supported member into the supporting member as directly as possible. Apart
from small moments arising from non-coincidence of certain lines of force transfer, no significant bending actions are involved.
Simple connections are suitable for the 6 different tasks identified in Figure 1.
Their structural design should be undertaken using the methods of Lecture 11.4.3 - specifically the sections dealing with connections to gusset
plates and transfer of shear forces.
When connecting a steel frame to concrete - either at a column base or to a core - care must be taken to avoid overstressing the weaker
concrete. Load spreading using steel plates for compressive forces and proper transfer using anchored rebars, holding down bolts, shear studs
or anchored plates for tensile forces must be considered.
9. REFERENCES
[1]. BCSA/SCI "Joints in Simple Construction", Volume 1: Design
Methods (2nd edition) 1993 pp 81/94
Provides an explanation of basic behaviour, suggested proportions for the key components and detailed rules for checking the structural adequacy of
beam to beam, beam to column, column splice and column base connections.
[2] Ballio, G. and Mazzolani, F.M., "Theory and design of steel structures", Chapman and Hall, London 1983.
Comprehensive text on theory and design of steel structures. Deals extensively with connections.

1. Hayward, A. and Weare, F., "Steel Detailers Manual", BSP Professional Books, Oxford, England, 1988.
General problems of welding and bolting as well as detailing practice are extensively covered. Basic design guidance and examples of different
types of structures ranging from buildings to towers and bridges are also given.
2. Hart, F., Henn, W. and Sontag, H., "Stahlbau Atlas - Geschossbauten", Internationale Architektur Dokumentation, Munich, 1982.
This book presents a wide range of practical solutions for connections in steel and composite buildings. It is available in four different European
languages (French, English, Dutch and Italian).
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3. Connection between steel, concrete and masonry. The Steel Construction Institute 1994.
Describes a variety of practical connections between steel, concrete and masonry, including column bases and connections to existing concrete
and masonry for refurbishment projects.
4. Hogan, T.J. and Firkins, A., "Standardised structural connections", Australian Institute of Steel Construction, 1981.
Presents design models and resistance tables for the main connection types.
5. Blodgett, O.W., "Design of welded structures", James F Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio, USA, 1972.
6. ENV 1993: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures, Part 1: General rules and rules for buildings, 1992.
Chapter 6 covers the design of fasteners, and of connection components. Appendices J and L deal with the design of beam-to-column and
column base connections respectively.
7. 7.. Kulak, G.L., Fisher, J.W. and Struik, J.H.A., "Guide to design criteria for bolted and riveted joints", Wiley & Sons, New York, 1987.
Gives a comprehensive appraisal of the behaviour of bolted joints, and reviews in detail methods for design analysis.
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ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.6: Moment Connections for Continuous

Framing
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the means of achieving moment resisting connections in continuous frames.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES:
Lecture 11.3.1: Connections with Non-Preloaded Bolts
Lecture 11.3.2: Connections with Preloaded Bolts
Lecture 11.3.3: Particular Aspects in Bolted Connections
SUMMARY
This lecture discusses the requirements of rigid moment resisting connections for frames analysed elastically and full strength moment
resisting connections for frames analysed plastically. It describes the means of forming such connections using bolts and/or welds. It
summarises the design of full strength connections, reviewing the design approaches in Annex J of EC3. Because of their popularity it
draws attention to the particular arrangements for portal frame eaves and apex connections.
1. INTRODUCTION
Building frames can be designed without moment connections. 'Simple Construction', in which the connections are 'nominally pinned' and
lateral resistance is provided by some form of bracing, is economical and popular.
However, there are many practical structures in which moment-resisting connections are necessary. Unbraced frames are an obvious
example, but even in braced frames there may be a requirement for a cantilever or a midspan beam splice. In high rise frames continuity
can be advantageous in controlling lateral deflection.
Moment connections are usually required to transmit shear force - and sometimes axial force - as well, but in practice moment tends to
be the prime concern.
'Continuous' framing implies connections which are sufficiently 'performing' (in terms of stiffness and/or strength) for their influence on
frame behaviour to be ignored. In other words, they are acceptably close to the theoretical 'ideal' connection, and their characteristics
need not be part of the input for the global analysis.
Not all moment connections qualify. Those which do not are classed as 'partial strength' or 'semi-rigid' and are the subject of Lecture
11.7.
This Lecture is concerned with connections which are 'Full Strength' and/or 'Rigid'.
2. RESUME OF WHAT 'CONTINUOUS' IMPLIES

Classification of moment connections is covered in Lecture 11.1.1 Connections in Buildings.
In this section, recall that the method of analysis determines which attribute is relevant.
Elastic global analysis implies Rigid connections.
Plastic global analysis implies Full Strength connections.
Although many practical connections would quality as both Rigid and Full Strength, it is important to recognise that this is not essential.
An elastically analysed continuous frame could incorporate connections which are Rigid and Partial Strength, (provided of course that
they are sufficiently strong to resist the moment which results from the analysis).
Similarly, a plastically analysed continuous frame could incorporate connections which are Full Strength and Semi-Rigid (though it might
be necessary to take account of connection flexibility when serviceability and stability are under consideration).
Some of Eurocode 3's predecessors have obscured this important distinction.
Notably, the word 'Rigid' has been expected to do double duty, being applied to all connections for continuous framing. (In some
contexts, it is even used to mean no more than 'resistant to rotation, i.e. not pinned.) In Eurocode 3, and in ESDEP, it applies strictly to
the rotational stiffness of the connection.
Traditionally, nearly all moment-resisting frames have been designed as continuous. Semi-continuous design has been eschewed on
account of additional complexity in the analysis process, but may become more popular in the future (Lecture 11.7 covers it). Continuous
design - be it elastic or plastic - prevails in practice. Designers therefore seek to ensure that connections are Rigid or Full Strength.
Both these attributes are relative to the connected member. A connection might be full strength relative to a beam which is S275 but not
to a beam which is S355. It might be Rigid if the beam is 10m long, but not if the beam is 8m long. Eurocode 3's 'Rigid' standard is
considerably more demanding in the case of an unbraced frame, as can be seen from Figure 1 (which reproduces Fig. 6.9.8. of the
standard).
Finally, it should be noted that the importance of the continuous/semi-continuous distinction is confined to hyperstatic (indeterminate)
frames. When the situation is statically determinate the connection can be designed for strength alone.
3. RIGID AND FULL STRENGTH CONNECTIONS IN PRACTICE

Many of the features which make a connection Rigid also make it strong. In practice, a connection designed to be Rigid may be
indistinguishable from one designed as full strength, and as already mentioned, it may very well be both. Nevertheless, the correlation
between strength and stiffness is far from perfect.
3.1 Full Strength Connections
A full strength connection can generally be achieved by welding, using stiffeners as necessary. Indeed, it is advisable (statically
determinate situations excepted) that welded

www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg11/l0600.htm connections should generally be designed as full strength, since undersized welds may fail in
3/12
determinate situations excepted) that welded connections should generally be designed as full strength, since undersized welds may fail in
brittle fashion if exposed to greater than expected moment resulting from (e.g.) differential settlement.
In bolted connections, it is all but impossible to achieve a full strength connection within the depth of the beam. Bolts outside the tension
flange, e.g. in an extended end plate, can deliver full strength up to medium depth beams; the limit depends on the strength of the beam
and the bolts but is commonly around 4-500mm. (Incidentally, 'high strength' bolts - 8.8 or 10.9 - are practically obligatory in moment
connections, and designers must often resort to M24 or even larger sizes.) Beyond this depth it is necessary to increase the lever arm, by
welding on a haunch or gusseted extension. Haunches are commonly almost as deep as the beam itself (frequently they are cut from the
same section), but such deep haunches are not always necessary.
The possibility that the beam will be significantly overstrength (making the 'full strength' connection into a 'partial strength' one) should not
be overlooked. Eurocode 3 suggests that overdesigning the connection by 20% would avert this risk, but this is easier said than done. It
would be reasonable to adopt a conservative approach to sizing the components particularly at risk, which are the bolts and welds.
3.2 Rigid Connections
Calculating the moment resistance of a connection, to verify that it qualifies as 'full strength', is a routine procedure and one whose results
can be regarded with a fair degree of confidence. The same cannot be said of the rotational stiffness classification. In principle, this can be
calculated numerically, and Eurocode 3 Clause J.3.7 gives a formula for application to end plate connections. It should be noted that the
present (ENV 1993) formula gives inconsistent results, and is likely to be changed in the definitive version. In practice, as mentioned in
the preceding section, a qualitative judgement remains the almost universal approach.
What are the features that make a connection 'Rigid'? Perhaps it is more instructive to approach from the opposite direction, and
consider what features introduce flexibility. The flexibility of the connection is the sum of the component flexibilities, and one or two
unduly flexible components can overshadow the rest.
Direct load paths are best, involving axial tension or compression, not bending, in the components. For this reason, virtually all the usual
types of welded connection, certainly all fully stiffened ones, will qualify as Rigid. It is in bolted connections that flexibility is hard to avoid.
Where bolts are subject to shear, and are not preloaded, some degree of slip is to be expected. If this occurs on the moment resisting
'load path' of a connection, it can hardly be regarded as Rigid. For this reason, axially loaded bolts are favoured in moment connections,
and bolts subject to shear (such as those in cover plated splices) should be preloaded if the connection is required to be Rigid.
A bolt loaded in tension subjects the plates it passes through (such as the end plate and the flange of the column) to bending. To minimise
flexibility, it is advantageous to:
place the bolts 'compactly', i.e. as close as practical to the web and flange of the beam
provide additional stiffeners, also located close to the bolts
avoid excessively thin plates
maximise lever arm, e.g. by use of haunch.
In practice, provided that the bolt layout is 'compact' and the plates passed through are equal in thickness to the bolt diameter, all
haunched connections and most extended end plates are commonly regarded as Rigid. Flush end plates are debatable. Some designers
would ensure that the connection achieves a minimum of 60% of full strength, or some other proportion. In doing so they are appealing to
the correlation between stiffness and strength. Although this is imperfect, it must be conceded that practical alternatives are elusive.
Eurocode 3's very much more rigorous criterion for unbraced frames - over three times as much stiffness as demanded for the 'Rigid'
appellation - is incompatible with current practice, which tends not to distinguish between braced and unbraced frames. It is important to
understand that in both cases there is no implication that the frame suddenly ceases to perform if one or more of its connections do not
meet the qualifying standard. All that it means is that connection flexibility must be taken into account in the global analysis. In other
words, semi-rigid analysis is called for.
4. MEANS OF FORMING CONNECTIONS

Most building frames consist of vertical columns and horizontal beams. It is a fact of life for the connection designer that the members
have to be connected at peak moment regions where the beams meet the columns* . Normally these members occupy the same plane - it
would be difficult to transmit moment between them if they did not - and only one can pass through the connection uninterrupted.
Because the column has axial compression as well as moment to bear, it is given precedence in multistorey construction.
There may also be a requirement for end-to-end column splices to be designed as continuous.
The feet of columns may be connected to the concrete substructure by moment connections. It is perhaps more usual to treat this joint as
nominally pinned. However, provided the substructure

www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg11/l0600.htm and, if necessary, the soil, can resist the moment (and do so 'Rigidly' if elastic 4/12
nominally pinned. However, provided the substructure and, if necessary, the soil, can resist the moment (and do so 'Rigidly' if elastic
analysis so demands), a 'fixed foot' may be designed.
End-to-end beam splices are occasionally required; sometimes it is necessary for one beam to cross another, at the same level, in another
direction. In these cases the requirement may be to transmit moment from one member to its continuation, shear alone being transmitted
to the beam 'passed through'.
The popular bolted moment connections used in practice are:
End plate connections Beam to Column, Beam to Beam, Column to Column (flush, extended, gusseted, haunched ..)
T-sections attached to both flanges Beam to Column

Cover plate splice connections Beam to Beam, Column to Column
For base connections (to concrete) a variant of the end plate connection is generally used, though pocketed connections (in which a
suitable depth of the column is simply embedded in the concrete) can be chosen.
Popular welded moment connections are:
All welded
Welded flanges, bolted web (a hybrid, for ease of erection)
Figure 2 illustrates a selection of these connection types.
This discussion has related specifically to moment connections. For more general discussion on the relative merits of welded and bolted
connections of different types, reference should be made to Lecture 11.1.2: Introduction to Connection Design.
5. STRENGTH DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS

All moment connections are designed for strength in the same way, irrespective of whether they are required to be Rigid or full strength.
The process is one of ensuring that all the components of the connection are capable of resisting the effects of the applied moment.
Simultaneously, the connection is usually required to resist an applied shear force, and sometimes an axial force, but more often than not
moment is dominant.
Take as an example a typical beam-to-column connection. Moment is transmitted by coupling compression at or near bottom flange level
with tension in the upper part of the connection. In the absence of axial force in the beam these two forces are equal.
In a welded connection, it is customary (and not too far from the truth) to assume that the tension and compression are concentrated in
the flanges. Although this assumption, in a connection at or near full strength, violates the yield criterion, there is experimental justification
for it. In the welded flange/bolted web connection, a hybrid type popular in North America, the 'overstress' in the beam flange may
(depending on the section) exceed 40%.
In a bolted connection the upper bolts must resist the tension, and the compression is usually assumed to be transmitted by direct bearing
of the bottom flange.
A number of other components may limit the strength of the connection, and Figure 3 illustrates those which apply to an end plate
connection. Each must be checked in turn. In some cases a deficiency can be remedied by adding 'stiffeners' (strengtheners, really) or
some other form of reinforcement. Examples are shown in Figure 4.
The web of the column is subject to concentrated lateral forces in the tension and compression zones, and is checked using empirical
formulae which prescribe an effective area of web. In the compression zone, buckling as well as crushing must be checked. For this
purpose restraint from surrounding structure will usually justify an effective buckling length of 0.7 ´ depth between fillets of column.
Shear in the column web panel can be significant, particularly in a one-sided connection or in an unbraced frame. On the other hand, in a
two-sided connection in a braced frame, the effects induced by the two opposing beams may partially or completely balance out.
Depending on the type of frame, therefore, this component may either be governing or insignificant.
Rules for the detailed checks touched on above are available in Eurocode 3 Annex J, for both welded and bolted end plate connections.
They are largely self explanatory; the scope of a single lecture cannot embrace them, and the rules for stiffeners and other forms of
reinforcement (such as supplementary web plates), in detail.
5.1 Calculation of Bolt Tension
However, the procedures for determining the distribution of bolt force in end plate connections with multiple tension bolt rows are
anything but self explanatory. The commentary which follows describes the principles; more detail can be found in Lecture 11.4.4.
The force a bolt row can transmit (its 'potential resistance') may be limited by either the plate passed through, the strength of the bolt itself
or a combination of the two. If the plate (which may be either the column flange or the end plate) is thin, it will deform by bending. If it is
thick, the bolt will break before the plate has yielded. In the intermediate thickness range, the failure mechanism involves yielding of both
the plate and the bolt.
5.2 The Equivalent T-stub Concept
Plate bending is complex and three-dimensional in nature. To make the problem tractable, Eurocode 3 introduces the 'equivalent T-stub'
approach. Semi-empirical formulae give the length of T-stub which is supposed to correspond to the actual pattern of yield lines for both
single bolt rows and groups whose yield patterns combine. This T-stub is free from stiffeners, beam flanges and other complications; their
effects have been allowed for in calculating its length. It bends in two-dimensional fashion, along lines parallel to its web.
The three modes of failure described above can now be visualised rather simply; see Figure 5. The first, labelled Mode 1, involves
'double bending' along the bolt line and adjacent to the fillet. Mode 2 combines yielding of the bolts with a single yield line at the fillet.
Mode 3 is bolt failure alone. The modal formulae result from simple plastic theory and statics, and naturally it is the one which gives the
lowest effective bolt force which governs.
It may be noted that only in Mode 3 is the full resistance of the bolt available; in other modes part of it is ungainfully occupied in resisting
prying force. At best, Mode 1 can make available only about 70% of the bolt's tensile value.
5.3 Multiple Bolt Rows
What complicates matters is that bolt rows are commonly placed close enough to compete for the available plate bending resistance.
Consequently, a pair of bolt rows will mobilise less than twice the force that each could singly, and so on.
Eurocode 3's Annex JJ gives priority to the outer bolt rows which by virtue of their greater lever arm are in a position to convert this
resistance into moment more effectively. It can perhaps be more readily understood by inverting the described procedure. The potential
resistance into moment more effectively. It can perhaps be more readily understood by inverting the described procedure. The potential
resistance of the outer row is calculated as if the other tensile rows were not present. The second row is credited with the potential
resistance of rows 1 and 2 taken as a group, minus that of row 1 - or, if less, that of row 2 alone. And so on, considering (in principle at
least) all possible groupings. (Stiffeners, if present, restrict the number of rows whose yield patterns may combine.)
At the conclusion of this procedure a set of bolt row potential resistances has been established. They are 'potential' because some other
component of the connection (most often in the column web) may limit the total force transmitted. Force is deducted from the innermost
row(s) if this is the case.
Finally the connection moment resistance is calculated as S [Fti hi] where Fti is the bolt row force and hi is its lever arm, measured to the
centre of compression which is generally taken as coincident with that of the 'bottom' flange.
5.4 Justification for the Plastic Bolt Force Distribution
It should be noted that this calculation is based on a 'plastic' distribution of bolt force, which requires that there is sufficient rotation for the
inner tensile bolt rows, as well as the outer ones, to develop their ultimate yield patterns. In connections with multiple bolt rows, this
assumption becomes less reasonable as the end plate and column flange thicknesses increase, and both these plates become relatively
unyielding.
An alternative procedure is based on a more traditional 'triangular' distribution of bolt force, in which bolt row force is restricted in
proportion to lever arm. For this distribution there is no restriction on plate thickness, but at present its use is restricted to full strength
connections.
Particularly when more than one load combination must be considered, the design of a moment connection is an involved process.
Inevitably, it is based on trial and error. The use of specialist software is recommended, in preference to laborious manual verification.
There is also a role for predesigned standard moment connections, whose moment resistance is tabulated by beam size for quick
reference.
6. THE PITCHED-ROOF PORTAL FRAME

The pitched-roof portal frame, often plastically analysed, is a very economical and popular building type. Since it is probably the largest
market for the type of connections with which this lecture is concerned, it deserves special mention.
Haunched end plate connections are almost universal in portal frames; these adapt readily to angles of intersection other than 90°. It is
customary to make the eaves haunch depth (almost) equal to that of the beam, and to extend it some way along the span. The haunch
geometry is determined by overall frame design rather than purely a matter of connection detailing. Apex haunches are usually of more
modest size. Figure 6 illustrates typical portal frame connections.
With extended eaves haunches, it becomes a moot point whether the connection is full strength (relative to the plain beam section) or
partial strength (relative to the section as increased by the haunch). This is usually resolved by ensuring that the latter is sufficiently
'oversized' to force the plastic hinge to occur at the haunch end, and designing the connection for the maximum moment that this
(determinate) situation can induce.
For the usual range of roof pitches, the eaves connection may be designed in the same way as an equivalent 90° beam-to-column
connection, with the compression taken as the horizontal component of haunch flange force. Axial compression in the beam will generally
be non-negligible; this can be added to bottom flange force with the design moment adjusted to account for its offset.
Except at the interior columns of multi-bay frames, web panel shear is likely to exceed the capacity of the column section. (The column is
very likely to be an I rather than an H section.) Stiffeners are usually called for, and a common choice is the 'Morris' stiffener shown in
Figure 6a. This acts similarly to a conventional diagonal stiffener, with the advantage that access for the bolts is not impeded.
Additional 'rib' stiffeners may be used to reinforce the column flange between lower bolt rows. The end plate thickness can of course be
chosen to avoid the need for such stiffening, but they are sometimes used on the beam side to enhance web tension resistance.
Connections for continuous framing have to be Rigid or Full Strength, depending on the method of analysis.
Welded connections may more readily be made Rigid and/or Full Strength than bolted ones which tend to be relatively elaborate
and, therefore, expensive. (This gives the designer an incentive to consider semi-continuous framing, or, where conditions permit,
braced frames of 'simple' construction using nominally pinned connections.)
'Rigid' is a word to be approached with caution. In this context, Eurocode 3 gives it a precise meaning to describe a standard of
rotational stiffness, relative to that of the connected member. This standard is higher for unbraced frames.
For elastic analysis, connections may, in principle, be shown to be Rigid by testing or calculation. In practice, they are customarily
judged Rigid by experience.
Calculation of strength is always necessary, irrespective of the method of analysis. For plastic analysis, connections are designed to
be Full Strength relative to the connected member.
Design rules for the strength calculation for commonly used types of welded and bolted moment connection are given in Eurocode
3 Annex JJ.
A connection may be regarded as a set of 'components' which together make up the load paths by which moment and force are
transmitted. Broadly speaking the strength of the connection is that of its weakest component, and the flexibility of the connection
(the inverse of its rotational stiffness) is the sum of the flexibilties of the components.
Annex J of Eurocode 3 is under review at the time of preparation of this Lecture and changes are to be anticipated when the
definitive version of this design standard is issued. In the meantime it is instructive to study the relevant clauses of the ENV version.
8. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General Rules and Rules for Buildings.
[2] Owens, G. W, and Cheal, B. D., Structural Steelwork Connections, Butterworths, Oxford 1989.
ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.7: Partial Strength Connections

for Semi-Continuous Framing
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To explain the attributes necessary in connections for semi-continuous framing, and how suitable connections
can be selected in practice.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 14.13: Design of Multi-storey Frames with Partial Strength and Semi-rigid Connections
SUMMARY
The fundamental importance of the ductile partial strength connection in semi-continuous design practice is
reviewed. The mechanics of such connections are discussed and a suitable candidate, the bolted end plate
connection with appropriate choice of plate thickness, is introduced. Calculation methods for strength,
rotational stiffness and rotation capacity according to Eurocode 3 Annex J [1] are briefly discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
For beam-to-column connections of typical building frames, which may be braced or unbraced, there have
traditionally been two choices: 'simple' (nominally pinned connections) or 'continuous' (moment-resisting
connections). Simple construction requires that the frame is braced, either by triangulation or by something
like a reinforced concrete core to which it is connected at each level. In practice, continuous construction is
associated with unbraced frames; it is rarely used in braced frames except in hybrid high-rise designs and
locally in other frames.
Why semi-continuous frame design?
The use of semi-continuous frame design is a matter of economics. Continuous framing implies either rigid or
full strength connections. Both are expensive to fabricate.
While 'simple' connections are cheap, beams designed as simply supported are bigger than they would
otherwise need to be.

The semi-continuous approach offers a middle course. It is based on designer choice of a convenient beam
end moment, as illustrated in Figure 1. This end moment is usually set equal to the resistance of a suitable not-
too-elaborate connection detail. The beam is then sized for midspan M = M FREE - M CONN. The connection
is, therefore, the key to semi-continuous frame design.
2. DEFINING TERMS
Figure 2 demonstrates the definition of moment connections by strength, rigidity and ductility.
2/17

The important features of a connection in semi-continuous framing are that it is ductile and partial strength.
Ductile: capable of acting as a plastic hinge.
Ductility of a connection is synonymous with rotation capacity (the term used in Eurocode 3), and should
not be confused with ductility of a material such as steel.
Partial Strength: Able to resist less than the plastic moment of the beam.
Since, in continuous frames, maximum moments occur at the beam ends, it is virtually inevitable that a partial
strength connection in this location will be 'overloaded'. It must be capable of rotating plastically to the extent
necessary for compatibility with beam end (and possibly column) rotations under design load. The beam may
not remain elastic. Around midspan, there is liable to be an almost fully developed plastic hinge. The rotation
which the connection must accommodate therefore varies with the circumstances but may be as much as 0,02
to 0,04 radians.
In practice, the chosen moment resistance of the connection is often in the range 30% to 50% of the plastic
moment resistance of the beam.
3. PLASTIC AND ELASTIC GLOBAL ANALYSIS

Design of semi-continuous frames, as outlined above, is based on plastic global analysis.
In principle, semi-continuous elastic analysis could also be performed. This implies that rotational springs of
appropriate stiffness (rigidity) are used to model the connections.
Elastic global analysis is a relatively unattractive proposition to the designer of a semi-continuous frame.
Reliable prediction of rotational stiffness is difficult, and the bending moment distribution depends on this. The
interaction between element and connection stiffness and the distribution of moments in the frame makes it
very difficult for the designer to control the design and achieve overall economy.
The main reason for mentioning elastic analysis is to introduce the term:-
Semi-rigid: too flexible to qualify as Rigid, but not a pin.
A Rigid connection is stiff enough for the assumptions made in conventional elastic analysis to be valid. The
perfectly rigid connection does not exist, but practical connections can approach this ideal sufficiently closely
for their flexibility to be neglected in the analysis. In other words the bending moment distribution remains
acceptably close to the theoretical one which results from elastic analysis. Codes vary in their definition of
where to 'draw the line' for this purpose. The distinction is only relevant to elastic analysis of hyperstatic
frames.
This special meaning of the word 'Rigid' is emphasized, in this lecture, by the use of the capital 'R'.
It is important to understand that a connection can be rigid enough to perform its function in the structure
without qualifying as Rigid according to the code definition. Semi-rigid connections can be adequately rigid.
It is necessary to be aware that just as the term rigid is sometimes used loosely to mean nothing more than
'rotation-resistant', the term semi-rigid is sometimes used to describe semi-continuous construction in general.
This is unfortunate. Although the connections which are the subject of this lecture will often be semi-rigid,
what matters is that they are Partial Strength and Ductile.
The neutral term 'Partial Restraint', meaning 'Partial Strength and/or Semi-rigid', will also be encountered.
4. WHAT MAKES A CONNECTION SUITABLE?

In order to deliver the necessary rotation capacity, some component of the connection must yield in a
controlled way. Plates in bending and column webs in shear are suitable candidates.
Most importantly, other parts of the connection must be prevented from failing, because they would do so
abruptly. Welds, and bolts in tension, are in this category.
For this reason all-welded connections, apart from some unconventional ones, are not generally compatible
with the semi-continuous approach.
To protect the brittle components, e.g. welds and bolts in tension, it is necessary for at least one other
component of the connection to be designed as a deliberate 'weak link'. Unusually in structural design, the
maximum strength as well as the minimum strength of this component must be limited.
A frequently chosen connection is the bolted end plate, either 'flush' or 'extended', see Figure 3. Other styles
of connection may be suitable, but this one is unique in that it is supported by authoritative design rules in
Eurocode 3 Annex J [1].
Not all end plate connections are ductile. Figures 4 and 5 demonstrate the behaviour that is required.
Generally only Mode 1 behaviour achieves the required ductility.


It is usually found necessary to restrict the end plate thickness to approximately 60% of the bolt diameter
(assuming bolts not weaker than 8.8). Thicker end plates would transmit more moment but with the risk of
premature failure due to the bolts snapping before the required degree of rotation has taken place.
End plate connections designed with regard for strength alone usually have end plates whose thickness equals
or exceeds the bolt diameter. They are non-ductile. For example, as shown in Figure 5, a 25 mm thick end
plate is necessary to develop the full strength of M24 8.8 bolts.
However, in all respects other than thickness, the ductile end plate can look identical to full strength end
plates.
Apart from the inevitable relative inefficiency in bolt utilisation, it should be recognised that the thinner end
plate makes the ductile connection less rigid than its orthodox counterpart.
5. THE NEED FOR RIGIDITY

Rigidity, used here as a synonym for rotational stiffness, is significantly more important in unbraced frames
than in braced ones. In the former, it contributes to frame stability and sway resistance. In braced frames, its
contribution is less crucial; it helps limit beam deflection and restrains column rotation.
The rigidity required to maintain stability and/or serviceability of an unbraced frame varies according to the
circumstances - a multibay low rise frame obviously requires less than a slender one, other things remaining
equal. However, it is generally less, maybe much less, than that required (according to code rules) for the
connection to be designated 'Rigid' for the purpose of elastic analysis.
It is hard to imagine circumstances in which too much rigidity would be an embarrassment, irrespective of
whether the frame is braced. Standard details can, therefore, be designed to maximise it. For this purpose,
'compact' bolt arrangements, in which the bolts are placed as close to the flange and web as is practical, are
preferable.
In relation to choice of end plate thickness, rigidity and ductility are in direct opposition.
Stiffness of the end plate, which tends to be the most flexible component of the connection and, therefore,
dominant, is proportional to its thickness to the power of two if not three. Ductility must not be compromised,
so larger and/or stronger bolts, which permit a thicker end plate, are advantageous.
The combination of 15mm thick end plates with M24 bolts (8.8 or 10.9) is often found suitable.
6. STANDARDIZED CONNECTION DESIGNS

Recalling that the connections in semi-continuous design are the subject of designer choice, it can be seen
that a standardized approach holds a special attraction.
It is frustrating for the designer to select a particular trial connection moment, say 30% of the free moment,
only to discover after pages of calculation that a connection using two tensile bolts just fails to achieve it.
A relatively small range of standard details, based on preferred geometries, can be presented with tabulated
moment resistances for each beam size. This shortcuts the process of trial and error choice of beam size and
connection style, and retains much of the simplicity of traditional 'simple' design. Figure 6 shows an example
of standard details from the United Kingdom [2] for ductile partial strength connections.
DETAIL NUMBER: 5 (15 M24)

Figure 6. Example of a standard detail
MOMENT RESISTANCE
M.R. (in Nm) = 193 x [h - 0,5 tf + 40]
+ 315 x [h - 0,5 tf - 60]
+ 287 x [h - 0,5 tf - 150]
Dimensions for detailing (mm) Serial Moment

Relative to top of steel d tf h size/Mass Resistance
per metre (kNm)
a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 c
720 533 x 210
40 60 150 395 485 585 88 21,3 544,6 122 ¥ 371
40 60 150 390 480 580 90 18,8 539,5 109 ¥ 368
40 60 150 387 477 577 92 17,4 536,7 101 366
40 60 150 383 473 573 93 15,6 533,1 92 364
40 60 150 378 468 568 96 13,2 528,3 82 361
650 457 x 191

40 60 150 317 407 507 91 19,6 467,4 98 ¥ 310
40 60 150 314 404 504 93 17,7 463,6 89 Ë 308
40 60 150 310 400 500 95 16,0 460,2 82 306

40 60 150 307 397 497 96 14,5 457,2 74 304
40 60 150 304 394 494 98 12,7 453,6 67 302

650 457 x 152
40 60 150 315 405 505 92 18,9 465,1 82 ¥ 308
40 60 150 311 401 501 94 17,0 461,3 74 306
40 60 150 307 397 497 96 15,0 457,2 67 304
40 60 150 305 395 495 98 13,3 454,7 60 302
40 60 150 300 390 490 100 10,9 449,8 52 299
590 406 x 178

40 60 150 263 353 453 89 16,0 412,8 74 268
40 60 150 259 349 449 90 14,3 409,4 67 266
40 60 150 256 346 446 92 12,8 406,4 60 264
40 60 150 253 343 443 94 10,9 402,6 54 262
580 406 x 140

40 60 150 252 342 442 89 11,2 402,3 46 261
40 60 150 247 337 437 91 8,6 397,3 39 258
¥ - Where ‘tf’ > 18 use EFPTBW to flange
Ë - If beam is S275 use EFPTBW to flange
COLUMN LIMITATIONS
S Fb £ 809 kN
S275 Grade S355

v iv iii ii i Zone i ii iii iv v
Web Web Web Web Flange Serial Flange Web Web Web Web
Tension Crushing Buckling Shear Bending size/ Bending Shear Buckling Crushing Tension
Mass per
metre
356´368
_ _ _ 1089 _ 202 _ 1406 _ _ _
_ _ _ 940 _ 177 _ 1213 _ _ _
_ _ _ 814 _ 153 _ 1051 _ _ _

10/17
_ n n 691* _ 129 _ 892 _ _ _

305´305
_ _ _ _ _ 283 _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ 1364 _ 240 _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ 1124 _ 198 _ 1451 _ _ _
_ _ _ 905 _ 158 _ 1168 _ _ _
_ _ _ 791 _ 137 _ 1021 _ _ _
_ n _ 681* _ _ 879 _ _ _
118
_ n n 565* n n 730* n n _
97
254´254
_ _ _ 935 _ 167 _ 1207 _ _ _
_ _ _ 746* _ 132 _ 963 _ _ _
_ n _ 613* _ _ 791* _ _ _
107
_ n n 497* n _ 642* n n _
89
_ n n 406* n n 525* n n _
73
203´203
_ n n 497* n _ 642* _ _ _
86
_ n n 395* n n 510* n n _
71
n n n n n n
_ 349* 60 451* _
n n n n n n
_ 300* 52 387* _
n n n n n n
n 273* 46 353* _
* Less than S Fb
n Reinforcement required
SHEAR
RESISTANCE
See Note 4
1020 kN

7. CALCULATION OF CONNECTION PROPERTIES

The strength (moment resistance) of the connection is calculated exactly as for any other end plate moment
connection, see Lecture 11.1.2.
The same is true of the rigidity (rotational stiffness) for which Eurocode 3, Annex J gives a formula [1].
The reliability of the predictions of rotational stiffness which are not based on tests is, however, limited. While
serviceability calculations may reasonably be based on predictions, the present state of the art is not such as
to encourage their use to determine the design ('ultimate') bending moment distribution.
Verification of connection ductility (rotation capacity) is outlined in the next section. It should be understood
that in practice these checks are normally made using purpose-designed software or by reference to tables of
standard details.
Verification of Ductility
As shown in Figure 7, Eurocode 3, Annex J prescribes that a connection may be regarded as ductile, i.e. it
will possess sufficient rotation capacity to act as a plastic hinge, where subject to one of the following
conditions:-
(i) Shear zone of the column limits the moment resistance
(ii) Column flange (in bending) limits the moment resistance with Mode 1 failure
(iii) End plate (in bending) limits the moment resistance with Mode 1 failure
Mode 1 failure is the 'double bending' mode which governs if the plate is relatively thin.
Only in the special case of one-sided connections, e.g. perimeter columns, is it realistic to design on the basis
of option (i). Where there is a beam on each side of the column, the moments can oppose one another,
reducing the shear in the web panel - perhaps to zero.

Generally, the column is already sized; any scope that the connection designer has to alter it is in the upwards
direction only. Frequently, therefore, (ii) will not be an available option either.
Option (iii), designing for Mode 1 failure in the end plate, is the only universally available route to satisfying
the requirement; standard details can be based on this.
As illustrated in Figure 8, it should be noted that Eurocode 3 Annex J offers a formula by which rotation
capacity may be calculated and compared with the designer's assessment of what the situation requires. This
formula is applicable to connections in which Mode 2 prevails, i.e. the end plate is somewhat thicker than the
limit for Mode1. In practice, it is rather unproductive of rotation capacity, except for the shallowest of beams.
In any case, the designer generally prefers to avoid quantifying the required rotation capacity. Satisfying
condition (i), (ii) or (iii) above means that the connection is 'ductile' - its rotation capacity will be ample for all
normal circumstances.
13/17
8. ECONOMICAL CONNECTION DESIGN

It is fundamental to the ethos of the semi-continuous approach that, where it is in competition with 'simple'
framing, the connections are little, if any, more costly than their 'nominally pinned' counterparts, see Figure 9.
11/12/12
A larger end plate, a slightly larger weld or an extra pair of bolts can be accepted.
However, if stiffeners become necessary in the column, or a haunch in the beam, it is likely that the point has
been missed. A saving in the beam size is unlikely to be substantial enough to compensate for these labour-
intensive additions. Indeed, it is almost always preferable to increase the weight of a column rather than to
weld in stiffeners.
One form of column reinforcement, loose flange backing plates, Figure 10 can, however, be justified as a
means of upgrading the resistance of a thin-flanged column at modest cost.
The message is that the designer should exercise his/her freedom to choose the connection moment with due
regard for the cost effects of this decision.
9. UNBRACED FRAMES
Unbraced frames designed according to the wind-moment method which is traditional in some countries, i.e.
connections proportioned to resist wind moment only) are, whether their designers recognised it or not,
precursors of the semi-continuous unbraced frame. The satisfactory service performance of numerous
structures of this type, not all of whose connections would be judged ductile according to the application rules
of Eurocode 3, encourages confidence in the acceptability of semi-continuous unbraced frames.
Nevertheless, unbraced frames with ductile partial strength connections should be approached with some
caution. It is necessary to ensure that connection rigidity is not unacceptably low for serviceability or stability
of the frame.
Ideally, the connection stiffness is predicted and the frame is analysed with the connections modelled as
rotational springs. (Formulae are available to modify beam bending stiffness so that this can be performed
with programs which do not offer rotational spring elements). This analysis gives sway predictions which can
be compared directly with code limits, provided second order effects are negligible, i.e. the frame is non-
sway. If they are not negligible, second order analysis is required.
This approach demands knowledge of the rotational stiffness of the connections, which may not be reliably
available. It amounts to semi-continuous elastic global analysis.
Provided that the structure is low rise and of reasonably normal proportions, a simpler approach can be
followed, Figure 11. Parametric studies [3] have shown that it is acceptably accurate to apply an arbitrary
multiplier of 1,5 to the sway predicted by a conventional continuous elastic global analysis, subject to certain
conditions.
These points are covered in earlier Lectures. They are repeated here as a reminder that rigidity could
influence connection design in certain cases, leading perhaps to extended or stiffened end plates where (for

strength alone) less elaborate configurations would suffice.
In the case of an unbraced frame, the objective is to avoid bracing rather than to make savings in the beams.
The economic comparison is with the full strength and/or rigid connections of the competing 'continuous'
design.
The emphasis on avoiding costly welded stiffeners and other labour-intensive fabrication remains valid.

What makes the semi-continuous approach worth pursuing is the freedom to use relatively
uncomplicated and low cost moment connections.
The connections are partial strength and are required to be ductile. They are likely to be semi-rigid
but this is of little consequence in a braced frame.
In an unbraced frame, connection rigidity is important in relation to stability and serviceability.
The semi-continuous approach to design, as recognised in this lecture, is based on semi-continuous
plastic analysis. It offers designer control of the bending moment diagram to optimise overall
economy.
11. REFERENCES
REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures: Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings", ENV 1993-1-
1, 1992.
[2] Hughes, A. F. et al, "Ductile Connections for Wind-Moment Frames" Steel Construction Institute, Ascot,
UK (to be published).
[3] Anderson, D. A. et al, "Wind-Moment Design for Unbraced Frames, Steel Construction Institute,
Publication P082, Ascot, UK, 1991.

ESDEP WG 11:
Lecture 11.8: Splices in Buildings

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present the basic guidelines and concepts for the design of splices in buildings as well as basic
arrangements for splices in tension and compression members and in members subject to bending. The main
aspects of fabrication and erection are briefly reviewed.
PRE-REQUISITES
Lecture 11.1.1: Connections in buildings
Lecture 11.1.2: Introduction to connection design
Lectures 11.2: Welded connections
Lectures 11.3: Bolted connections
Lectures 11.4: Analysis of connections
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 15B.11: Splices and other Connections in Bridges
SUMMARY
Splices are designed to transfer axial force, shear force and bending including parasitic moment and second-
order effects. Initially load paths must be determined; the resistance of all components on these load paths
must be checked.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Types of Splices
A spliced connection is a joint made within the length of a stanchion, a beam or any other structural member.
It is aimed at transferring the internal forces from one structural part to the adjacent one without being a weak
point of the structure in relation to strength, stiffness and, ductility. This transfer is normally made through
different kinds of transitional plate elements which are appropriately fastened onto the member parts.
The reasons why splices are required as well as the advantages and disadvantages of the respective types of
fasteners have been discussed elsewhere; see Lectures 11.1. As with any other kind of connection, splices
should be designed to the general principles, and design concepts presented earlier, see Lectures 11.1.
There are many ways of making splices. For example, traditional cover plates may used for full load transfer
or just for continuity; welds or bolts may be chosen as fasteners.
Most splices transfer loads from one structural member to the adjacent part of a similar structural member
through either cover plates or end plates. Cover plates may be single, with bolts in single shear, or double
with bolts in double shear (Figure 1a).

Where end plates are used in a splice they are usually positioned perpendicular to the member axes and fixed
by fillet welds (Figure 1b).
In overlapped splices there is no need for cover plates. Such connections are used especially when splicing
single plates or sheeting components. The plate parts are simply overlapped and connected to each other by
bolts or fillet welds (Figure 1c), or even by screws for very thin plates or sheeting. Such elementary splice
arrangements are not considered further in this lecture.
In a butt welded splice, full continuity of the section is maintained across the joint cross-section. Such splices
are used when assembling members of the same or nearly the same serial size (Figure 1d).
Many factors influence the choice of type of splice, e.g. type of loads to be transferred, the types of structural
sections - open or closed sections, ease of access, nature of the loading - static or dynamic, with or without
load reversal - and stiffness.
The splices shown in Figure 1 illustrate most of the possible arrangements.
1.2 Loads in Splices
The internal forces to be transmitted by a specified splice are firstly, the axial force, bending moment and/or
shear force which occur in the joint based on elastic or plastic structural analysis of the structure, assuming
continuity through the joint. Secondly, consideration should be given to any second-order effects due to
geometric non-linearities and imperfections.
Good practice should require that spliced parts be arranged so that any eccentricity between their respective
centroidal axes is avoided. Where eccentricities cannot be prevented, then relevant additional forces and
moments should also be taken into account.
In addition, when considering the load paths of the internal forces through the components of the splice, due
attention should be paid to possible changes in the magnitudes of the lever arm when the load transfers from
the structural part into the splice components, i.e. the internal forces should be carefully identified and the
magnitudes of load components determined so that equilibrium is satisfied.
Where the loading is predominantly static, implicit allowance is normally made for plastic redistribution. The
stress resultants may thus be transferred according to a statically admissible scheme. This approach is
normally acceptable for most building structures.
In contrast bridges are subject to repeated loads. Since this raises the possibility of fatigue, the above
simplification with its implied stress redistribution is not applicable to bridge construction to the same extent.
1.3 Scope of Present Lecture
This lecture relates to splices in building structures. The splice arrangements, guidelines and design concepts
developed here are also applicable to bridge structures but subject, in addition, to the reservations described
above.
Any splice in a building structure, which may be exposed to fatigue loading should, of course, be subject to
the same consideration.
Splices in structural members of building structures can be subject to axial forces, to bending and shear or to
combined axial force and bending. Only the basic cases are examined below, i.e. respectively tensile or
compressive axial force, on the one hand, and uniaxial bending with shear, on the other hand. If a splice is
subject to a combination of two or more of these basic action effects, then the combination should be
considered appropriately, see Lecture 12.8.
2. SPLICES IN TENSION MEMBERS

Compared with compression members, which are usually designed for buckling resistance, tension members
are generally much more slender and have a smaller cross-sectional area.
Tension members which are likely to be spliced include:
a. tension chords and web members in trusses and lattice girders
b. tension braces and bracing members
c. hangers
d. ropes
Any type of structural shape - open or hollow, single or compound - is appropriate for tension members. The
most common sections used in this respect are: rods, flats, channels and angles. For large tensile forces, H
and I sections and circular or rectangular hollow sections can be used.
Tensile force is transmitted by the plate elements of the structural tension member in proportion to their cross-
section areas. The splice plate(s) associated with each plate element should be designed to resist the relevant
tensile force component.
Most splices in tension members use splice plates and overlapped connections. Butt-welded splices are
executed in special circumstances; end-plated splices are not frequently used except for hollow sections.
2.1 Bolted Splice Plated Connections
There are two types of bolted splices for tension members, they make use of:
a. bearing bolts, when no special consideration is given to slip in the splices,
b. slip-resistant bolts, which prevent any slip in the splice under service conditions and possibly at the ultimate
limit state of the connection. Consequently they provide the joint and the tension member with a larger
extensional rigidity.
In bolted connections, the ultimate member strength is reduced by the bolt holes; it may also be reduced by
the partial effectiveness and secondary bending due to eccentricity in the connection. In design the influence of
the bolt holes is acknowledged by checking the net section. Some account is taken of strain hardening so the
design strength may still match that of the gross section. Partial strength and eccentricity effects are covered
by empirical rules. Both topics are addressed in Lecture 11.4.2.
2.1.1 Bearing-type connections
Basically such connections are checked with reference to the design rules developed in Lecture 11.3.1, which
are relevant for all the potential failure modes. Though it is desirable that the splice avoids load eccentricity
(Figure 2a), there are cases where the tensile force is transmitted eccentrically (Figure 2b). Provided the load
eccentricity is kept small, the effects of secondary bending on the ultimate strength of both member and splice
may be disregarded, as a result of plastic redistribution. Thus most of the splices in tension members are
designed to resist tension only. When the eccentricity of the force is not negligible, then either a safe

approximate allowance should be made for bending effects or explicit account should be taken of the latter
when designing the splice. For instance, when angles are spliced through one leg only, the outstanding leg is
not fully effective and there is a moment due to eccentricity in the connection (Figure 2c); of course the splice
illustrated in Figure 2d is far more advisable in this respect.
In bearing-type connections, bolts are designed to resist shear. The basic problem lies in the force distribution

amongst the successive rows of bolts over the joint length. Except for long joints (see Lecture 11.4.2) full
plastic redistribution is assumed to take place, which allows a uniform load distribution between all the bolts
of the splice.
Four failure modes may be considered (Figure 3):

a. Tearing at the net cross-section of the parent plate and/or the splice plate
b. Shearing of the bolt shank or threaded region
c. Bearing between the plate and the bolts
d. Shearing of the plate beyond the end fastener.
The last failure mode (d) should not occur provided that the end distance from the centre of a fastener hole to
the adjacent end of any structural part measured in the direction of load transfer is not less than 1,2 do , where
do is the hole diameter. Assessment of the resistance of the splice components with regard to other failure
modes is explained in Lecture 11.3.1. Attention must be paid to the net cross-section. Where holes are
arranged in parallel rows located perpendicular to the tensile force, the net section is obtained by deducting
from the gross area the largest total hole area in any cross-section. Should the bolts be staggered then the
cross-section to be considered can be any diagonal or zig-zag line extending progressively across the plate
with an appropriate correction to take into account the holes not being perpendicular to the direction of load
transfer, see Lectures 11.4.4.
Either ordinary bolts or high strength bolts (up to grade 10.9) may be used. Ordinary (4.6) bolts are now only
used for minor connections.
2.1.2 Slip Resistant Bolts
Splice connections using preloaded high strength bolts with controlled tightening are usually designed to be
slip-resistant at the serviceability limit state. In such connections bolts may come into bearing at a load larger
than the service load but lower than the ultimate load. Therefore, there is a need to check slip resistance
against the design serviceability shear load and shear resistance of bolts and bearing resistance at the ultimate
shear load. The net section of cover plates is not necessarily the weakest component because load is
transferred by friction.
2.1.3 Tension bolted connections
Tension splices are rarely designed using tension bolted connections apart from hollow section splices. Where
such connections are adopted, high strength bolts (up to grade 10.9) are usually used. Bolt preloading is
advisable when the splice is frequently subject to changes in magnitude of tensile load. Preloading is required
when fatigue resistance governs the design.
Appropriate arrangements should be made to limit the magnitude of possible prying forces.
Preloaded tension bolted connections are likely to provide the splice with a higher rigidity.
The end plate material should be carefully selected in order to avoid lamellar tearing.
2.2 Welded Splice Connections
Tensile forces can be transferred either by butt welds which restore the continuity of the material or by fillet
welds used in conjunction with overlap(s) or cover plate(s).
For the design of welds, see Lectures 11.2.

Welded connections allow member parts to be fully tensioned, thereby producing full-strength joints. For
practical and economic reasons, welding is not generally used for site splices.
2.3 Special Connections
When rods and bars are used as tension members they may be threaded at the ends and spliced by
connecting them directly through a coupler. The strength is determined by the tensile stress area at the thread.
Ropes are connected through end-sockets or terminals which develop the full static strength.
3. SPLICES IN COMPRESSION MEMBERS

Columns, struts, some web members in trusses and lattice girders, and bracings are amongst the most
common compression members.
Since they have a tendency to buckle, compression members are normally more stocky than tension
members. Rolled or fabricated sections are most appropriate.
Splices in compression members may use arrangements quite similar to those for tension members. Cover
plates and fasteners should be designed based on similar guidelines and design rules. Since they are subject to
compression forces, the plate components of the splice should be carefully examined with regard to plate
buckling.
In contrast to tension members - where load paths necessarily involve fasteners - compressive loads can be
transferred by direct bearing of the adjacent ends of the compression members to be spliced. The faces do
not need to be machined providing they are flat within appropriate tolerances. Such tolerances can usually be
satisfied by cutting with a milling saw.
3.1 Bolted Splice Plated Connections
When the members are designed as end bearing, the compressive force is fully transmitted in that way. Such a
splice can of course be used when the connected members are of the same serial sizes (Figure 3a).
Alternatively a similar arrangement can be designed with a gap between the column ends, in which case all
load must be transmitted by the cover plates. Longer plates and more bolts will therefore be required.
When necessary, shims or packing plates should be introduced between the member flanges and cover plates
to compensate for fabrication tolerances or differences in rolling weight size.
Though satisfactory for strength, bearing does not provide continuity of bending stiffness. Therefore the splice
should include cover plates which restore continuity in flexure about both principal axes and resist any tensile
force that would possibly result from secondary moments.
Splice material and fasteners should be proportioned to resist a notional force acting at the abutting ends, in
any direction perpendicular to the axis of the member, and whose magnitude should not be less than 2,5% of
the compressive force in the member, see Figure 3d.
Bolted splice plated connections may also be used when the member ends are not prepared for bearing. Then
the full compressive force must be transferred through the cover plates and fasteners, similarly to tension
members. Packings should be used to compensate for significant change in size of the members. Bear in mind
that above a certain thickness packing reduces the shear value of the bolts.

3.2 Bolted End Plated Connections
Changes in serial size can result from considerations of economy. Major changes occur where columns have
to support heavy additional loads over a portion only of their height.
In such situations, to obtain sound load transfer a division plate is required which is fixed onto the deeper
member using site bolted cleats or shop welding. The splice is completed by additional cover plates and bolts
and possibly packs (Figures 3b and 3c).
Alternatively the arrangement of Figure 3e can be used; two end plates welded onto the adjacent members
are assembled by bolting.
Transmission of axial load in bearing requires the faces to be flat within certain defined tolerances.
Division plates are aimed at transferring the compressive force from the smaller member into the deeper one.
A dispersion angle not less than 45° should be assumed when determining load paths and bearing stresses. It
is usual practice for division plates or end plates to have a thickness not less than 20mm.
In addition to compressive load, the splice components should comply with the requirements for stiffness and
notional strength discussed in Section 3.1.
3.3 Fully Welded Connections
Fully welded splice connections can be made by butt welds of all the member plate components, when the
member parts are of the same or very similar size (Figure 3f). When splices must allow for a change in serial
size, both member parts are preferably welded onto a division plate of appropriate thickness (Figure 3g).
Butt welds should be proportioned to restore the continuity of the material.
Fully site welded splices (Figures 3f and 3g) require special consideration during erection; the adjacent
structural parts must be temporarily guyed or propped until site-welding is completed. Temporary cleats are
helpful in this respect.
Where there is an appreciable change in serial size and heavy compressive loads, an abnormally thick division
plate can be required. As an alternative, a thinner, division plate may be used with additional stiffeners to
assist in diffusing the load through the splice as shown in Figure 4.

Because division plates are subject to transverse forces, their thickness is mainly governed by bending
strength. Their material should be chosen lamination free, otherwise the bending resistance could be
compromised.
3.4 Additional Comments
Compression members are seldom subject to pure axial force only. Most frequently they have also to resist
some additional bending and shear. Supplementary effects should be taken into account by the use of the
guidelines in Section 4 and appropriate design rules have been provided Lectures 11.4.
Splices in columns are most often located at their foot close to the floor level. Where necessary they can be
masked within the floor depth.
4. SPLICES IN MEMBERS SUBJECT TO BENDING

In members which are predominantly subject to bending, splices are normally placed close to points of
contraflexure, i.e. at sections where bending is the least.
In addition to the reasons for using splices already mentioned, the designer may wish to use splices as an aid
to precambering or to change sections to achieve economy by reducing member sizes in regions of low
moment.
Beam splices are aimed at transferring bending and associated shear. Either welded or bolted splice
connections are possible and, for these latter, either shear connections or tensile connections can be used.
connections are possible and, for these latter, either shear connections or tensile connections can be used.
The most common types of splices when beam parts have the same serial size are shown in Figure 5.
Fully welded splices using full-penetration groove welds (Figure 5d) are common in built-up members and
plate girders and possibly in rolled beams. They are executed in the workshop. Alternatively fillet welded
connections with one sided or double sided welded cover plates may be used (Figure 5c). This type of
connection may be preferred to butt welds when executed on the site, especially when dimensional control is
a critical factor.
Full-penetration butt welds are at least as strong as the base material. Therefore no strength check is
necessary provided the welds restore at least the relevant plate thickness.
When splices use bolted connections, high strength bolts are commonly used in order to reduce the splice
length. Preloaded bolts will provide a better stiffness and reduce deflections because they prevent slip. Such a
consideration can be of major importance where service conditions determine the beam design.
Each plate component of the splice shear connection should be designed to transfer the forces in the elements
it connects. Cover plates are normally placed both sides of webs and on one or both sides of flanges. For the
sake of simplicity and based on the static theorem of plastic design, reference is commonly made to a
statically admissible force distribution, where the bending moment is resolved into a pair of equal but opposite
flange forces while the web provides resistance to shear only.
Where the beam splice is at a change in serial size then the above arrangements may be used provided due
allowance is made for appropriate packs and possibly web stiffeners to diffuse flange forces. Such situations
sometimes arise from architectural considerations or tight local headroom requirements.
Where, rarely, the beam splice is located at a point of maximum moment it is important to ensure that the
splice has a rotation capacity that is consistent with the global analysis of the overall structure. Where, as is
usually the case the splice is located at a region of low moment no special consideration of rotation capacity is
required.
End plates shall be lamination free.
5. SPLICES IN MEMBERS SUBJECT TO COMBINED

AXIAL FORCE AND BENDING
Splices in members subject to combined axial force and bending should be proportioned by taking
appropriate account of the guidelines listed in the above sections for the respective components of loading.
Special care should be taken when identifying the load paths as well as the forces to be transmitted by each
splice component.
Splices are joints made within the length of any structural member.
Splices should be designed to allow for the transfer of stress resultants existing in the joint, with due
allowance for second order effects, imperfections and load eccentricities.
Load paths through the splice components and fasteners should be correctly identified and load
components proportioned to satisfy equilibrium.
Shims and packs may be necessary to compensate for fabrication tolerances and changes in serial size.
Welded splices are usually executed in the workshop and bolted splices are executed on the site.
Splices executed on the site must allow for limited dimensional control.
1. Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures" ENV1993-1: Part 1 General Rules and Rules of Building,
CEN 1993.
2. Dowling P J, Knowles P, and Owens G, "Structural Steel Design", Butterworths, London, 1988, 1st
edition.
3. Nethercot D A, "Limit States Design of Structural Steelwork", Chapman and Hall, London, 1991.
4. Kulak, G., Fisher J, and Struik J, "Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints", John Wiley and
Sons, 1987, 2nd edition.
5. ECCS Technical Committee 10, "European Recommendation for Bolted Connections in Structural
Steelwork", Publication No. 38, 1985, 4th edition.
6. AISC, "Engineering for Steel Construction - A Source Book on Connections", 1984.
7. Malik, A S, "Joints in Simple Construction" Volume 1 and Design Methods, 2nd Edition, The Steel
Construction Institute, 1993.
8. "Joints in Simple Construction" Volume 2: Practical Applications, BCSA, 1993.

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Previous | Next | Contents

CONNECTION DESIGN: STATIC LOADING

Lecture 11.1.1 Connections in Buildings

Lecture 1B.5.1: Introduction to Design of Simple Industrial Buildings

Lecture 1B.7.1: Introduction to Design of Multi-Storey Buildings

Lecture 3.1.1: General Fabrication of Steel Structures I

Lecture 3.5: Fabrication/Erection of Buildings

Lecture 11.1.2: Introduction to Connection Design

Lectures 11.2: Welded Connections

Lectures 11.3: Bolted Connections

Lecture 11.4: Analysis of Connections

Lecture 11.5: Simple Connections for Buildings

Lecture 11.6: Moment Connections for Continuous Framing

Lecture 11.7: Partial Strength Connections for Semi-Continuous Framing

Lecture 11.8: Splices

Lectures 13: Tubular Structures

Figure 1 gives examples of connections within the context of a multi-storey frame.

Temporary platforms with safe access have to be provided.

Site joints are, therefore, normally made using bolts.

3.1 Column Splices (Figure 8)

3.2 Column Bases (Figure 9)

9.3: Thinner base plate with stiffeners as used in old designs.

3.3 Simple Beam-to-Column Connections (Figure 10)

10.3: Connection with thin flexible endplates welded to the beam.

3.4 Moment Resisting Beam-to-Column Connections (Figure 11)

11.1: Fully welded connection.

11.2: Bolted knee - connection.

11.3: Knee-connection with welded end plates.

11.4: Welded T-connection.

11.5: Bolted T-connection.

3.5 Simple Beam-to-Beam Connections (Figure 12)

3.6 Moment Resisting Beam-to-Beam Connections (Figure 13)

13.3: In this design also a cope of the beam is necessary, as in 12.3.

13.4: Both beams have the same height.

3.7 Horizontal Bracing Connections (Figure 14)

3.8 Vertical Bracing Connections (Figure 15)

4. REQUIREMENTS FOR ECONOMY

the costs for 1cm3 of weld is equivalent to 0,7 kg of steel.

Some other aspects which facilitiate economy in design are:

9. Joints in simple construction, Volume 1: Design methods,

SCI/BCSA Publication 205, 2nd Ed, 1993.

Comprehensive coverage of many aspects of connection behaviour and design.

Previous | Next | Contents

Previous | Next | Contents

CONNECTION DESIGN: STATIC LOADING

Lecture 11.1.2: Introduction to Connection

Lecture 2.3: Engineering Properties of Steels

Lecture 2.4: Steel Grades and Qualities

Lecture 11.1.1: Connections in Buildings

Lectures 11.2: Welded Connections

Lectures 11.3: Bolted Connections

Lectures 11.4: Analysis of Connections

Lecture 11.5: Simple Connections for Buildings

Lecture 11.6: Moment Connections for Continuous Framing

Lecture 11.7: Partial Strength Connections for Semi-Continuous Framing

Lecture 11.8: Splices

Lectures 13: Tubular Structures

2. REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR

3. CLASSIFICATION AS A BASIS FOR DESIGN

These characteristics may be described as follows:

Eurocode 3 [1] gives a classification on the basis of strength and stiffness.

For strength, the following classes can be distinguished:

nominally pinned MRd £ 0,25 Mpl.Rd